FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

MOUNTAIN LIONS - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS, ADAPTATIONS & HABITS

What is the difference between a mountain lion, a cougar and a puma? There are many common names given to these charismatic predators and mountain lion, cougar and puma are all correct for the species. The scientific name for this beautiful cat is Puma concolor (meaning: lion of one color). In South America, where they occur as far south as southern Chile, they are mostly known as puma.

What are the characteristics of mountain lions? Mountain lions are North America’s big cat. They are solitary predators, mainly active at twilight and night (crepuscular and nocturnal). They have a tawny brown coat, with short course hair, light undersides, and an extremely long, black-tipped tail, about 2/3 their body length. Mountain lions have a relatively thin neck, small head with rounded ears, and a wide face with a distinctive short white muzzle ringed with darker fur. They have a fairly stocky build, with slightly longer back legs and big paws with sharp, retractable claws. They are the top predators in their ecosystems but are generally timid in their interaction with humans avoiding contact where possible. Mountain lions tend to run away or climb trees to escape danger. They do not roar like other large cats, rather making a variety of sounds more closely resembling domestic cats, but just louder.

What are the differences between male and female mountain lions? Mountain lion male and females look the same, however, male’s testicles can be visible at the base of the tail. Females are smaller than males, but it is easy to get them confused with males if no comparison is present.

What do mountain lion kittens look like? Mountain lion kittens are born with bright blue eyes, dark spots on their bodies and dark stripes on their tails. They weigh about 18oz (500g) when born. By nine months the spots fade leaving a lightly mottled look. By the time they become adults between two and two and half years they loose these markings completely.

How big are mountain lions? Mountain lions stand roughly 20 to 30 inches (50 - 76cm) at the shoulder, about the same height as a German shepherd dog. Adult males are typically 6 - 8 feet (183 - 243cm) from nose to tail tip, weighing on average 110 – 180 pounds (50-81 kg); adult females: 5 – 7 feet (152 - 213cm) from nose to tail tip, and 80 – 130 pounds (36 - 59kg).

Where do mountain lions sleep? Contrary to popular belief, mountain lions do not have a ‘cave’ or ‘den’ that they live in, but sleep anywhere suitably sheltered as they patrol their territory looking for food, mates or keeping other mountain lions out. The only time that mountain lions are in one place for more than a couple of days is if they are feeding on a large kill they made, if it is a denning female with young kittens or if they are injured.

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What special adaptations do mountain lions have? Vision – mountain lions have excellent eyesight, and have large eyes adapted to capture as much light as possible making their night vision very good, one of the reasons they are predominantly nocturnal predators. For comparative purposes, walking on a dark night for mountain lions would be similar to a twilight stroll for us. Hearing – they have acute hearing able to accurately detect high frequency sounds, often helping them locate prey. Jumping – long back legs, stocky build and long tail are all adaptations that allow mountain lions to jump high and far – as high as 18 feet (5.5m) and as far as 45 feet (14m). Climbing and balance – their build and tail give them grace and dexterity for climbing trees and moving along steep, narrow ridges. Hunting – large paws and sharp claws are adaptations for catching prey and powerful jaws, short muzzle and long, sharp canines are perfect instruments for making kills. It is interesting to note that cats evolved short muzzles, which gave them increased biting power but diminished sense of smell, whereas dogs, with their long muzzles, evolved to prioritize their sense of smell.

How can I recognize signs of mountain lion such as tracks, scat, scrapes, kills and calls? Tracks - The first thing to check is if the track is a cat track – cats have retractable claws so claw markings would usually not be visible. They have four toes that show in a track and a back pad with three distinct lobes. The negative space between the toes and the main pad is in the shape of a ‘C’. If it is a cat track, check the size, preferably on firm substrate (in soft sand tracks look much bigger). Anything around the size of a house cat track is either just that, or a bobcat. Mountain lion tracks are generally 3 to 4 inches (7.5 – 10cm) long. The front track is larger and rounder than the hind track. Male tracks are larger than female tracks. If you don’t have a ruler on hand, photograph the track with something that comes in a standard length for comparison next to it, like a dollar bill. Scats - Mountain lions are pure carnivores eating meat and a lot of the bone of their prey. Hair is also ingested as they lick the dead animal’s hair to remove it as much as possible before eating. Their scats, like other cats, are either long tubes or segmented with blunt ends or just one pointy end and often an inner twist that is only visible in older degraded scat. They are ¾ - 1⅝ inches (1.9 – 4.1cm) in diameter. Mountain lion scats will change color with age. If significant bone content is present, the scat will turn a whitish color after a few days depending on the weather (rain, temperature may affect this rate). Scrapes- Just like house cats, mountain lions make scrapes to mark their territory. They scrape back a pile of debris and then urinate or defecate on top of the pile. Their scrapes are generally 20 – 36 inches (50 – 91cm) long and 8 – 12 inches (20 – 30cm) wide. Kills - Mountain lions usually drag their kills to a hidden place and cache them, covering them with leaves between eating. This keeps them hidden from other predators scavenging for food and also helps to keep them fresh. Kills can be fed on for many days.

2 Calls - Mountain lions make a wide variety of sounds, including chirping, meowing very similar to a house cat but louder, and screaming (in the case of females in estrus). Often people hear birds or other creatures of the night and think that they are hearing mountain lions. As it is hard to put sounds into words, have a listen online.

