IRON AGE : LIFE ALONGSIDE THE RIVER DURING THE MID-FIRST MILLENNIUM BC

Barry Bishop

With contributions by Philip Armitage and Damian Goodburn

SUMMARY All written and artefactual material relating to the project, including the post-excavation Excavation alongside the in Romford assessment detailing the circumstances and revealed features of Early to Middle Iron Age date, methodology of the work, will be deposited including a hollow (possibly the remains of a structure), with the Archaeological Archive and pits, ditches and an accumulation of worked wood. The Research Centre (LAARC) under the site hollow contained hearths and large quantities of burnt code NOT05. flint — such accumulations are usually referred to as ‘burnt mounds’. The date of the remains at Romford SITE LOCATION is significant since they substantially increase the evidence for settlement in this period in London. The site was centred on National Grid Refer- ence TQ 5075 8940, c.500m north of Romford INTRODUCTION town centre (see Fig 1), and was approximately 1 hectare in extent. Prior to the 1920s the site During October and December 2005 arch- was predominantly in agricultural use. Sub- aeological investigations were conducted at sequently a petrol garage was constructed on Romside Commercial Centre and 146—147 the North Street frontage and small industrial North Street, Romford in the London Borough units occupied other parts of the site. These of Havering (Fig 1). The investigations were were extended during the 1940s and 1950s undertaken as a requirement of a planning and continued in use until the recent redev- condition placed upon the proposed resident- elopment. ial redevelopment of the site, and were The excavation largely confirmed the conducted by Pre-Construct Archaeology British Geological Society mapping (1996) (Chadwick 2004; Chadwick & Dicks 2005). with fine-grained alluvium, deposited from The evaluation comprised the excavation the late prehistoric to medieval periods, over- of 12 trenches and revealed the presence lying Quaternary Hackney Gravel Terrace of thick deposits of alluvium, overlying deposits, which in turn overlie Palaeogene scattered features cut into the terrace London Clay. The site is located towards the gravels that formed the banks and margins northern edge of the Hackney Gravel Terrace of the pre-canalised River Rom. Two of the with Palaeogene London Clay, Claygate Beds evaluation trenches, 10 and 12, were en- and Pleistocene Glacial Tills dominating the larged to allow further excavation and a surface geology further to the north. more comprehensive understanding of the The site is bisected by the River Rom, archaeological remains (Fig 2). which flows north to south within a c.2m- 17 18 Barry Bishop

Fig 1. Site location deep concrete channel, recorded at the cobbles in a silt-clay matrix, representing footbridge on the site at c.13.5m OD. From riverine deposits of Pleistocene age. Spot here, the ground rises gradually to the east heights, taken on the surface of the terrace to North Street, at c.15.5m OD. West of the gravels, demonstrated that the original river, the ground remains virtually level to land surface undulated quite considerably. the western site boundary. Overall, site topography followed a downward trend, both towards the River Rom, where THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SEQUENCE the slope became more pronounced at the channel edge, and from north to south. This The earliest deposits encountered consisted reflects the drainage slope of the early to of firmly compacted gravels, pebbles and mid-Holocene Rom Valley and demonstrates Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 19

Fig 2. Trench locations and areas of further excavation

that the river has roughly maintained its around the end of the Early or the beginning position since then (Fig 3). Interestingly, of the Middle Iron Age. The radiocarbon the height of the terrace gravels in Trench results have dated the worked wood in 12 was closer to that recorded nearer to the Trench 12 but cannot confirm whether this River Rom than elsewhere along the western was contemporaneous with the other features side of the site; this appears to indicate a ascribed to this phase. The hollow and one natural depression, most probably formed by of the features in Trench 7 produced worked a minor early Holocene tributary, entering flint of similar technological characteristics the river from the west. This feature may to that from Trench 12, but these can only be have influenced later activity, for it was on dated to the later prehistoric period, from the the edge of this depression that a prehistoric Middle Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Pottery dump of worked wood was discovered. was only present in Trench 12; this was very fragmentary, with few diagnostic sherds, and Early to Middle Iron Age activity could only be dated to the Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age periods. Despite this, other Beneath the fine-grained alluvium, a variety factors, including the sedimentary sequence, of features recorded in the evaluation suggest that all of these features are likely to trenches represent fairly intensive activity be at least broadly contemporary. All features across the site. These include an occupation were cut directly into the terrace gravels, hollow in Trench 10, a dump of worked prior to any sustained alluvial deposition, wood in Trench 12, and a number of pits which appeared to commence during or and gullies scattered across the eastern side shortly after the occupation had taken place. of the site (Fig 4). The dump of wood in Trench 12 was sealed Taken together, the pottery, worked flint by flood deposits before any decomposition and, most importantly, a series of radiocarbon had occurred, while some of the features dates indicate that this activity occurred identified along the eastern bank of the 20 Barry Bishop

Fig 3. Site topography during the Early to Mid-Holocene river had filled with alluvium from over-bank charcoal, burnt flints and fragments of cattle flooding. The occupation hollow identified teeth. The inclusions suggest occupational in Trench 10 also appears to have been debris, whilst the clasts and matrix are partially filled with flood deposits. harder to interpret; these may represent accumulations arising from erosion to the The hollow sides and base of cut [88], or possibly a deliberately constructed surface or floor. The hollow revealed in Trench 10 was located This layer was sealed by a silt-clay deposit close to the western bank of the river. It was up to 0.17m thick [121], representing an roughly oval in plan, measuring 6.25m by accumulation of fine-grained sediment from 3.60m, and was aligned perpendicular to the flooding of the feature. river. Its base was flat and level and, as it was Overlying this was a deposit of humic- constructed on a sloping surface, its steeply rich silt-clay, a maximum of 70mm thick, cut sides were higher to the north-west than containing frequent charcoal and small the south-east, the maximum depth being quantities of struck and burnt flint [84], 0.50m (Fig 5). again indicating activity within the hollow. A The hollow had a complex series of fills burnt deposit [83] c.1.20m in diameter was indicating that at least two episodes of occup- interpreted as a possible hearth, constructed ation occurred within the feature, both of upon (and partly within) the surface of [84]; which were abandoned due to flooding. The fire reddening of the lower layer was noted earliest fill of the hollow consisted of gravels, to a depth of least 0.15m. pebbles and cobbles set within a sandy silt- Sealing hearth [83] and layer [84] and clay matrix [63]. This was a maximum of completely filling cut [88] was a deposit of silt- 0.10m thick and contained inclusions of clay containing large quantities of burnt flint Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 21

