CHAPTER 6

WE CAN REMEMBER IT FOR YOU WHOLESALE,'

LESSONS OF THE BROADCAST BLACKLIST (arofJ. Sta6i[e

What the world supplies to myth is an historical reality, defined, even if rhis goesback quite a while, by the way in which men have produced or used it; and what mych gives in return is a natural im- age of this realiry.And just as bourgeois ideology is defined by the abandonment of the name'bourgeois,' mych is constituted by the loss of the historical quality of things: in it, things lose the memory thar they once were made. (Barthes 1989, I42)

N PHILIP K. DICK'S STORY,,,WE CAN REMEMBER IT FOR YOU wHoLESALE/'Douglas Quail purchases implanted or "extra- factual" memories in order to inexpensivelyfu16l1 his dream of visiting Mars. But the implantation revealsthat that Quail s memory has alreadybeen tampered with-he actually is a gov- ernment assassin-and further attempts to implant memories reveal older suppressedmemories. The metaphor of Quails extra-factual, manipulated memories ofFersa starting-point for understanCingwhy U.S. culture recalls the 1950s through a certain set of images and ideas.In particular, U.S. culrure "remembers"the 1950s as the foun- tainhead of family and family valueslargely becauseour memories of family and the gender roles that underwrite this construction were in facr rememberedfor us "wholesalej'through a processof industrial production rhat has repressedeven the memory of any challengesto what would soon becomeche ideologicalstatus quo. "1!)e 107 106E J -hlomentoJ'Danger 6 tr" canremem\er it fortou w\ofesale" The following essay considers the ways in which the broadcast of television.Of course,in order to document resistanceto 1950sgen' blacklisr affectedhow media studies scholarsthink about and srudy der ideologieson the part of culrural producers we must also under- the 1950s, as well how we understand the role of gender and family stand the impact of what Raymond Williams (2001) describedas rhe in 1950spopular culture. At the start of the 1950s-ar the very mo- selectivetradition in order to seektraces of content that never made ment in which television was emerging, in the words of blacklisted it onto the air. Focusingonly on what was actuallybroadcast does nor writer Shirley Graham DuBois, as'the newest,the most powerful, the allow us glimpsesinto alternativesto the genderednarratives thar ulti- most directmeans of communicationdevised by Man ... . [whose]po- mately becamehegemonic. Fundamencally, understanding the history tentialities for Good or for Evil are boundless"-a massiveideological of what was made and broadcaston relevisionalso meansresearching crackdown occurred in broadcasting(Graham 7964,7). By focusing what it was not possibleto make. on how the blacklist made strugglesover gender,race, and classun- Although the blacklist played a determining role in what made it speakablein the new medium, this essayseeks co restorethe memory onto the air, as well as what would make it onto the air in years to of these strugglesand cheir participanrs to accounrsof the 1950s, to come,the impact of the Red Scareon the content of 1950s television underscorethe strategicmanipulation of culture and memory by con- has yet co be reckoned with. Scholarship on the broadcast biacklist servativeforces, and to remind us iust how crucial historical research remains thin, although a large body of literature in 6lm history and is for mediastudies. studiesaddresses the blacklist in the motion Picture industry' But no researchfocuses specifically on the impact of the blacklist on women GENDER, HISTORY, AND PRODUCTION working in 61m or television industries or the progressivefeminist Over the past thirty years,literature on Cold War television has fo- ideas many of them were struggling to communicate rc a Iarger au' cused on consumprionand women-as-consumersof televisionpro- dience.How do we account for these gaps in scholarship?After all, duced for them by men. This focus has made sensein terms of our media and cultural studies include many articlesand full-length books own intellectual history-for those interestedin gender and women on 1950s television.Was the blacklist in broadcasting really such a in particular, women were at least visible in fronr of the cameraand, comparativelyuninteresting or unimportant event in television his- basedon the assumptionthar women were excludedfrom production, tory, with litde impact on rhe industry itself? Following from these the focus on consumption allowed media studiesscholars to consider questions,are there historical and political reasonsfor the ignorance women as active agents in relation to media, rarher than as passive of the broadcastblacklist in popular culture that are homologous to spectarorsof content produced and structured by a male gaze. But the silencein scholarlyliterature? Why do memories of the 1950s- as historian Michele Hilmes (1997) convincinglyargues, worr.en were whether popular or scholarly-so seldom include mention of the working in the broadcast industry prior to the 1950s. The focus on blacklisti women-as-consumershas had the unfortunate effecrof reinforcing rhe gendering of producers as male and consumersas female and re- THE MAKING OF THE MAKING OF THE FAMILY producing the belief that women were simply not presentat the birth Fifties television programming contained a specificallyandrocentric of either radioor television.While key scholarlyworks on 1950stele- fancasyof family life. In it, women uncomplainingly did the work of vision-Lynn Spigel'sMake RoomJor TV (1992), George Lipsitz's raisingchildren, managinghouseholds, and volunteeringin their com- Time Passages(2001), Nina Leibmais Living Room Lectures(1995), munities, grarcfully exchanging stressful work in the waged economy and Ella Taylors Prime Time Families(1991)-all importantly offered for the promise of serenity in the domestic sphere.Those who popu- ideologicalanalyses of 1950stelevision and its concent,none ofthese lated this landscapewere as white as the snow that often distorted consideredche material production of rheseimages: namely, che pro- television signals.Judged solely on the basis of television images,tt ducers and writers who createdtelevision content and the conditions seemedthat the ideologicalshift that occurred in the yearsfollowing in which they wereworking ar