Viewpoint Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 2, 2013 (183–191) 183

Musing on Agri-history

Lindsay Falvey

Hassad , University of & Institute for International Development, Australia. (email: [email protected])

Why agri-history is important http://www.hinduwebsite.com/history/ kautilya.asp). Yet here too, it is easy to Today, we who write are mostly distant reduce history to empires and miss the from the agricultural life of the past, which bonds between nature, , and society peppers many historical perspectives with that invariably emerge with agricultural the pitfalls of value judgments, secularism, occupations. and a romantic view that David Ludden (1999; p. 3) in his ‘New Cambridge History In my own country, Australia, awareness of India’ refers to as ‘stubborn, enticing of the food production practices of the otherness’. indigenous population prior to European settlement has begun to instill an Even though most of history grows out understanding of the cultural meaning of of it is seldom considered as landscape and food. While easy to overstate, its center. Nevertheless, it was agriculture this seems to offer a means of appreciating that allowed the settled life that led to the eras over which such landscapes are civilization, and its efficiencies in food formed and to recognize that humans security that allowed a leisured class to have always altered the environment, as engage in writing and the codifi cation of as part of creating agreed ethics continues today in modern agriculture’s and power bases. Histories that center shaping of the land, its waters and even its on rulers or states do not seem conscious air. It also informs the sense of feeling ‘at that they are using a proxy for agricultural home’ in our homelands and our cultural history, and so miss much that history has ideals of beauty and aesthetics. In this sense, to offer the present. This alone makes agri- agriculture is a civilizing infl uence on the history important, but so do many other land as it is for society – it brings concepts factors. of ownership, territory, and power as well as of identity, nature, terroir, and equity. As a great birthplace of agriculture, India Indian and Pakistani ownership of and has established the link between the state identifi cation with the noble Basmati rice is and food production, culminating at one an example (Manoj, 2006). And all of these point in Kautilya’s Arthasastra with its concepts once came from the reverence overt recognition of the role of violence in of food security as a value underpinning a kingdom secure in its food base (Source: society. 184 Musing on agri-history

As we have all been shaped by our experiences, There are also differences with today’s so has our social milieu been formed by civilized viewpoints, such as time itself. agriculture. Our aphorisms often reveal In agricultural contexts time can be elastic agricultural roots, as shown for example, – waiting on the rain and when it arrives in the book on Thai folklore by Charan acting quickly. The difference pervades Chantalakhana and Pakapun Skunmun the many urban-city divisions of every (2007). Our festivals vary across regions country today where long codifi ed seasonal according to agricultural calendars – and we festivals may be viewed quite differently in continue to hold onto these festivals, even ‘the bush’ and the city. Historical texts that when a foreign religion supplants traditional relate Asian battles of a few centuries ago as beliefs. So it is well said that agri-history taking place between growing seasons too is more than the history of agriculture; it is easily portray this as a quaint custom. Thus the source of history itself although this is they can miss the deeper knowledge that war often either assumed or neglected in various and expansionism of a realm waited on the presentations of history, be they religiously agricultural calendar, which was the essence or evidentially based. of the religions, the oracles and auspicious days for battles to begin. It waited on The link of agriculture to religion repeats agriculture because a secure food supply itself through civilizations, yet the common was the common need of both ordinary focus on rulers limits this understanding people and armies that needed feeding. when contextualizing history. For example, the Hebrew story adopted by Christianity of While such arguments are sometimes reduced Moses being found in the marshes of the Nile to romantic ideas of synchronicity, they are River (Source: Holy Bible Exodus 2:3–5), facts that deserve proper consideration is commonly considered to have been at through the overwhelming majority of the site known archaeologically from its human history. It made sense for the rhythm Greek name of Tanis. Yet much of its history of life to be determined by nature’s cycles of is related under the name of its ruler and food production. And this seems consistent builder Ramses and the architecture of the with the views of those who note that the Egyptian pharaohs, and even then the site existential angst that characterizes modern is overshadowed by the better-preserved society appears to be correlated with and more popular ruins in drier upstream alienation from nature, seasonal foods, and climates. Thus neither the religious nor the ritualized traditions (Kierkegaard, 1946). architectural stories develop the otherwise Agri-history is part of unraveling this aspect obvious agricultural aspects of such a major of our nature also. ruling city being deep in the fertile Nile Delta, and neither dwells on its later demise Agricultural urbanization probably being from siltation and climate change rather than non-historical conquests With agriculture providing the surplus that by the Israelites (Joseph Free and Howard led to urbanization from at least 9500 years Vos, 1992). ago in South Asia and signifi cant cities Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 2, 2013 185