Fig 4. Plan showing distribution of features across the site and occasional struck flint [85]. This deposit reused the same location as cut [88] and is interpreted as a further accumulation of were sealed by alluvium that was thought to fine-grained sediment representing a flood have started to accumulate during or shortly deposit. The substantial amount of burnt after the occupation, it is considered likely flint may originally have been produced that they broadly followed on from the within the hearth, with the resulting debris activities represented by cut [88] and its fills. collapsing into or having been swept into the The burnt horizons had been covered with hollow. These flood deposits had completely gravels, possibly to put out or ‘dampen down’ infilled the hollow, but further activity the fire. The fills of both pits consisted of silt- continued with two more hearths being con- clay, similar to the material that would have structed on its surface. been extracted during their construction, Pit [81] was 0.49m deep and contained but it was noted that both fills were very burnt silt-clay from in-situ burning within humic, indicating the incorporation of org- the pit, attested by its burnt sides and fire- anic material. Both also contained quantities reddened discolouration, which extended of charcoal, although, notably, neither pro- up to 0.15m into surrounding deposit [85]. duced any burnt flint. Pit [120] was 0.22m deep and quadrilateral The hollow with its accompanying fills rep- in shape with a silty clay fill, the upper parts resents a significant and intriguing feature of which had been fire-reddened. It was less for which there are no close parallels. It clear with this pit whether fires had actually clearly was deliberately constructed with burnt within it or only on its surface. steep sides that prior to erosion may have No finds or datable material were recovered been close to vertical, and it had a flat and from either of these pits, although as they level base. Its fills indicate that it was occupied 22 Barry Bishop

Fig 5. Plan and sections of the occupation hollow Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 23 or used repeatedly between episodes of flakes. The formation of this layer suggests flooding. Unfortunately no closely datable increasingly wetter or marshy conditions, artefacts were recovered from its fills. It was and the presence of artefactual debris abandoned prior to sustained alluviation, suggests continued cultural activity after the which, from dating evidence recovered from wood had been deposited. the dump of wood in Trench 12, appears The wood sampled consisted of ten pieces to have commenced around the end of the of Quercus (oak), five of Corylus (hazel), four Early Iron Age. Such a date would also be of Salix/Populus (willow/poplar), and three consistent with the few struck flints recovered of Cornus (dogwood). Two further pieces from its uppermost fill [85]. were identified as either Corylus or Alnus Whatever type of structure it was, it (alder) (see below). Many of the timbers appears to have been cut directly into the had been worked, including by cleaving, terrace gravels, which at that stage were not cutting ends, chipping and carving. Several yet covered by the fine-grained alluvium pieces were lifted for analysis, including that accumulated from the later flooding. It a fragment of a carved dish (see Fig 7.2). would therefore have been reasonably dry There was also a small number of abraded when constructed, although it does appear axe-cut chips, some of which were of oak, to have suffered from periodic flooding as suggesting that woodworking took place well as being fairly rapidly covered in alluvial nearby. The deposit also contained badly deposits after its abandonment. degraded bone, including cattle metacarpals, mandibles, tarsals and part of a scapula, as The worked wood accumulation well as two sheep metatarsals. It is likely that more bone was originally present but had In Trench 12, terrace gravels sloped down not survived. In addition, a worked red deer towards the north, and the trench appeared antler was present (see below). Radiocarbon to lie on the southern edge of a depression determinations were taken on two samples within the gravels, probably a tributary of the of wood fragments, [93] and [102], which River Rom (see Figs 3 and 6). indicated that deposit [79] dates to the end The earliest layers, located directly over the of the Early Iron Age or beginning of the terrace gravels, comprised disturbed gravels Middle Iron Age. [119] and [110], containing fragments of Deposit [79] was present across the full pottery, worked flint, burnt flint, organic extent of the trench, although preservation material and charcoal. These appear to deteriorated in the north-east where the represent occupation or activity horizons deposit rose above the level of the water and included discarded refuse, although table. The wood fragments tended to be it is uncertain whether this represents orientated roughly south-west—north-east incidentally discarded items or deliberately and the layer was thickest where the natural dumped material. A radiocarbon sample of terrace gravels were at their lowest. The a carbonised oak twig from the upper part timbers may have formed part of a trackway of these layers returned a date indicating its or a wooden platform, although the remains formation during the Early Iron Age. here did not share the typical characteristics Overlying the disturbed gravel layers, a of other preserved formal prehistoric wooden group of timbers was excavated, including structures, such as the presence of structural some woodworking waste and fragments timbers or in-situ retaining stakes. It is, of worked pieces [79] (see Fig 6). This therefore, not possible to establish whether comprised a layer up to 0.20m thick that this was the edge of a platform or trackway, or had been sorted by water. Some pieces of a dump of debris containing artefacts. the timber were embedded into the earlier Following the formation of layer [79], a layers whilst others protruded into the 0.20m-thick layer [109] of sands and gravels overlying layer. Layer [79] comprised silt- was laid down across the trench, petering out clay containing ‘peaty’ organic material and towards the western edge. This is unlikely the wood, together with bone, charcoal, to have been the result of fluvial action, as pottery, fired clay, that may have represented it would have required a fast-flowing river remnants of a loomweight, and struck flint regime to deposit such coarse-grained clasts, 24 Barry Bishop