sucha formativemomenr in rhe hisrory the war was a bloodlesscouD in which thoseworking in the broadcast losE J -l[omentof Danger 6 tu "LDecan remem\er it fortou w6o[esa[e" 109 industry and consumersalike-all of them apparently white people invested in whiteness-were swepr off their feet by the seductive promisesof postwar consumerculture. The world that appearedin 1950s family sitcoms was a world in which father knew besri in which no one suspecredthat Margaret An- dersont obsessivecleaning might be a symptom of a problem that had no name,as Betty Friedan (1964) was ro pur it lessrhan a decadelater; or thatJune Cleaver'sbland happinessmay havecome from a pill bot- tle. As Joanne Meyerowitz points out in her reassessmentof posrwar mass cultu re,"the conservative promo rio n of domesticity" (199 4, 230) was neither blindly acceptednor unopposed.Women did not always joyously give up jobs that had af[orded them a measureof autonomy. Rather than decreasing,women's workforce participation steadily in- creasedthroughout the 1950s,albeit in low paying and often parr rime positions. Black women and men did not quietly and passivelyreturn to lives limited by segregationand racial discrimination, as the civil righrs movementwas demonstrating. The imagesthat dominated televisioncontenr in the 1950s ineluc- tably shaped beliefs and memories of family and gender in the U.S., their formulaic nature and cohesivenesserasing the strugglesthat were occurring off camera.Fearful of even referencingthe blacklist, writ- ers avoided hinting at its existence.Even fifteen yearslater, when the blacklist came up during publicity inrerviews wirh blacklisted actor Jean Muir, networks "bleeped" out referencesto rhe sponsors, net- Fig. 1:Jean Muir (Courtesy of Stephens College) works, and ad agencieswho had had a hand in her 6ring (Gould 1965, At the time, and for creativeand often politically progressivepeo- 29; 1966,55). This silenceis notable in an industry that has avidly ple working in media industries, television held out new hopes and mythologized its own history in a seriesof now iconic moments: the dreamsabout the creativeand cultural Potential of broadcasting.Al- Army-McCarthy hearings, in which the new medium of television though there was no debate over whether the new medium was go- played the role of heroic defender of civil liberties (overlooking, of ing to be commercial,a cohort of writers like Ruth Gordon, Garson course,CBS'6ring of Ed Murrow just a few years later, not ro men- Kanin, Gore Mdal, and Arthur Miller all believedthat televisioncould tion its assiduousenforcement of the loyalty oath among its rank and provide an important venue for political and creativeexpression. But file); the quiz show scandalof 1,956,enshrined as a triumph of self- progressivesunderestimated just how far the U'S. government,media regulation;coverage of the 1968 Democratic Convention; the infated e*ec,rtiv"r,advertisers, and politicians were willing to go to ensurethat role that televisionwas said to haveplayed in ending the Vietnam War. 'tontroversial" content (particularly material that could be construed That televisionhas proved reluctant to narratethis one story about its as politically progressiveon issuesof race,gender, class, or immigra- own history is therefore significant,particularly insofar as this story tion) would not appear.The family that came to aPPearin entertain- hints at the powerful suppressionof dissident views on family and ment programming was thus very much the end result of a systematic gender. purge of dissentingvoices and viewpoints from media industries; the of that family very much the product of an activeprocess of -.-ory "Q!)e lioE J,jloment of'Danger 6 t@ canremem\er it fortou w6o[esa[e" CounterAttack,The inrroduction's author was Vincent Harrneff, a former naval intelligenceofficer and later an employeefor the Philips H. Lord Agency,where he supervisedthe writing of the radio series Gangbusters.VincentHartnett also servedas an informant for the FBI (JeanMuir FBI Files 1953).1 Red Cbannelsbegan with testimony J. Edgar Hoover had presentedto a U.S. CongressionalCommittee in 1947, that "The (Communist) Party has departed from depending upon the printed word as its medium of propagandaand has taken to the air. Its membersand sympathizershave not only infiltrated the airwaysbut they are now persistently seeking radio channels"(Red Channels1950, 1). Although the publication of the slender volume waseclipsed by the start of the Korean War just three dayslater, over the course of the summer, anti-communist forcesbegan to mobilize using Red Channelsto pressure advertisersand sponsors to frre the 'tontroversial" cultural workers listed in its pages.David Jacobsonof Young& Rubicam told the FBI that General Foods"had stated they would put nobody on their sponsoredprogram who had beenlisted in 'RedChannels"'(Nichols 1950).In August, CBS suddenlyfiredJean Muir, who had beencast as the mother in the televisionsitcom The Al- dricbFamily, just hours before taping of the 6rst episodewas to begin. In September,NBC very quietly cancelledThe Hazel Scor Sbow.Its Fig. 2: Hazel Scott at Piano (permission of Library of Congress) star had appearedbefore the House Un-American Activities Com- memory implantation and manipulation.To remember the Red Scare mitteejust a week earlier.The 6ring of thesetwo women-one white, and purges in the television industry thus is to understand the im- oneAfrican American-ushered in the era of the broadcastblacklist. agesproduced in the 1950s as the effect not necessarilyof consensus Red Channelsincluded the names of 744 women and men work- within rhe industry or in U.S. culture writ large,but as the result of ing in broadcasting,as well as the namesof people the authors feared abjectcowardice, concessions to rightwing fearsand paranoia,and the might move into broadcasting.Of the I44 names listed, a surprising quashingof debateironically attributed to communism itself.That the 40 werewomen working in broadcasting,as producers,writers, actors, blacklist in the television industry occurred during a formative mo- and dancers.The individuals identified r,n Red Channelswere listed "how ment in television history, in which the routines and practices that alongsidevarious political affiliations that: a) showed the Com- would come