encouraged new groups of suppliers for Histories that center on rulers or states ores and skills as agriculture expanded. In do not seem conscious that they are this milieu, new cities based on trade that using a proxy for agricultural history, could purchase food must have assumed an and so miss much that history has to importance perhaps in some cases greater offer the present. This alone makes than agricultural cities. Such cities on trade agri-history important, but so do many routes were even more vulnerable to food other factors. insecurity as a siege could threaten all wealth, and so food reserves became an integral part of urban management. Without appearing about 5000 years ago (Sharma the ability to feed a city, governance was et al., 1980), worldviews must have begun not possible. to diverge between sedentary and nomadic Such Indianized civilization expanded peoples. Confrontations between farmers along trade routes in what is now Thailand, and pastoralists passed down in religious Malaysia, and Indonesia and also extended stories and customs indicate differences, albeit written by the victors – agricultural to Cambodia through theocratic political cities. Power structures to defend cities will systems that were to establish the basis for have required rituals and beliefs, which may much of Southeast Asia cultures (Tarling, well have been adapted from a past nomadic 1992). And with that assumption of Indian lifestyle, maybe even pre-Vedic hymns and manners by local chieftains, attractive rituals. Thus some interaction may have technologies were adopted, some of which accompanied periodic confl ict as farming remain obvious today such as the distinctly sporadically took over pastoral lands. As different rice harvesting techniques of pastoralists opened new well-watered southern Thailand compared to those grasslands farmers followed and thus also practiced in the other more Chinese- followed trade, wealth, sophistication in infl uenced regions of that country (Lindsay religions and the literature from which we Falvey, 2000). As the Asian Agri-History glean glimpses of the past. Foundation’s publications indicate, much of the information about these developments, Rather than springing into being as fully particularly in India, is to be found in formed political entities, cities will have ancient texts – sometimes referred to as followed various models of governance, religious texts. So it is not only the Vedic with trade as the connecting element. scriptures that point to the indissoluble Technology no doubt followed trade with link of agriculture to religion, but the less agriculture as its major focus since it was ancient Buddhist and Jain texts that indicate the major business of the populace until the associations of trade routes, cities, and cities became more sophisticated. Thus technologies. innovations in the use of labor, metal tools, irrigation, nurseries, and animal and plant We now understand the expansion of breeding affected farming technologies and agriculture and hence agricultural cities as 186 Musing on agri-history being isolated harbors in a sea of pastoralists more that a wave progressively washing The link of agriculture to religion over a ‘primitive’ pastoralism two to three repeats itself through civilizations, yet millennia ago (harbors – in both the sense of the common focus on rulers limits this protection from mobile pastoral aggressors, understanding when contextualizing and as trade entrepots often on coasts and history. rivers). Eventually, possibly in the Gupta era, as agriculture began to encroach on pastoral lands more consistently, it must Whatever the basis of farmer-pastoralist have been under a replicable agrarian interaction, pastoralism continued as governance system that allowed some the dominant lifestyle into the present autonomy for local chieftains – a model of millennium. This was common to areas early colonial expansion. Alliances would contiguous and distant from India, from have been cemented through common Central Asia to Mongolia and the Middle rituals and religions, giving rise to some East. Agriculture relied on rivers or at least shared literature among the increasingly water sources and storages that were easily diverse elite. Linking religion and power developed for farming, and such land was allowed economic progress as rulers far more scarce than dense jungles and assumed divine status and spiritual rewards uncontrollable fl oodplains, and even the became a means of payment, even into later arid-lands where pastoralism evolved an periods such as for the construction of the ecologically-balanced system that lasted th Angkor Wat complex in Cambodia (Taylor, into the 20 century. But nestled against this 1992). Meanwhile continuing pastoralists, vast pastoral sea was the excessively well- sometimes marginalized from their preferred watered tropical landscape of Southeast Asia, lands, possibly remained somewhat unifi ed which was largely useless to pastoralists in by their early Vedic rituals, which allowed its native state of floodplains, swamps, some degree of interaction with settled dense forests, and carnivorous predators. These areas awaited further innovations farmers who observed similar rituals and before they could be tamed, eventually this may have reduced potential confl ict to leading to the major kingdoms of mainland ritualistic games (Heesterman, 1995). Southeast Asia.