Fig 6. Plan and sections of wood dump and other deposits in Trench 12 and may have been deliberately dumped, A note on the radiocarbon dating possibly to consolidate what was evidently becoming a very wet and marshy area. Layer Three radiocarbon determinations were [109] was subsequently subsumed by further taken from fragments of wood recovered alluvium from Trench 12 using the AMS-Standard Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 25

Table 1. Radiocarbon determinations

Sample Sample type Laboratory Conventional Intercept of 1-sigma 2-sigma location number radiocarbon radiocarbon age calibrated calibrated age with calibration result (cal bc) results (cal bc) curve (cal bc) 410—360 & 93 Corylus Beta-228270 2300±40 BP 390 400—370 290—240 750—690 & 660— 102 Populus/Salix Beta-228271 2410±40 BP 410 530—400 640 & 590—400 Quercus 750 & 690 & 660 110 Beta-228272 2490±40 BP 760—530 780—410 (twig wood) & 640 & 590 delivery method. They were analysed by the A note on the worked red deer (Cervus elaphus) Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Labor- antler atory in Florida, who reported that they Philip L Armitage each provided plenty of carbon for accurate measurements and all the analyses proceeded A portion of red deer antler was recovered normally. from context [79]: the specimen is identified Wood samples [93] and [102] were from as a naturally shed, right-hand antler of a the wood dump in Trench 12 (see Fig 6), mature (6th—7th head or older) stag. Both whilst [110] was from the underlying occup- the brow and bez tines were removed in ation layer or dump. The samples were all antiquity (see below) and the beam lacks from young wood, [93] and [102] were the terminal points (broken away and lost small roundwood branches and [110] twigs, in antiquity). There is a separated trez tine, thereby mitigating the problems of dating broken (recently) at the base, which probably old wood. Overall, the three determinations derives from the same antler (Fig 7.1). provide a 2-sigma range (96% confidence) Measurements taken on this specimen are of between 780 and 240 cal bc for the activity recorded as follows: in Trench 12. The period c.700—400 cal bc Circumference of the burr (coronet) has a notorious radiocarbon calibration = 213mm curve – it being generally flat with several Distal circumference of the burr (von den wiggles; these result in wide error margins Driesch 1976 measurement 41) = 186mm and can produce multiple date possibilities. Beam circumference = 159mm Both of these problems are reflected in the radiocarbon dates from this site. However, if The antler has a beam circumference notably we consider the samples together, assuming larger than the mean value (149.5mm) that they relate to each other and are broadly documented in recent ‘trophy’ heads from contemporary, a more specific date range (data published in Legge 1981, can be postulated. The later dates for sample 101), and compares with the ‘magnificent’ [93] may be excluded, as these do not appear antlers (with beam circumferences of 152 in the other two samples. Samples [102] and and 158mm) of two stags killed in 1958— [110] overlap between 750 and 410 cal bc and 59 in Thetford Forest, East Anglia (see the dates for all three samples coincide at Whitehead 1980, 49). Comparison with the 410 cal bc. The most plausible estimation for beam circumferences (range 90—200mm; the activity in Trench 12 would therefore be mean 147.2mm) documented in the Grimes around the end of the fifth or beginning of Graves antlers (Legge 1981, 101) shows that the fourth century bc at the end of the Early this specimen was in the upper size range for Iron Age and beginning of the Middle Iron prehistoric antlers. Age (Haselgrove & Pope 2007; Needham Removal of the brow and bez tines had 2007). been accomplished by scoring and cutting around the bases of the tines, penetrating the outer compact bone through to the inner ‘spongy’ cancellous bone core. Each 26 Barry Bishop tine had then been broken (‘snapped’) off A total of 63 items was lifted. Some 40 were from the beam. It is important to note that labelled generically to the layer from which in the manufacture of the antler picks at they came; clearly worked pieces were given Grimes Graves, the brow tine was retained individual context numbers and marked on (left attached) and functioned as the ‘pick’, the plans. A total of 18 items bore cut with the beam serving as the handle; only the or other evidence of working (or charring in bez, trez and terminal tines were removed one case). The rest comprised amorphous (see Legge 1981, 102). crushed fragments of roundwood, fragments The specimen described here is a shed red of coarse bark. Several samples were taken deer antler that had been collected sometime for species identification. in March or April (when red deer stags cast Following off-site cleaning, a selection their antlers) rather than removed from a of worked items was drawn in detail and dead animal; subsequently the solid tines photographed. Nine other less well preserved were removed as a source of raw material. worked items were described in summary. Perhaps these tines had been fashioned into None of the material was considered suitable knife handles or into pointed implements for conservation and retention due to its for use in working animal skins? There is no crushed and fragmentary nature. indication that this specimen was ever a pick. Notable worked pieces A note on the wood A single fragment from a carved wooden D M Goodburn bowl (Fig 7.2) survived. This was split from with species identification by L Gray either the side or base of a carved trough-like The wood assemblage from context [79] did bowl. It was a hockey-stick-shaped fragment, not show features typical of formal prehistoric 235mm long, 38mm wide but only 8mm thick. ‘platform’ construction in the region, such The original darkened and smooth surface as trimmed poles, branches or logs typically of the vessel survived along the edges of the set parallel or at c.90 degrees in a horizontal split fragment. The vessel was carved from a plane (Carew et al 2009; Goodburn 2003). straight-grained section of timber, probably Neither did it contain any in-situ structural a half log; it was sampled and botanically timber or retaining stakes. The worked wood identified as ‘cf Quercus sp.’, probably oak. and antler lay on the very western edge of the Two other smaller fragments of cut and split trench and only a small area of the deposit timber found close by also seem to derive could be examined (see Fig 6). from the same vessel and were also identified As discussed above, the timbers are of as ‘cf Quercus sp.’. Trough-form vessels are late prehistoric date; no material suitable known from the Neolithic through to recent for tree-ring dating was found. The tool times in Britain (Earwood 1993, 50). Small mark evidence was reviewed from a dating vessels, such as this, are likely to have been for perspective; although it has been shown that domestic use, such as eating or mixing vessels. the size and character of tool marks in later A single burnt fragment (Fig 7.3) was also prehistoric woodwork assemblages can be of interest; measuring c.170mm by 100mm by used to provide broad dating, this approach 50mm, it was probably a fragment of partially requires larger worked wood than was found burnt firewood. at this site. All that can be said from the tool A small radially cleft stake or peg (Fig mark evidence is that they were fairly crisp 7.4) from a straight-grained section of slow and smooth, where best preserved, indicating grown timber was found horizontally placed, the use of metal rather than stone blades. although its original function is uncertain due to its small size. There was modern Recording and sampling the worked wood damage at one end, whilst the other had been smoothly carved into a fine point with The approach used to record and sample two facets. It was c.355mm long, 25mm wide this assemblage was in keeping with the 1996 and 15mm thick. English Heritage Guidelines on Waterlogged Other clearly worked items included small Wood (Brunning 1996). cut rod ends and cleft stakes of oak and hazel, Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 27