to govern the industry for decadesto come were begin- munistshave been able to carry out their plan of infilrration'of broad- "the "in- ning to coalesce,meant that television content from that moment on casting;b) indicated extent to which' individuals had been would bear the imprimatur of anti-communism and the racism and veigled"or duped into lending their names"toorganizations espousing sexismthat were a part of it. Communist causes";and c) that were intended'to discourageactors and artists from naivelylending their namesto Communist organiza- THE BIBLE OF THE BLACKLIST tionsor causesin the future"(Red Channels,9). On June22, 1950,Red Channels: Tbe ReportoJ Communist Influence in Radioand Television was published bv the anti-communistiournal 1 Both Jean Muir and Hazel Scott'sFBI files are availableon my blog: csta- bile.wordpress.com, r12E J Jlomentof 'Dangu 6 t?d "1De canrcmember it for.tou w6o[esa[e" t13 Red Channelshad an effectdisproportionate to its sizeor the verac- That the Muir and Scot cases involved politically active career ity of its research.The 6ring of Muir, a longtime supporter of Civil women who had close ties to the NAACP, as well as husbandswho fughts and the NAACB close friend of NAACP president Walter ' wereprominenr liberal politicians (Jaffe was dealing with rhe impact White, and wife of the American Federationof Radio and Television of the blacklist in televisionand Powell was seekingre-election to the Actors'head counsel,HenryJaffe, sent a clear messageto progressives U.S. House of Representatives)was hardly coincidental. For as rhe in the broadcastindustry, many of whom had watchedin dismay asthe ideologyof the nuclearfamily took hold, women working in the broad- Red Scarehit Hollywood a few yearsearlier. Shorcly after the shows castindustry found themselvesvulnerable on two fronts. Firsr,women taping was cancelled, General Foods Corporation, the program's were expectedto be engagingin appropriare procreariveacrivities in sponsor, announced that they had 6red Jean Muir becauseshe was the domesticsphere rather than competing with men for employment. "'a controversialpersonality'whose presenceon the video show might Professionalwomen who had been combining careersand families in adverselyaffect the saleof the advertisert product" (Gould I950a, I), the 1940sbecame sitting ducks in the 1950s.Second, and as rhe righ- According to NBC and General Foods,the protests of outraged anti- twing vituperarion aimed at Eleanor Roosevelt illustrated, not only communist consumershad forced them ro make rhis difficult decision, should women not forsake rheir domestic dudes ro their families. to even though they had receiveda scant twenty phone calls and rwo interferein political marrers(save only rhe most racist,righrwing pro- telegramsin protest-hardly a mandate,considering the thousandsof natalist politics) was as surely a sign of communism as disobedience letters some programs receivedfrom consumers(Everitr 2007, I50). to male authoriry was a sign of witchcrafr in the seventeenrhcentury.2 When NBC moved to replaceMuir, General Foods'position had be- Once labeled a communist, moreover, these women had few re. come more absolutelthey had cancelledMuir's contract becausethey sourcesfor defending themselves.As scholar Marie Jahoda (1,956) were certain her presence"would provoke unfavorable criticism and madeclear in her landmark srudy of the blacklist in the enrerrainmenr evenantagonism among sizablegroups of consumers"(Everitt,60). industry,to even re6r to the biacklist in public was ro make one'sself The firing of Hazel Scott receivedconsiderably less attention in the politically vulnerable,which made even sympathizersrelucrant ro ex- mainstreampress than did the 6ring ofJean Muir, although the Afri- presssolidarity or supporr. The blacklist combined with legal acrion can American presswas swift to point out that both women had been on the parr of those dismissedro crearea culrure of silenceand denial. politically active in the Civil Rights movement. A talented,Juilliard- John Frankenheimer,a director at NBC in the 1950s,larer recounred: "Well, educatedmusician and performer, like Jean Muia Scott was married it was awful and what happenedat CBS was rhar you would get to a prominenr New Yorker: Scott had rnarried Adam Clayton Powell a list of actors and youd say Simon, Penn, Mulligan, Frankenheimer in 1945. Like Muir, Scott had used her stardom ro advocatefor Civil and youd call into an extensionand you didnt evenknow who was ar fughts. Throughout her caree6Scott refusedto play in segregatedven- the other end of it. And rhe next day somebody would call you back ues.In the late 1940s,while touring the Northwest, a diner in Pasco, and say Mulligan fine, Penn 6ne, Frankenheimer no. And you never Washington refusedto serveScott. When she complainedto the local had,you never knew why or how and then youd rry ro ger ro the bot- police, Scott was told that she could either leavetown or be arrested tom of it and you couldnt. It was a very, very serious horrible phase for disturbing the peace.Instead, Scott filed a lawsuit againstthe din- of our lives and our business.And people forget abour that when they er owners, ulrimately winning a serrlement of $250,000, which she talk about the Golden Age of television"("The Dynamics of Live Tele- promptly donated co the NAACP (Chilton 2008, 139-140). Scort's vision' 1994). To defend one'sself publicly-to name rhe namers- role as host of her own variety show also challengedthe color line in wasto risk further smearsand accusations,particularly for those who television:it was the 6rst televisionshow to star an African American 2 Redhunters iike Elizabeth (Nat King Coles equally short-lived variety show would not premier Diiling andJ. Edgar Hoover shared a dislike for Eleanor Rooseveltthat bordered on the obsessive.See Gleaso n (L997) until 1956) and a woman. andJeansonne( 1996) on ElizabechDilling and Theoharis and Cox (1998) on Hoover. 