From even such a simplistic overview of agri- As a great birthplace of agriculture, history it becomes clear that the agricultural India has established the link between cities that gave rise to cultures adjacent to the state and food production, dry regions where water was reliable or culminating at one point in Kautilya’s with seasonal rains represents the regions Arthasastra with its overt recognition of where millets and wheat were domesticated the role of violence in a kingdom secure – adjacent to pastoralists’ domains. Rice, in its food base. on the other hand, was related to fl ooded environments, and as a peculiarly Asian Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 2, 2013 187

some protection through specifi c gods and There are also differences with today’s rituals. With food being the fi rst priority of civilized viewpoints, such as time itself. governance, aggression or defense tended to In agricultural contexts time can be be a seasonal activity with farmers enlisted elastic – waiting on the rain and when for the dry season when little agricultural it arrives acting quickly. The difference work was needed, and when they could pervades the many urban-city divisions well be motivated by earlier crop losses of every country today where long from conflict or weather. Nevertheless, codifi ed seasonal festivals may be the modern image of sedentary agriculture viewed quite differently in ‘the bush’ vulnerable to repeated attack was probably and the city. less common to this mobile agricultural population until investment in infrastructure made one piece of fertile land near water more valuable than another. crop, it is of interest to speculate on cultural differences between rice cultures and those The phenomenon is also suggested by the that developed from wheat for example. once sustainable muang fai irrigation system Such is another lesson from agri-history; yet of traditional Tai ethnic group, which was another relates to war. based on annual repair or rebuilding of simple wooden weirs across small swift War and agriculture fl owing streams (Lindsay Falvey, 2001). Over time, weirs became more sophisticated Forestalling confl ict allowed agriculture and hence more worth defending, which in to expand across the millennia, and so turn led to the organization of governance sophisticated governance and diplomacy being based on watersheds since all on one arrangements evolved, again using common river shared a common need for defense rituals for negotiations. In the agricultural as well as equitable water allocation. The cities housing mixed populations of merchants, farmers, visiting pastoralists, pilgrims and religious leaders, a certain Technology no doubt followed trade stability arose along with agreement to with agriculture as its major focus a ‘rule of law’. In this context, farming since it was the major business of the alone did not underwrite food security for populace until cities became more the agriculturally-divorced vocations, as it sophisticated. Thus innovations was subject to droughts, pestilence, fl oods, in the use of labor, metal tools, and attacks from other expansionist states irrigation, nurseries, and animal or pastoralists. Thus food security became and plant breeding affected farming a primary occupation of governance, built technologies and encouraged new on the best possible agricultural base linked groups of suppliers for ores and skills to both war and religion. War damaged as agriculture expanded. food production while religion promised 188 Musing on agri-history governance system developed with minor occupied by spirits that had to be appeased. rulers of a river valley being consolidated So it seems that farming communities while into larger catchments as larger rulers who adopting the rites of the great religions also could command countless paddy fields maintained the life of the gods and spirits of (Cohen, 1980) – such as in King Megrai’s the forest, trees, rivers, and places giving rise northern Thai kingdom of Lanna (million to the continuing folk-interpretations of, for rice fields). An echo of the same folk example, rural Buddhism in Cambodia, Lao, expectation may be found in the Indianized Myanmar, and Thailand. The idyllic notion of names of the Thai Kings who in adopting agricultural expansion as if it was a god-given the title Rama, that reincarnation of Vishnu, destiny may owe more to foreign romantic acquire among other names ‘Lord of the ascription than to expansionist agricultural Waters’. kingdoms with their armies, in Asia. As So power developed around land and water civilization arose with farming and required with religious and other symbols protecting a strong power base, we can see the role of the centrality of farming and immovable dharma in its early Hindu iterations of duty irrigation infrastructure until the modern era, to the god-king as distinct from Buddhistic when as one anthropologist described the interpretations of the word ‘dharma’ as fi tting arrival of the Western era and the demise of in with natural law – although some may see the integrated religious era in the words ‘The the two reconciled in Arjuna’s story. spirits aren’t so powerful anymore’ (Lando, 1983). However, through the long era before Once agriculture has become established today, defense of both agricultural cities with its stratifi ed society and power base, it and villages was necessary from marauding is open to an acceleration of technological pastoralists, nomads, forest dwellers, and innovation and labor efficiencies. Thus wildlife from whom new agricultural land ‘walled towns were more common, and was constantly being annexed – and the long-distance trade was more visible in farmers knew that such lands were also dynastic core settlements where military activity was a permanent adjunct to farming’ (David Ludden, 1999; p. 71). But this Such Indianized civilization expanded situation arose after a long ebb and fl ow along trade routes in what is now of power between pastoralists and farmers, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia and which together with civilization, religion, also extended to Cambodia through and writing, is a defi ning role of agriculture theocratic political systems that were that continues towards its apparent inevitable to establish the basis for much of conclusion in some parts of the world today. Southeast Asia cultures. And with that Thus agri-history teaches that if one accepts assumption of Indian manners by local the notion that agriculture underpinned the chieftains, attractive technologies were creation of civilization, the major religions adopted. and writing, one must also accept that it was a cause of expansionist militarism. Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 2, 2013 189