Fig 7. Antler and worked wood 28 Barry Bishop a probable coppiced stem ‘heel’, identified Other features as oak, and a small number of abraded axe- cut chips, some of which were of oak. A number of other archaeological features were recorded in three other evaluation Discussion of the wood debris trenches. These were all located in the south-eastern part of the site and indicate Although small in terms of the London-wide fairly intensive activity along the margins of corpus, the assemblage throws light on Early the River Rom (Fig 8). The features include to Middle Iron Age activity in Valley. pits, ditches and tree throws. Close to the site, activities involving the use In Trench 3, three pits and a small ditch of small stakes and pegs were being carried were recorded. One fully excavated pit out; there is also some evidence that larger [29] measured 1.20m by 0.80m and was sections of oak timber were worked near by 0.16m deep. The other two, both of which and that firewood was being prepared. The continued beyond the limits of excavation, material is of local importance and highlights were larger and had irregular sides and the potential for Iron Age woodworking concave bases; one was 0.14m deep and the evidence in the Rom Valley. other 0.37m. All three pits had been filled

Fig 8. Features on the eastern bank of the River Rom Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 29 with silty clay and contained relatively high low-energy conditions, suggesting that they quantities of charcoal and burnt flint. It was were laid down when the site was inundated not clear whether the pits were purposefully by slow-moving or stagnant water. As these dug or naturally formed, such as by toppled sediments were identified in all trenches, it trees. The ditch/gully [31] was aligned would appear that this body of water was at north—south and continued beyond both least 150m wide from east to west. However, edges of excavation. It was 0.90m wide and deposition was intermittent, with extended up to 0.36m deep with variably steep sides; it dry periods when ground conditions allowed produced no finds. oxidation, resulting in an orange mottling In Trench 6, only one feature was found; to the silty clay and the precipitation of this contained no finds. It was circular in plan, manganese, as identified in some alluvial varying from 0.70m to 0.75m in diameter and units. The presence of occasional gravel and was 0.22m deep. Its shape and size suggest it pebbles within the alluvium may indicate may have been an eroded posthole and, if so, bioturbation, with the establishment of plant it would have held a fairly substantial post. A colonies during drier conditions. struck flint and charcoal were present in the Alluviation appears to have commenced alluvium overlying the terrace gravels in this not long after the initial occupation of the trench. area in around 400 bc and it continued into Trench 7 contained three features, two the post-medieval period, albeit sporadically, ditches and another possible posthole. The as evidenced by occasional pieces of medieval posthole was oval in plan with a maximum and post-medieval pottery. However, the low diameter of 0.62m and was 0.50m deep. The frequency of cultural material recovered from only find from its fill consisted of a single the alluvium suggests that once intermittent undiagnostic struck flint flake. The two flooding episodes commenced, the area ditches were of different widths, the smaller became marginal. The River Rom continued being 0.45m wide and only 80mm deep, to flood sporadically, as evidenced by illust- whilst the larger was 1.00m wide and 0.24m rations of the catastrophic inundations that deep, but both were on a similar alignment, occurred in August 1888 (Fig 9), until recent being oriented south-east—north-west. canalisation works brought the river under The fills of most of the features on the east control. side of the river consisted of silty clay similar to the overlying alluvial deposits sealing A return to drier conditions them. This may indicate that, at least in some cases, the features were filled naturally At some point during the late medieval by over-bank flooding. Many features were or post-medieval period two ditches, one shallow, and it is possible that flooding had in Trench 5 and the other in Trench 8, caused considerable scouring and erosion. were dug into the surface of the alluvium. They were both oriented approximately Later prehistoric and historic alluviation east—west, towards the river, and were filled with waterlain silty clays (Fig 10). They As mentioned above, fine-grained alluvium were probably constructed to aid drainage. sealed all features and was present across Dating evidence from the ditches was all investigated areas. Overall, the patterns very limited. They cut through the latest of deposition observed across the site deposits of alluvium and were sealed by a soil were varied and complex, with 24 separate horizon, which probably formed through deposits recorded, representing up to four biological and agricultural reworking of the major flooding episodes. upper levels of the alluvium. This would The deposits are interpreted as periodic suggest that they are no earlier than the late over-bank flooding of the River Rom, resulting medieval period, when alluvium continued in the sedimentary infilling of this part of to be deposited, and no later than the late the valley and signalling increasingly wetter post-medieval period, when the upper levels conditions, poorer drainage and changes of the alluvium were being reworked into a to the river’s regime. These fine-grained soil horizon. silty clays would have been deposited under The only other feature that preceded 30 Barry Bishop