114E J -hlomentof Oanger 6 ftd "(U.)ecan remem6e, itJor yu w\oftsafe" 11s waslargely identical with membership in the Communist Party,Muir sraunchlydefended her role in Civil Rights activism and her uncondi- tional support for the Rooseveltadministration and the late president. According to an FBI report of her interview with the D.C. headquar- ters,"The subject proudly admined membership in this organization stating she belongedto the New York Section of the Southern Con- ferencefor Human Welfare" (Jean Muir FBI Files 1953,4). Shortly after this meeting,the FBI discoveredthat their informant had NOT identifiedMuir as being a member of the Communist Party and they closedtheir 6le on her. Although they corrected internal documents concerningMuir, the damageto her careerwas irreparable. The 6rst two blacklist casesinvolved performers, but many of the women whose namesappeared in RedChannels or whoseprofessional liveswere affectedby the broadcastblacklist were writers whose per- spectivesdiverged signiGcantlyfrom the status quo on family values emergingduring the early 1950s.JeanMuir was an outspoken critic of the racist and sexist roles availableto people of color and women, but as an actor she had litle control over them. Women producers andwriters, in contrast,like Gerrrud eBerg,Shirley Graham, andJoan LaCour Scott could exert some influence over the content of televi- sion programming. , for example,wrote, produced, di- rected,and starredin the long-running hit .Throughout its two-decade run, Tlte Goldbergswore its New Deal, pro-immigrant sentimentson its sleeve,offering warm representationsofJewish life and culture viciously Fig.3: Gertrude Berg (George Karger/Tinte & Life Pictures/Getty Images) during a anti-Semitic era. did hold progressivebeliefs, who had worked for social change,and Thousands ofJewish listeners,Jewish organizations,and non-Jews who found themselvesin the midst of a culture war inrenr on demon- wrote fan letters in appreciation and support of Bergs efFortsduring izing a wide rangeof progressiveopinions. the 1930s and 1940s. A rabbi Berg had consulted about a wedding ceremonyconcluded his fan letter by saying "I am glad co help any Jean Muir is a casein point. Accusationsthat Muir was a commu- nist were based on a transcription error made by an FBI agent who little way rhat I can,because I think that you are doing more for'better worked for the infamous New York Anri-Red Souad. At the adviceof understandingand good will'ofan international and interracial char- acterrhan all the organizedmovements" (De Sola Pool 1932). A lis- her counsel(husband Henry Jaffe),Muir sought to explainher con. nections with the progressiveorganizations with which she had been tenerfrom Arkansas sharedthis sentimenr,posing the following rhe- associatedfor two decades,first ro the FBI s New York Field Office and torical question in a letter to Berg:"I wonder Mrs. Berg if you realize then severalyears later to the FBI in Washington, D.C. Mistakenly what you are doing to carry on theJewishnesswe are usedto-there is believingthat the Communist Party was the problem, Muir criricized so much of our traditions, so many of our folk expressions-so much her naivete in relarion to a variery of osrensibly Communisr-related of the real things that makesus Jews-of which so many of our race causes.Not realizing that in the eyesof the FBI, Civil fughts activism is ashamedi From the bottom of my heart I thank you and sincerely I feelyour fifteen minutes eachnight is a Kadish and memorial to my 1168 J JlomentoJOanger 6 93'"('(Aecan remem\er it fortou w6o[esa[e" 117 darling meshsl-m2y you and your liule group continue!" (Dreyfus revenueresulted from a sponsor boycott, rather than lower ratings 1934,2-3).Jewishorganizations, like the National Council of Jewish ("GeneralFoods to Drop rhe Goldbergs" 1951,).Elsewhere, General Women and the Anti-Defamation League,added their own tesrimo- Foodsstated that their reasonfor cancellingthe show involveda"crend nials in fan letters, In the opinion of one representativeof the Cleve- on the part of food sponsorsto drop expensiveTV showsbecause of land Board of Educarion,"this seriesfrom your facile pen has done the new price cutback,"although The Goldbergscould hardly havebeen more to setus Jews right wkh the'Goyim than ali rhe sermons ever more expensivethan programs like Arthur GodJrey& His Friends and preachedby the Rabbis" (BeneschI93l).t theFranh Sinatra SLor.u,both of which featuredesrablished male stars Bergt audiencesupport gaveher someprotection from the blacklist, (Herald American 1951). In a moment of uncharacteristichonesty, as did her cultivation of a star persona based on traditional marer- one advertisingexecutive wrote to Berg in 1952, confrrmingthat "the nal ideology.Nevertheless, blacklisters dropped hinrs and innuendoes only disappoinrmenrwhich either we or rhe clienr [at rhat point Ekco about Berg'sostensible red affinities in interviews wirh the press.Vin- ProductsCompany, a manufacturer of bakeware]have had in connec- cent Hartneff, who wrore the introduction to Red Channels,singled tion with the show has been in regard to clearances"("Earle Ludgin out The Goldbergsas evidencethar the broadcasringindustry was"in. and Company Advertising" L952). directly but effectively"helping to "subsidizeStalinism in this coun- Shordy after General Foods terminated its sponsorship of The vy" (7950,161)."Icis believed,"Harcnetr slyly added,"Miss Gertrude Goldbergs,CBS dropped the seriesin 1951. NBC agreedro pick up Berg, the'Mollie Goldberg who also writes and producesthe series, TbeGoldbergs in 1952, but sponsorsmade it clearthat they would not had disavowedher pasr Communist-front affiliadons"(L950,167).4 touch the program as long as Loeb was involved. Loeb subsequently "left" Gertrude Berg thus becamea secondarytarget of rhe blacklist.Jew- the program in 1952, In responseto continued network pres- ish actor Philip Loeb, who played the role of Mollys husbandJake, sures,and in a last ditch effort to savethe show and the livelihoods of becamethe vehiclefor a frontal assaultonTbe Coldbergs.Accordingto thosewho dependedon it, Berg made concessionsabout the conrent Hartnett, Loeb's'affiliationsover the yearshardly denotesympathy for of the program. Having resistedthe move ro the suburbs for years, our American capitalist system,let alone completeloyalty to our form at long last, the family made the move from 1030 East Tremont Av- of governmeni' (1950, 168). The assaultthat followed his listing in enueto a suburb named "Havervillej' But removed from its original RedChannels was vicious and prorracted:"So low were the blows that milieu-the tenement in the Bronx-the serieslost heart and mean- an elderlyactor, a brass-collarRepublican who had voredfor Coolidge, ing. Her moral and cultural authority diminished, Molly Goldberg Hoover, Landon and Wilkie, defended the accusedin Equity Maga. seemedlost in the suburban environment. Episodeslike one in which zinet'The chargesagainst you, Mr. Loeb,'he wrote,'seemto be four in she went ro a"fat farri' rang hollow and ended badly (the final shot number. 