With ‘troops’ protecting farmers, agriculture seeds look only to the sky for rain. So Pandya expanded into more remote areas and king who makes dreadful war, do not mistake incorporated new tribes and peoples into the my words: quickly expand watery places supporting roles of the new society, such as that are built to bring streams to your land! toolmakers, domesticated-animal herders, For those who control water reap rewards traders, forest-product gatherers integrated and those who fail cannot endure’ [Source: into civilized society, builders, priests, and Purananuru (Thoughtful Living). No. 18. militia. Independent communities settled http://www.aleroy.com/blog/archives/tag/ nearby to benefi t from the protection and purananuru]. One might speculate that the trade opportunities of agricultural cities difference may well be that military expansion and so by early in the current millennium under a centralized power was planned from across the subcontinent the landscape must a base of agricultural surplus and well-stored have contained thousands of agriculture- grains and that takeover targets were other based settlements linked by traveling traders agricultural settlements, whereas expansion and separated by forests, deserts, or other under the Subcontinent model of chiefs was unsettled lands. to develop new agricultural lands as the fi rst priority. Such a scenario seems to differ from more centralized power bases in European and Expansionist farmers of Asia were not Chinese agri-history. As such it provides a necessarily the naive folk imagined in clearer view of the central role of agriculture Western projections of their paysan, but in such as in the ancient Tamil poem – ‘Food is some cases were farmer-warriors. Using fi rst for all living things, made of food, and their assets accumulated in one settlement, because food is but soil and water mingled they attacked others in loose companies together, those who bring water into fi elds of other potential benefi ciaries including create living beings and life in this world. merchants. Records in religious writings Even kings with vast domains strive in vain, indicate that ‘conquest and trade went when their land is dry and fi elds sown with hand-in-hand with religious endowments

In this context, farming alone did So power developed around land and not underwrite food security for the water with religious and other symbols agriculturally-divorced vocations, as protecting the centrality of farming and it was subject to droughts, pestilence, immovable irrigation infrastructure fl oods, and attacks from other until the modern era, when as one expansionist states or pastoralists. anthropologist described the arrival Thus food security became a primary of the Western era and the demise occupation of governance, built on the of the integrated religious era in the best possible agricultural base linked to words ‘The spirits aren’t so powerful both war and religion. anymore’. 190 Musing on agri-history and investments in farming’ (David Ludden, References 1999; p.89). Thus we have the aggressive Charan Chantalakhana and Pakapun agriculturist; fi ghting as part of farming. Skunmun. 2007. Phumipanya chaoban le Warring was part of the agricultural calendar, samnuan Thai jak rai na: Folk Wisdom and and those that became superior were fi ghters Thai Sayings in Agriculture. Agricultural and farmers. Conquests continued and Extension, Sujhothai University, Thailand. centers expanded their influence such 265 pp. that by the dawn of the European colonial Cohen PT. 1980. Irrigation and the Northern period, cities such as Vijayanagar (‘Victory Thai state in the nineteenth century. In: Patterns City’) were suggested as surpassing Paris in and Illusions: Thai History and Thought their edifi ces, festivals, and rights to tribute (Wijeyewardene G and Chapman EC, eds.). (Surajit Sinha, 1962). Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

Today, agriculture is the dominant practice. David Ludden. 1999. The New Cambridge So integrated is with power and so successful History of India IV (4): An Agrarian History has it been in underwriting that power-base of South Asia. Cambridge University Press, that it is often forgotten. Thus we have some Cambridge, England. 262 pp. food-insecure nations paying inadequate Heesterman JC. 1995. Warrior, peasant attention to the need to secure food to and Brahmin. Modern Asian Studies maintain their license to govern. At the 29(3):645–649. same time across Asia, some tribal groups in lightly populated forests and jungles are Joseph Free and Howard Vos. 1992. Moses still sustained by albeit reduced wildlife in Egypt. In: Archaeology and Bible History. Revised Edition. Zondervan, Michigan, USA. and vegetable products that they trade pp. 77–84. to supplement their shifting cultivation (jhum, swidden agriculture, slash-and-burn, Kierkegaard S. 1946. The Concept of Anxiety. etc.), and in other areas some pastoralists Princeton University Press, New Jersey, USA. control water sources for their animals. 273 pp. (Reprint 1981.) It is these areas, notwithstanding various Lando RP. 1983. The spirits aren’t so powerful well-meaning preservation projects, that are anymore: Spirit belief and irrigation origination today’s frontier for agricultural expansion. in North Thailand. Journal of the Siam Society This is another lesson of agri-history. 71:121–147. Lindsay Falvey. 2000. Thai Agriculture: Golden Cradle of Millennia. Kasetsart University Press, Today, agriculture is the dominant , Thailand. 490 pp. practice. So integrated is with power Lindsay Falvey. 2001. The Tai and Thai and so successful has it been in agriculture. Asian Agri-History 5(2):109–122. underwriting that power-base that it is often forgotten. Manoj P. 2006. Bid for patent for basmati rice hits a hurdle. The Hindu, November 5, Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 2, 2013 191

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