Fig 9. Romford in flood, August 1888 (image courtesy of Phil Steer) Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 31

Fig 10. Later features 32 Barry Bishop formation of the soil horizon consisted of feature or its deliberate backfilling. These a square pit, recorded in Trench 12. It was fills also contained fragments of London steep sided and the base was lined with Stock bricks, dating it to no earlier than the wood, possibly planking; it had three fills, late 18th century. As only small portions all waterlain (see Fig 10). The only dating of this feature were observed, its function evidence consisted of a small fragment of remains elusive; however, its size suggests a peg tile from the uppermost fill, indicating substantial ditch or channel, which may have that it is unlikely to have been earlier than joined up with the river. It may have been medieval. Its function remains uncertain, dug to provide drainage or as a short canal, although it shares certain characteristics with inlet or basin adjacent to the River Rom and early tanning pits, which have been identified relating to some local industry. at other, often low-lying, sites along the lower Documentary sources indicate that the Thames Valley. site remained in predominantly agricultural By the late medieval/early post-medieval land use until the early 20th century when a period, therefore, there was renewed activity garage and other light industrial units were in the area. Attempts were made to drain constructed. Some evidence of these was the wet site, whilst the possible tanning recorded in the form of layers of redeposited pit suggests low-key industrial activity. alluvium, brick rubble and garden soil Efforts to control flooding and reclaim across the site, representing levelling and the extensive wet areas of are consolidation. well-documented from the medieval period onwards, whilst ‘unpleasant’ industries, such DISCUSSION as tanning, were often undertaken close to water sources but away from the main As the areas examined were limited, it has not centres of settlement. However, the precise been possible to fully characterise the early timing, extent and duration of activity at the occupation of the site: features were present site remains uncertain. on both banks of the River Rom but no The overlying soil horizon, formed from the patterning or variation in density of features biological reworking and probable plough- was indicated. The postholes indicate the ing of the upper surface of the alluvium, presence of structures, although as only two signals the end of regular flooding. Few isolated examples were found, it is impossible finds were recovered from this soil, but occ- to conjecture as to what the nature of these asional fragments of pottery and broken may have been. Ditches are frequently found bricks suggest that it formed during the post- on settlement sites and have been ascribed medieval period. a range of functions, including drainage The formation of a soil signals the end channels, eavedrip gullies and boundary of wetland conditions. Whether this was markers. Pit digging was a ubiquitous activity occasioned by human intervention, such as during the later prehistoric period, pits the drainage operation described above, or often forming the most common feature was the consequence of natural conditions, type found in settlements. Unfortunately, such as a decrease in rainfall or water run- they are often artefact-sterile or only contain off rates, or a combination of these factors, small quantities of cultural material, limiting is not clear from the evidence. It does fit in their interpretation. with the general pattern in the lower Thames Valley, where by the post-medieval period The hollow many former wetlands had been reclaimed. The only other evidence of pre-20th- The hollow recorded on the western side century activity at the site consisted of a of the river clearly represents a complex large cut feature. Its southern edge was feature. The presence of hearths within the recorded on the north side of the site but hollow, as well as fragments of bone, burnt its full width could not be ascertained. It flint and worked flint, and humic material, contained at least two fills, both of which indicates at least two phases of occupation, were similar to the earlier alluvium and interspersed with flood events. may represent the natural silting-up of the The activities undertaken in the hollow Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 33 are difficult to define but clearly involved by 3.20m and 0.35m deep. It was interpreted both hearth use and the production of large as possibly being a ‘small hut with a sunken quantities of burnt flint, although the latter floor’ (ibid, 11). A further sunken building, could only be definitively associated with its measuring 6m by 4.5m, surrounded by a last phase of use. The presence of animal series of shallow postholes suggestive of a bone may indicate food preparation and superstructure, was excavated near Ware in cooking. The struck flint may be related to Hertfordshire (Kiln 1977). This contained this or may indicate other activities. a central hearth and large quantities of The hollow was shallow and would have occupation debris, including pottery with afforded little protection from the elements. Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age affinities Although no evidence for a superstructure (ibid). Similarly sized, shaped and dated was forthcoming from the excavations, the structures, although not sunken, have been possibility exists that it may originally have recorded in the Gwent marshes; these have been surrounded by stakes or postholes, been interpreted as the seasonal abodes of to form a perimeter wall or support for a pastoralists (Rippon 1996; Bell et al 2000). roof structure. A further possibility is that it Whether the ‘sunken’ aspect of such struct- represented part of a larger structure, with ures relates to a less common construction a superstructure placed beyond the limits technique or indicates a specialist role or of excavation. It is worth remembering that function remains to be determined. What many pieces of worked wood, including is clear is that a sunken-floored building domestic utensils and possible structural of only 0.50m depth would, under most supports, were recovered from Trench 12, circumstances, be obliterated if the area some 50m to the south. was later subjected to ploughing. Had the The hollow was of a comparable size North Street example not been fortuitously to other Bronze and Iron Age domestic preserved beneath alluvium, it is likely that structures identified elsewhere in the region, the only archaeological traces of it would which normally comprise roundhouses have