1. That you are aJew.2. That you are a Communist. 3. That in this episodeshowed Molly alone in the kitchen, furtively shoveling you are a troublemaker, a rabble-rouser.4. That you are personally spaghertiinto her mouth directly from a pot). Episodesrecycled from ambitious. I will have no truck with thesecharges"' (Kanfer 1973,4). radio scripts also appearedstrained, with Mollys frugality and immi- When Berg refused to frre him, additional pressureswere brought grant ethos at odds with incitements to the new consumerism, to bear. ln 1957, sponsor General Foods dropped The Goldbergs, Even these changes were insufficient to remove the taint of the publicly assertingthat "It was the lesstlucrative of all General Foods' blacklist,for The Goldbergscontinued to experience"sponsortroubles" evening TV propertiesi'but neglecringro mention thar the drop in (a euphemismfor problems relatedto the blacklist). NBC moved Tbe Goldbergsaround the prime time schedulebefore it was picked up by 3 Bergalsomanaged to do this duringche 1930s, when there was a virtual the financiallytroubled DuMont network, where ir died a quiet death blackouton informationabout rhe worsening situation of EuropeanJews, SeeWeinstein 20O7 {or a provocativediscussion of this, in October 1954. Gertrade Berg continued to work in theater,win- ning a Tony Award for best actressfor her role in A Majority of One in 4 In responseto this author'sFreedom of InformationAcc request, the FBI deniedmaintaining a fileon Berg. 1959.She attempted yet another comebackon televisionin the series T 11sE J JLomentof lDanger 6 l?" "(U)ecan remember h foryouw6o[esa[e" 119 fiT Burl Ives,who played himself; African American actor Fredi Wash- ington; and she had announced her desire to once again break the $ { color line by writing in a part for actor Eartha Kitt. The blacklist thus gavethe network and sponsorsan alibi for abandoninga cast and pro- gram they had never particularly liked. By blaming the audiencefor their decision,they disavowedtheir part in cancellinga popular and much-lovedshow-the decision had not been theirs but the result of their sensitivityto the audience'sdemands. In addition to eliminating influential women like Berg from the televisionindustry, the blacklist also servedto Preventother progres- sivecultural workers from making the move from other media indus- tries into television.From the standpoint of her professionalactivity, for example,Shirley Graham was an unlikely target of the broadcast blacklist.Graham had made some limited forays into radio, research- ing audienceswith NBC, for example,while she attended graduate schoolat Yalein the 1930s.In addition, her opera Totn'Tom:An Epic (Permission Fig.4: ShirleyGraham of SchlesingerLibrary) oJMusic and tbe Negroand play Track Thirteenhad been broadcaston Mrs. G. Goesto College,whichran for a singleseason on CBS in L96l- NBC. CBS had broadcasttwo of her teleplays(on George Washing- l962.Bergdied suddenlyof heart failure in 7966,at the ageof 67.1he ton Carver and Phillis Wheatley). But Grahams commercialsuccesses ending to Philip Loeb'scareer was swifter and more tagic. In 7955, had largelybeen in the areaof adolescentfiction and her blacklisting out of work, homeless(he had been living with blacklisrcd actor Zero in the pagesof Red Channelscaught her completely by surprise. Of Mostel's family), and depressedabout his inability to provide medical her blacklisting,she wrote in disingenuousand cynical mimicry of the care for his schizophrenicson, Philip Loeb took an overdoseof sleep- languagedemanded by HUAC: "I am not now and never have been ing pills and died in a hotel room in New York City. employedin the radio and televisionfieldsl' The exampleof The Goldbergscontradicts network, sponsor,and ad- Graham'sFBI records make it clear that Graham's novels were a vertiser attempts to blame the blacklist on consumerprotests, instead sourceof concernfor the FBI and its anti-communist allies' Frequent underscoring the fact that the serieshad never been popular among referencesto Graham's novels about Paul Robeson and Frederick those who owned and controlled producdon. Over its lifetime, the se- Douglassappear in FBI reports throughout the 1950s,as in the fol- ries was cancelledthree times in total, constant reminders that as a lowing excerpt from a 70 pageFBI'synopsisj'that reported that Gra- woman and a Jew,Bergi position in the broadcastindustry was tenu- ham,"is best known for her biographies of famous Negroes,written ous at best.Networks resentedBerg's successful financial negotiations for young people.She is co-author of the book,'Dr GeorgeWashing- on her own part as well as that of her cast and crew.The networks ton Carver; Scientist' (1944), written for teen-agereaders. Her sec- disapprovedof the show'spolitics-irs antiquated pro-immigrant be- ond biography for young people,'PaulRobeson, Citizen of the Worldj liefs, its commitment to social welfare,and ics large,powerful female was published in 1946. Scheduled for early 7947 prtbhcation, was her star.Justa few weeksbefore the publication of RedChannels, the entire nextbook,'There Was Once a Slavel'(ShirleyGraham FBI FilesFBI cast of The Goldbergshonored a walkout on the part of the techni- Memorandum 1956). One FBI summary of Graham'sactivities cited cian'sunion-their refusalto perform left CBS having to deal with the a letter receivedby J. Edgar Hoover from a confidential informant, problem of dead air time. Berg routinely hired performers and writers who complained chat "Paul Robeson,Citizen oJ the World, by Shirley who were either blacklisted or would qo on to be blacklisted: actor fr,i 12oE Jilotnent ofOanger 6 lF" "(U)ecan remem\er it foruouw6o[esa[e"

Graham'wasa book not"fit for formativeyoung minds"(Shirley Gra- HunfuleServant (Grahams award-winning book about Benjamin Ban- ham DuBois FBI FiiesReport 1961). neker)were inexplicablycancelled, never to be rescheduled. Grahamt successesin popularizing progressiveideas and her access Although RedCbannels purported to focus on the communisr take- tf to what one FBI specialagent in chargereferred to as"the subversive overoIthe airwaves,as the blacklistingof Graham illusrrates,its effects ,A press"also gravelyconcerned the FBI. A report from the FBIs New rippled acrossmedia industries.Although Graham'snovel about white T York City Red Squad urged caution in approachingGraham herself, journalist and abolitionist Anne Newport Royall receivedenthusias- i because"the subjecris an Editor of a Communist Publication and she tic reviewsfrom readers,five major publishing houses rejectedit' As ,ii is a lecturer and writer of Communist propagandahaving accessto Graham put it in her letter to Goldstein,"No publisherbas criticized the T publication in both Domestic and Foreign Communist publications" manuscriptds a pieceof writing. This we could understand and accept. (Shirley Graham DuBois FBI Files 1961). Not only were Grahamt Novels are alwaysworked on after being acceptedby some publisher. { ideas dangerous,that is, she also had accessto national and interna- But theserefusals have each time been vagueand in certain casesobui' $ donal distribution networks that could not be easilycontrolled by the ouslyreluctant" (Goldstein,2).The nbvel was never published. FBI. Harassed by the FBI and the INS, Graham and DuBois left the Although Graham had been the subject of various diatribes in the U.S. for Ghana in 1961. Other blacklistedwriters and producers saw pagesof CounterAttach.,daringback to a 1,949article that objectedto the writing on the wall earlier,leaving the U.S. for work in Europe and CBS's broadcast of The Story oJ Phillis Wbeatley,the publication of Mexico in the early 1950s. In the UK, the ATV s Tbe Adventuresof RedChannels renewed anti-communist attention to her work. Fearless RobinHood, which 6rst appearedon British televisionsin 7955,was and outspoken,Graham was one of the few blacklisteesto openly dis- producedby a small production companynamed SapphireFilms. Sap- cussthe effectsof RedCbannels on her life and livelihood. Fresh from phire Films was founded by writer Hannah Weinstein, an American husband W.E.B. Du Bois'indictment under the Foreign Agentt Reg- who had worked professionallyfor a Hearst newspaperand politically istration Act and trial (which was finally dismissedby a federal judge for communist pressuregroups in the U.S., like the ProgressiveCiti- for lack of evidence),Graham's responses to inquiries about the black- zensof America, which critictzedthe House Un-American Activities list from JosephGoldstein, editor of rhe YaleLaw Journal,and Elmer Committee, and called for its abolition. Weinstein founded Sapphire Rice, Chairman of the Committee on Blacklisting establishedby the Films in London in 1951. Over the next decade,she hired a cohort of Authors Leagueof America, paint a picture of widespread, organtzed American writers who could no longer 6nd work in the U.S. because political repression.Graham described the multiple venues through of the blacklists in the 6lm and television industries. Hollywood Ten which the blacklist operated:'As an author it is extremely difficult membersRing Lardner and Adrian Scott, as well as Scott'swife Joan to put one's6nger on such things as denial of employment' and the LaCour Scorr,wrote scripts for Tbe Adventuresof RobinHood, as well like. Books can be attacked through distribution channels,publicity, asa later production of The Adventuresof Sir Lancelot,finding much- handling in stores.My income has steadilydecreased" (Graham 7952, neededemployment during the leanestyears of the blacklist. Scripts 2). She told Goldstein that inclusion of her name in Red Channels for both theseprograms reflectedthe concernsand political beliefsof resulted in demands"that my books be withdrawn from the schools theseprogressive wrirers, who believedin Civil fughrs, gender equal- and libraries"of Scarsdale,New York (Graham 1952,1). Calls to ban ity, and economicjustice. Graham'sbooks from public libraries also followed from upstate New The Aduenturesof RobinHood could not have been made in 1950s York, home of American BusinessConsultants, as well as Wheel- America-its themes of solidarity and economic justice too obvi- ing, West Virginia, where Joseph McCarhy had made his infamous ously at odds with the individualism and consumerismpromoted by speech about Communist infiltration of the U.S. government jusr television;its referencesto rhe Cold War suppressionof dissent too six months before. In addition, publicity appearancesfor Your Most open.In an episodewritten by Scott and LaCour Scott entitled "The Cathedral," Robin criricizes the Sheriff of Notdngham's monopoly T 'ja ii ;i (Dangu 122E J Jlomentof 6 tF" "1-0ecan remember itJor yu who[esa[e" n3 : ,l ownership of properry only to be accusedof "being a tool of an inter- Imagesand ideaslike rhose crearedby blacklistedralent would not nacionalconspiracy, anti-church and anri-Christ"(Scorr and La Cour be part of rhe culture from which later wrirers would grow new pro- Scott 1957, 4). Indeed, progressivebeliefs and themes as a whole gramming.Perhaps mosr imporrantly, that progressiveideas had ever were eradicatedfrom American television enterrainment program in beendebated, held legitimare,and fought for by women and men of the early1950s by the anti.communisrcrusaders who promored rhe intellect and principle was erased from television'smemory of the blacklist. past.The blacklist chilled the speechof all televisionwrirers, issuinga One can,of course,6nd tracesof progressiveideas in the program- clearwarning about the kinds ofcontent and representarionsthe new ming to which blacklisted wrirers contribured, often under pseud- medium would tolerate.As Berg pur ir in a 1956 inrerview:"You see, onyms.As writer and producerAdrian Scott pur it,"when rhingswere darling, dont bring up anything that will bother people. That's very bad for me I did nor, as mosr did, look for rhe best programs on the important. Unions, polirics, fund-raising, Zionism, socialism, inter- air-which everybodyhoped ro write for. I looked for the worsr. My group relations.I donr srressthem. And after all, arent all such things cheory was that the worst program, or programs, were