been limited to a scatter of burnt flint varying between c.5m and 10m in diameter. and a few struck flints incorporated within Oval or rectangular structures are known the topsoil. from the later prehistoric period and may A survey of non-circular Iron Age structures be more common than often assumed. by Moore (2003) indicates that these were Many examples may have had insubstantial probably very diverse in form and may superstructures and have only been recog- have fulfilled a number of different uses. nised under exceptional preservational cir- These could include use as dwellings, ritual cumstances (Moore 2003). These include a buildings, workshops, shelters and stores, number of ‘sunken-floored-constructions’. A and the function of individual buildings may Middle—Late Bronze Age oval ‘sunken hut’, have changed during their lifespan (ibid, c.4m long by 3m wide, has been identified 55—6). The hollow at North Street may have at Kemsley Fields near Sittingbourne in been used as a dwelling, although such an Kent, which had postholes located just in- interpretation is problematic. It was located side its edges, suggesting it may have had a very close to the river and was flooded on wooden superstructure (Willson 2001, 32; at least two occasions. This would suggest Diack 2006, 22). Similar features of Late that the hollow was only used intermittently, Bronze Age or Early Iron Age date have perhaps seasonally, when conditions were been recorded at Chestfield, near Whitstable sufficiently dry, most likely during the late (Canterbury Archaeological Trust 2002, 349) spring or summer months. and at Minster-in-Sheppey (Diack 2004), and The quantities of burnt flint found may a mid-Iron Age sunken structure has been also be incongruent with simple domestic recorded adjacent to a lake at Darenth, hearth use. The material had been uni- also in Kent (Philp et al 1998). The size and formly and intensively burnt and it would morphology of the Darenth example are appear that large quantities were present remarkably similar to the hollow at North in the vicinity of the hollow, although later Street, being described as an oval hollow with flooding had re-sorted it. It appeared to steep sides and a flat base measuring 5.60m have been systematically generated, and 34 Barry Bishop such accumulations are usually referred to as The wood dump ‘burnt mound’ sites. Other characteristics of the hollow are also typical of burnt mound Consideration of the topography of the sites identified throughout Britain and area suggests that Trench 12 was located Ireland. These are invariably found close to towards the edge of a lower-lying depression, water and are often associated with hearths perhaps a small pond, lake, oxbow lake or that presumably heated the stones, and with a tributary stream of the River Rom. The pits or troughs that may have held water. In earliest deposits represent disturbance and some cases they are associated with small deposition of cultural material on the natural buildings (Bradley 2007, 214). Many such terrace gravels. This indicates that some sites produce little or no further cultural activity was taking place on the banks of the material and, consequently, their significance depression, which was subsequently used for and the ways in which they were used remain the dumping of wood or the construction of enigmatic. A variety of explanations have a wooden base or structure. been proposed; the most prevalent regard Wooden structures dating to the later them as food preparation sites (eg Buckley prehistoric period are well represented in 1990; Hodder & Barfield 1991). They are the East London area. A number of trackways often large, suggesting communal effort, have been identified along both northern perhaps associated with feasting or other and southern edges of the lower Thames ceremonial practices (Dunkin 2001). Other Valley (Philp & Garrod 1994; Meddens explanations include the suggestion that they 1996; Thomas & Rackham 1996; Bennell represent the residues of saunas (Barfield & 1998) and a wooden platform has recently Hodder 1987), or accumulations emanating been excavated at Manor Way in from a variety of industrial processes, such as Newham (Carew et al 2009). The majority leather making or wool processing (Barfield of these structures have been dated to the 1991; Jeffery 1991). Middle or Later Bronze Age, although it is Burnt mounds dating from the Neolithic possible that wooden structures observed in to the Bronze Age have been found at the lower Lea Valley may have been of Iron many other low-lying locations throughout Age date. They demonstrate intensive use of the lower Thames Valley. Perhaps the most the expanding wetlands lining the Thames, comparable has recently been excavated in although, in general, the exceptional Kensington (Moore et al 2003). Here a large preservational conditions necessary for their hollow measuring in excess of 8m by 3.5m survival do not extend far up the tributary was recorded; this had subsequently been valleys. infilled with substantial quantities of burnt The timber at North Street does not appear flint. The hollow itself has been interpreted to be part of a deliberate construction and as a naturally formed feature, possibly a shows no evidence of structural elements springhead, but postholes in its base and or of having been purposefully placed. around its edges could have supported some Taken together with other cultural material form of roof or superstructure. A pit cut into recovered in association with it, it is possible its base contained a complete decorated that this area was used to dump ‘refuse’; it had post-Deverel-Rimbury jar datable to the Late perhaps lain on the periphery of a settlement, Bronze Age/Early Iron Age transition. Nearby, platform or crannog-type structure. Deposits a large rectangular building of similar date of this kind have been recorded at a few was recorded. This contained an internal other later prehistoric sites; a much more sub-rectangular ‘basement’ measuring extensive midden deposit associated with nearly 4m by over 2m (Bradley 2003). These a Late Bronze Age riverside settlement was hollows at Kensington and North Street recorded at Runnymede Bridge for example may have been integral elements directly (Needham 1991), and similar deposits have related to the processes that resulted in the been recorded at the Middle Bronze Age formation of the burnt flint accumulations, Freemasons Road Underpass site along the or may have functioned as the residences of A13 in , where they were associated those involved in such processes, and were with a timber post alignment (Douglas perhaps only occupied on a seasonal basis. 2003). Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 35