the ones who secondaryto daily family living?" (qtd inZurawik2003,45). neededscripts the most" (Adrian Scott, 196612). In practice,this In the end, understandingthe imagesproduced in rhe 1950ssolely "the squeezingin back door,"as Scott put ir, meanr wriring scriprsfor on the basis of those that made ir to prime time has contributed co programslike Lassie,which becameScott and his wifeJoan'smost reli- reifying a particular memory of this era, based on rhe suppression able sourceof income. of intense class,gender, and racial discriminarion. The images upon Relegatedto the margins of relevisionproduction, wrirers like the which we base our memories of the 1950s were made by forces rhat Scotts smuggledprogressive content into the scripts of the childrens had everyintention of erasingthese strugglesfrom sight and memory. programs they wrote for in rhe U.S, Lassie (1954-7973) resonares The family that is remembered,that is, has erasedthe facr rhar it once wich the cadencesof this generacion'spolicical vocabulary and con- wasmade.It took a culrurewar of unprecedenredproportions-a war cerns.Lassle often featured animals that, like those culrural workers that brought rogetherforces of industry,white supremacy,and govern- who had been blacklisted,had been falsely accusedof vile acts and ment-to still the voicesof proresr and opposition to Cold War poli- had to be redeemedby rhe resourceful collie. Origin ally, Lassiefea- dcs of gender, race,and class.By rhis war's end, imagesof interracial tured a widowed, singlemorher, who larer adopted a secondchild, and solidarity,working women, and evenrhe presenceof peopleof color in lived with her elderly father on a farm rather rhan in the consumer. televisionprogramming becameevidence of heresy. oriented suburbs that were the backdrop for virtually all family sit- What writer David Zurawik observedof Berg can be usefully ap- coms and dramas of the 1950s. Over rhe years, Lassie'sfamilial re. plied to the historical suppressionof rhe blacklist as a whole: "rhe Iations included a seriesof young boys, forestry workers, and finally foundersof the networks were uncomfortable with thar history and the inmatesof a home for"troubled" children-hardly the ingredients their role in it and so shesort of becamea srory they didn't wanr ro tell for the making of a nuclear family. One hears echoesof a forgotten becauseit brought up rhe narrarive of rhe blacklist. And so she sort generation'sIanguage when Timmy accusesLassie of being"areaccion- of fell by the wayside"("From the Goldbergs co 2005" 2OO5).Righdy ary" becauseof her dogmatic atrachment to tradirion; when a forest uncomfortableabout what the narrariveof the blacklist revealedabout rangercommenrs on eagles'egalitarian'divisionof labor"in caringfor the ideologicalbeliefs and practicesof the broadcast industry in the their young (Court, 1972); or when a priesr adoprs an orphaned boy 1950s, invested in rhe promocion of conservarivebeliefs about the whose parenrs had worked wirh him in South America "to improve family and gender as cultural universals,memories of rhe blacklist crop yield among peasanrs (Courr, n.d.). But confined as rhey were wereconsigned to the margins of cultural production, to comedic rep- to children'sprogramming or exiled from culrural memory altogether, resentarionsin 6lm like , and to rhe embittered and painful cheseviewpoints did nor appearin the mainsrreamof 1950s enrer. memoriesof a silencedgenerarion of progressiveswho had fought and tainment programming. lost the culture war over television. 3 fl

J JlomentoJ'Danger 6w" "qJ)ecan remem\er it for vouw\oksafe" 125 $ ',48 $ WELCOME TO THE PHANTASMAGORIA consumptionin media srudies,suggesting that much researchremains I to be done on women's roles in broadcast production. Perhaps the Don'cask him questionsabour his actionsor questionhis judgment most important lesson of the broadcast blacklist lies in its challenge $ or integrity,Remember, he is the masterof the houseand as such the 1950s,but how we remember the ,i not only to how we remember 4 will alwaysexercise his will with fairnessand truthfulness, You have history of the industry and its complex myth-making abilities as well. no right coquesrion him. ("TheGood Wife'sGuide" 1955) Historical researchserves as an absolutely crucial corrective to me- Although Raymond Williams' (I978) phrase"structureof feeling'has dia'seffons to eraseand elide how control of the meansof production been appropriated most frequently by theorists interestedin affect,I affectsthe content of what we consume.Grounding analysesnot by have alwaysfound the term more useful in terms of thinking about referenceto vagueand often abstractgeneralizations, attention to con- the importance of historical researchin media and cultural studies. crete examplesof how control is exercised,maintained, and institu- Williams was ciear in saying that those studying historical periods tionalizedin media industries can help us understand,to takejust one could never "know" a given generation'sstructure of feeling in any example,the shallownessof the television industry's efFortsto blame immediate sense.The partiality of our ability to capture and under- audiencesfor its shortcomings,errors, and censorshipof content. stand the past,however, does not mean that we cannot and should not In a seriesof interviews she gave in the early 1950s, Shirley Gra- approach it through the material culture that remains. Shirley Gra- ham noted that she began writing adolescentfiction becauseof her ham's anguishedletters to friends and colleaguesabout the banning awarenessthat African Americans"weremisunderstood, and were not of her books give us some senseof the impact of the blacklist on her known, and were outside of historyl'As her researchprogressed, she creativelife. Similarly, a yellowed and creasedpiece of paper in Vera told her interviewer,she "became aware that this was not as narrow a Casparys papers,one that listed her responseto the questions asked problem as I had thought. It is not only the Negro, it is not only the her by Californias anti-Red Tenney Committee; one that had been Indian, who is dropped out of history-it is also the dissenter,the nervouslyfolded and re-folded,speaks volumes about the anxiety and personwho didnt go alongwith the majority!" (Graham 1954,4'5). fear