The rapid submergence of the timber witnessed a hitherto unprecedented reorgan- within wet silty clay meant good preservation isation of the landscape. This involved the at North Street, and it is possible that the construction of a series of extensive and wood was dumped on purpose in an attempt formally laid out ditched field-systems, to consolidate increasingly wetter ground. droveways and waterholes associated with After the wood had been largely subsumed a complex hierarchical settlement pattern; by these fine-grained sediments, further taken together, these suggest a major alluvium continued to be deposited. A intensification in settlement and agricultural continuation of settlement in the vicinity production (Yates 2001; 2007). is attested by additional pottery, wood, These patterns of intensification continued charcoal, burnt flint and struck flint being into the earliest Iron Age (Needham 2007) deposited into this alluvium. but following the eighth century bc, char- acteristic settlements and associated field- Abandonment systems, previously present across much of south-eastern Britain, suddenly disappear. Ultimately, activity at the site appears to It is not until the Late Iron Age, the couple have ceased as the alluvium continued to of centuries preceding the Roman conquest, accumulate. Its location, high upstream in that a comparable complexity in landscape the Rom Valley, means that alluviation cannot and social organisation becomes recognisable be directly correlated with that recorded again within the archaeological record widely along the lower Thames Valley, which (Greenwood 1997; Bradley & Yates 2007; resulted in the inundation of large tracts Needham 2007). This leaves a hiatus of c.500 of previously settled lowland landscapes, years or more in the record, but it is during broadly dated to the late second/early first this period that North Street was occupied. millennia bc. The tidal head moving up the This hiatus and the seeming paucity of tributary valleys with progressively rising sea archaeological evidence from across south- levels may have accentuated this process (eg eastern Britain during this time has often led Bates 1998), but other causes, including to the period being regarded as representing changes in the fluvial regime of the Rom a retrenchment in social and agricultural and increased wetter conditions during this expansion, perhaps marking a cultural period, are likely to have had more of a direct recession and resulting in what may seem to be effect (cf Lambrick & Robinson 1979). a later prehistoric dark age. Possible reasons put forward for this apparent dislocation THE BROADER CONTEXT include the effects on the previous, bronze- based, social and political systems caused Radiocarbon dating indicates that the by the introduction of iron technology that activity recorded at North Street belongs to occurred during the eighth century bc. This the Early or Middle Iron Age centring on the is a complicated arena, however, as it is far transition of these two periods at around 400 from certain whether the introduction of iron cal bc. For many years, these earlier parts of technology was responsible for the collapse the Iron Age have been regarded as a rather or whether the disappearance of bronze shadowy period in the prehistory of the instigated and promoted the use of iron London region. A number of hillforts have (Needham 2007). Other, perhaps related, long been recognised around its outskirts, reasons that have been suggested for the and high status metalwork has repeatedly changes that were occurring during the Early been recovered from the Thames, but until and Middle Bronze Age include a decline in recently few settlements had been identified the productivity of the agricultural lands, and little is known regarding day-to-day life climatic deterioration and increasingly wetter (Greenwood 1997, 155; Merriman 2000, 43). conditions, with rising river and sea levels This situation contrasts with that of the pre- (Devoy 1979; 1980; Allen et al 1997; Merriman ceding Late Bronze Age. During this period, 2000, 43—4; Poulton 2004, 52). Within the from around 1100 to 800 bc, the brickearth London region, there is ample evidence and gravel terraces of the lower Thames for renewed alluviation and increased peat Valley, its estuary and major tributaries accumulation that resulted in the inundation 36 Barry Bishop of substantial tracts of previously dry land constructed enclosure at Uphall Camp, (eg Meddens 1996; Sidell et al 2000; 2002). located beside the c.8km to the These processes must have had a profound south-west of North Street. This is the largest effect on the economic basis of Late Bronze defended settlement in the London region Age and Early Iron Age prosperity, resulting and contained numerous roundhouses and in a decline in agricultural productivity and a wide range of ancillary buildings, although therefore weakening a social system that settlement here may be slightly later in was underpinned by the manipulation of date than the occupation at North Street surpluses. (Greenwood 1989; 2001). Such processes were at play at North To the east of Romford, evidence of Middle Street, where the river margins had to be Iron Age settlement has been identified abandoned due to rising river levels and alongside the at Maybank increased incidences of flooding. Although Avenue in , which consisted these effects occurred too late to have been of a roundhouse that was rebuilt on three associated with the initial Late Bronze Age occasions, alongside a possible droveway decline, similar effects were likely to have and many pits (Greenwood & Maloney 1993, occurred earlier further downstream, and 78; 1994, 204). On the gravel terraces to the do emphasise that climatic factors were east of the River Ingrebourne widespread most likely to have had gradual, rather than evidence of Early and Middle Iron Age activity catastrophic, consequences. has been found (Greenwood et al 2006). Although still much less abundant than for Occupation has been identified at Hunt’s the Late Bronze Age or the Late Iron Age, Hill Farm, where an extensive settlement, sites such as North Street demonstrate that consisting of at least ten roundhouses, occupation during the Early and Middle a rectangular post-built building and a Iron Age is far from absent across the north- number of pits and ditches, has been dated east London terraces and is continuing to be to perhaps the 7—6th century bc (Filer 1991, discovered, particularly as development-led 303; Greenwood & Maloney 1994, 205; fieldwork investigates hitherto unexplored Greenwood et al 2006). This was followed by areas. The nearest evidence of occupation further activity, including the construction to North Street can be found at Mildmay of a six-post structure, apparently of Middle Road, a few hundred metres to the south- Iron Age date (Greenwood & Maloney 1993, west, and consists of a few pottery sherds 79). To the south of these, at Moor Hall Farm, of Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age date a small settlement or farmstead dated to the (Greenwood & Maloney 1993, 79). More Middle Iron Age was revealed (Greenwood et substantial evidence can be found at Marks al 2006), whilst to the north of this, at Manor Warren Farm on , less than Farm, excavations produced evidence for a 2km upstream on the River Rom, where further Early to Middle Iron Age settlement substantial quantities of pottery, dated to the (Richardson 1984, 387). 6th century bc, were dumped into the almost It is clear that during the Early and Middle silted-up ditches of a large Late Bronze Age Iron Age settlement on the north-east London enclosure (Girardon & Heathcote 1989, 74; terraces was not nearly as ephemeral as once Greenwood et al 2006). It would appear that thought, even if it remains overshadowed the enclosure was used, or at least known by the archaeological evidence from the of, at this time, and the pottery may have periods pre- and post-dating it. Settlement acted as a ‘closure deposit’ linked to the end patterns and the organisation of agricultural of its use. Other features recorded indicate production were undoubtedly changing the presence of an extensive settlement in during the earlier parts of the Iron Age, the enclosure’s vicinity. Further to the west, but this may not have been as socially and at Fairlop Quarry, a settlement associated economically disastrous as is implied solely with a substantial rectangular enclosure by the sheer weight of archaeologically was established during the Middle Iron Age visible remains. In many areas of Lowland (Greenwood & Maloney 1995, 346). The Britain there is evidence to suggest that most notable site of this period, however, farming practices may even have intensified must be the extensive and impressively during this period, despite much less energy Iron Age Romford: Life Alongside the River during the Mid-First Millennium BC 37 and fewer resources being expended on BIBLIOGRAPHY defining fields with ditches and demarcating the landscape, practices that may have ALLEN et al (1997), T Allen, G Hey & D Miles been more about visual symbolism than ‘A line of time: approaches to archaeology practical utility (Bradley 2007; Yates 2007). in the Middle Thames Valley, England’ World Within the London region there is some Archaeology: Riverine Archaeology 29 (1), 114—29 evidence that during this time settlement BARFIELD (1991), L H Barfield ‘Hot stones: was actually expanding into some of the hot food or hot baths?’ in Hodder & Barfield (1991), 59—67 more marginal lands bordering the fertile BARFIELD & HODDER (1987), L Barfield & terraces (Nielson 1996; Hawkins & Leaver M Hodder ‘Burnt mounds as saunas and the 1999). It appears that instead of a widespread prehistory of bathing’ Antiquity 61, 370—9 decline in occupation, there may have been BATES (1998), M R Bates ‘Locating and reorganisation away from the extensive, evaluating archaeology below the alluvium: the specialised and perhaps centrally-organised role of sub-surface stratigraphical modelling’ agricultural landscapes of the Late Bronze Lithics 19, 4—18 Age and towards a pattern of relatively BELL et al (2000), M Bell, A Caseldine & H locally-organised, smaller scale and more Neumann Prehistoric Intertidal Archaeology in the mixed farming settlements (Merriman 2000, Welsh Severn Estuary CBA Research Report 120 BENNELL (1998), M Bennell Under the Road: 45). The associated social structure may Archaeological Discoveries at Bronze Age Way, have been reoriented towards community BRADLEY (2003), T Bradley ‘An excavation at organisation rather than élite control – a the Sir John Atkins Building, Campden Hill, structure that no longer depended on the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea’ large-scale division of the landscape or the Trans London Middlesex Archaeol Soc 54, 23—37 deposition of vast quantities of metalwork BRADLEY (2007), R Bradley The Prehistory of in order to function, and would therefore Britain and Ireland be less archaeologically visible (Bradley & BRADLEY & YATES (2007), R Bradley & D Yates Yates 2007). Rather than seeing the Early ‘After “Celtic” fields: the social organisation and Middle Iron Age in terms of a dearth of Iron Age agriculture’ in C Haselgrove & R Pope (eds) The Earlier Iron Age in Britain and in activity, it may be more profitable to the Near Continent, 94—102 understand this period as one of important BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY (1996), cultural and social change (Haselgrove & British Geological Survey Romford. England and Pope 2007, 1). Wales Sheet 257. Solid and Drift Geology. 1:50 000 BRUNNING (1996), R Brunning Waterlogged ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Wood (2nd edn) BUCKLEY (1990), V Buckley Burnt Offerings: The project was commissioned by Sally Dicks International Contributions to Burnt Mound of CgMs Consulting, acting on behalf of their Archaeology clients, Higgins Homes plc, who generously CANTERBURY ARCHAEOLOGICAL TRUST funded the field and post-excavation work. The (2002), Canterbury Archaeological Trust archaeological fieldwork was undertaken by Pre- ‘Canterbury Archaeological Trust Interim Construct Archaeology Ltd under the supervision Report 1998—2000: 15. Churchwood Drive, of Fiona Keith-Lucas and the direction of Peter Chestfield, Whitstable (TR 1400 6625)’ Archaeologia Cantiana 122, 349 Moore. It was monitored by David Divers of CAREW et al (2009), T Carew, F Meddens, N the Archaeological Advisory Branch, D Goodburn & L Yeomans Bronze Age Service on behalf of the London Borough of Responses to Climate Change? Timber Constructions Havering. This report was written by Barry at the Golfers’ Driving Range, Beckton, East Bishop using the records generated during the London fieldwork, and the post-excavation management CHADWICK (2004), P Chadwick An Archaeological and editing of this paper was by Frank Meddens Desk Based Assessment, Romside Commercial Centre, and Vicki Ridgeway. The author would also like 149 North Street, Romford unpub CgMs Report to thank Phil Steer and the ‘Romford Now and CHADWICK & DICKS (2005), P Chadwick Then’ website (http://www.romford.org/) for per- & S Dicks Specifications and Written Scheme of Investigation for a Field Evaluation, Romside mission to reproduce Fig 9. Commercial Centre, 149 North Street, Romford [email protected] unpub CgMs Report 38 Barry Bishop

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