blacklistedwriters experienced.And the scripts and abstractsand Presentingnarratives about African Americans, Native Americans, unpublished novels carefully and tenderly placed in archivesby these and dissenters,Graham wanted to restorethe role they had played"in women and men tell us much about the aspirationsthey had for the the making of American history" (Graham 1950). new medium and their hope that it would be expansiveenough to For Graham and a generationof progressivecultural workers, pre- include stories about women who did not conform to the 1950s do- sentinghistories that U.S. culture refused to rePresentacross a range mestic ideal,about women and men of color who made history, about of media was an act of political faith intended to educateand inspire. environmentalactivism and anti-consumeristvalues. Although new media are once again transforming our ability to do Watching the products of the 1950s relevision industry gives us historical research(digitizing, for example,historically black newspa- no senseof these strugglesover television content or the alternatives perslike the ChicagoDefender), control over the meansof production that were in the air at the dawn of the era of television,A focus on and accessto materials like these is reproducing selectivetraditions. consumption alone servesthe interestsof a bourgeoismythology that Working against those strong and easycurrents-restoring political would rather have us believethat thesealternatives were never a part strugglesto our own accounts of media history, understanding the ofbroadcast history than acknowledgethe strenuousefforts that were powerful structuring structures of media industries, researchingcon- undertaken to force them out of the industry. Analysesof 1950s tele- tent that could not be made within these strictures or that remains vision that focus on the ideological,or what some might describeas difficult to accessand marginalized-remain acts of political faith' rhetorical, dimensions of media texts cannot account for the repres- sive, punitive measurestaken to purge broadcasting of progressive ideas.The caseof the blacklist also challengesthe focus on women and {.a ,s 4 rf, tr fl \ ii

',6E J Jlomentof 'Danger 6 9v>"q9, canremem\er it fortou w6o[esa[e" 127 ACKNO\vLEDGMENTS Benesch,A.A. 1931. Letter to Gertrude Berg,d. 3L December.Gertrude Berg Payter s. Cor:respondence (scrapbooks), Volume 5. I am grateful, first of all, ro Jon Srerne, who heard something in a Berg,G. 1948. Me and Molly: A Play in ThreeActs. New York: Dramatisrs conferencepaper I gave ages ago and encouraged me to chase it. Play Service. Although she may not have known it at the time, Rachel Ida Buffs enthusiasm for rhis project and kind words about it kepr me going I96L. Motty and Me. New York: McGraw-Hill. during a lean period. My enduring gratirude ro David Price, who for I93I.The RiseoJ tbe Goldbergs.New York: BarseCompany. yearshas patiently and graciouslyanswered ALL my quesrionsabour Buhle, P. I995."The and the Jew: An Exploration of Freedom of Information Act Requests.This project would nor have Popular Culturel' Tikkun l0(5) : 35-a0. been possiblewithout the labor of some fantasricresearch assisranrs. Buhle,P. and D. Wagner.2004.Hide in Plain Sigbt:The Hollywood Blacklistees I was endlesslyforrunate in having the skills of Mary Erickson at rhe in Film and Televisiotr,1950-2002, New York, PalgraveBooks. University of Oregon and Zach Sell at the University of Wisconsin- Caspary,V.1945. Bedelia.London: Eyre and Spottiswoode. Milwaukee at my service. Eric Lohman and Sarah Mick ar rhe 7960. Euvie.New York: Harper & Brothers. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee provided rremendous support as well, helping me to locate ofren-arcanematerials and track down 1944. Laura. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. hard-to-find resources.Stephanie Schuesslerand Janine Zajac from 1946. Strangerthan Truth. New York: Random House. the University of Pittsburgh offered researchassisrance in the very 1932. Thicker Than Water. New York: Liveright, inc. early stagesof this projecr.The librarians and sraffat the Schlesinger 7929. Tbe White Giil, Kingsport, TN: Kingsport Press. Library were wonderfully patient and helpful, especiallySarah M, Chilton, K. 2008. Hazel Scott:The Pioneering of a Pianist Hutcheon, Lynda Leahy,and Caidin Srevens.I am grateful, too, for Journey Jazz from CaJt Societyto Hollywood to HUAC. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan the support of the Morris Fromkin Memorial Lectureship from the Press. Universiry of Wisconsin-Milwaukee which allowed me to travel to three different archivesduring rhe course of a single summet as well Court, J. n.d.'A Boy and His Dog, Part I." Lassie.Adrian Scott and Joan LaCour ScottPapers. Box 19, Folder 2. as funding from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and the University of Oregon. l972,"The Golden EagIel' Lassie.Adrian Scottand Joan LaCour ScottPapers. Box 29, Folder 15, 2I June. ARCHIVAL RESOURCES De Sola Pool, D. 1912. Letter to Gertrude Berg, d. 8 June. Gertrude Berg Adrian ScottandJoan LdCour Scott Papers. Laramie, WY AmericanHeritage Payters.General Correspondence, Volume 3. Center,University of Wyoming. Dick, P.K, 1987. "We Can Remember It For You Wholesalel' The Collected CertrudeBerg P.tpers, Syracuse, NY Urriversityof SyracuseLibrary. Storiesof Pbilip K. DicA. Volume V. New York: Underwood-Miller. Larry AdlerPapers. Laramie, WY AmericanHeritage Cenrer, University of Doherty, T.2003. Cold War, Cool Medium: Television,McCarthyism, and Wyoming. AmericanCukure. New York: Coiumbia UniversityPress,2003. SbirleyGrdham DuBois Payters. Cambridge, MA: SchlesingerLibrary, Har- Dreyfus, D.S. 1934. Lecter to Gertrude Berg,Gern'udeBergPapers, General vardUniversiry. Correspondence,Volume 3, Pine Bluff, Arkansas, 12Janttary. "The Vra CasparyPapers, Madison, WI: WisconsinHistorical Society, Dynamics of Live Television; A Conversation with Three Prominent Directors (John Frankenheimer, Robert Mulligan, Arthur Penn)J' 1994. Museum of Televisionand Radio Seminar Series.Los Angeles, CA 24 REFERENCES February, Barthes,R. 1989.Mythologies. New York:Noonday Press, 128 J JlomentoJ'Danger 6 wu "LDecan remem\er it fortou wfto[esa[e" 129

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