Tell me more about a mountain lion’s life cycle? Females are able to reproduce from about 2 years old. When a female is on heat she ‘screams’ for prolonged periods and leaves her scent by marking to draw the attention of the male. When they meet up they spend a few days together, courting and mating, after which the male plays no further active role in the life of the female or kittens. Kittens are born after about 3 months, usually in the spring or summer, but potentially at any time of the year. Typically, 2 or 3 kittens are born and weigh about 1 pound (450g) and are about 1 foot (30cm) long. The mother chooses a sheltered den site, and for the first two weeks the kittens eyes are still closed and they can only manage to suckle. Once their blue eyes open they begin to move around more, exploring first their den site and later the surrounding area. From about 6 weeks the mother takes her kittens to kills. They are weaned at about 2 – 3 months after which they rely on meat that their mother catches, often left at kills the mother has made. They learn their hunting skills from playing and watching their mother hunt. They stay with her until they are about 12-18 months old, then they must fend for themselves. This is particularly difficult and dangerous for sub-adult males, who must constantly watch out for dominant males until they are mature enough to fend or fight for their own territory, usually from about 2 - 3 years old. Almost all sub-adult males disperse from the mother, moving up to several hundred miles away from their birthplace. Female sub-adults generally disperse less and often will end up neighboring their mother who may ‘give’ her daughter part of her territory.

How long do mountain lions live for? In the wild they probably live up to 13 years, though 10yrs is more likely average. Causes of death in the wild include starvation, disease, competition with other mountain lions, and being killed by humans.

Are mountain lions related to African lions? No, other than that they are both big cats. The closest relative of mountain lions is actually the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus.

CONSERVATION STATUS AND POPULATION INFORMATION

How many mountain lions are there in our mountains/Sonoma-Napa? We don't know! Establishing the population size and density of mountain lions in this region is one of our key research questions. These large, solitary carnivores, occur at low densities and have large home ranges, where the defend their territories against others of the same-sex. Each male has two or three females within his range. Each female in turn has its own territory and they can exhibit little overlap with each other (each guy has a few ‘wives’, each with their own home). In any one suitable

3 location there is likely to be one adult male and one adult female mountain lion, unless on the border between two adults, in which case there could be a couple more individuals present. Sub-adults who have left mom, go off (disperse) to find their own space. Sometimes females get to stay in the same area as mom (natal range), while the males often have to disperse great distances at huge risk of being killed by territorial mountain lions along the way. Territory borders of adult animals can often be geographically defined in some way, such as large rivers or deep, wide valleys; but can also include human features such as busy roads or developments. In studies done elsewhere, home range size and overlap varies greatly from one area to another depending on amongst others, the habitat type and food availability. For example, in Alyson Andreason’s study in the Sierras, she found that during the snowy winters mountain lions move down into the valleys, following the deer, and mountain lion territories overlap significantly during this time. In the warmer months they go back to their own territories. In Mark Elbroch’s (Panthera) study in Wyoming they found that adult lions would share large prey items that they could not eat alone. This goes to show the adaptive nature of these fascinating cats.

MOUNTAIN LION DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT PREFERENCES

Where do mountain lions occur? With a historical range from Alaska to southern Chile, and from east to west across North America, it is clear that mountain lions are very adaptable cats. Today, mountain lions are limited to the western United States and Florida as well as in Central and South America. More recently, records of these cats expanding their range from the west has been noted, including records in Nebraska and more recently Tennessee.

What habitat do mountain lions prefer? Mountain lions are generalists, able to survive in vastly different landscapes. Essentially they need access to prey; cover (for hunting); and wild areas (relative safety from humans). These requirements tend to restrict them to mountainous areas, nature’s best conservationist as they are generally less hospitable to people. For the most part, mountain lions avoid using urban and disturbed areas, or if they do it is to gain access to an adjacent wild area and/or are sub-adults avoiding adults by using sub-optimal habitat.

SAFETY AROUND MOUNTAIN LIONS

Are mountain lions dangerous to people? A comprehensive study by Dr. Paul Beier showed that in the course of a century (1890 to 1990), there had been 10 fatal, unprovoked attacks on people in California. He also noted that two dozen people are killed a year by dogs and hundreds of thousands injured. Since 1990, there have been 3 fatal attacks by mountain lions in California.

What should I do if I see a mountain lion?

4 If you are ever lucky enough to see a mountain lion, try enjoy the experience, the encounter is unlikely to last long! In the extremely unlikely event that the mountain lion looks like it may attack you, it is best to make yourself look as threatening as possible, maintain eye-to-eye contact, wave your arms around or open a jacket, shout – while slowly backing away in the event it is protecting young or a kill. Do not corner it, always allowing an easy escape route for it. Do not run away as it will likely mistake you for prey and its hunting instincts may take over. If you have young children with you, always be sure that they are never far off from adults, as small children are most susceptible to being attacked if on their own.

I’ve had a mountain lion sighting, should I contact you? Yes, please report your sightings! We’d love to hear the details and have a chance to speak to you about your sighting. If you find a fresh mountain lion kill within our study area, please report it to us immediately as this would be an excellent opportunity for us to try capture and collar the animal with a GPS collar for our study.

How can I get to see a mountain lion? Mountain lions are very elusive and seldom encountered by people. Most sightings are pure chance. That said, if you are out in the mountains, be aware, listen out for bird and mammal alarm calling – almost all animals have particular sounds that they make to warn others of the presence of a predator. Also keep your eyes open for fresh track or scats. NEVER corner a mountain lion or try get too close to see it better. These cats can be extremely dangerous if forced to be.

MOUNTAIN LIONS AND THREATS TO LIVESTOCK AND PETS

Why do you say that killing mountain lions to control depredation (killing) of livestock or domestic animals isn't an effective solution? Research has shown that killing a dominant mountain lion (or other similar large cat) is not a recommended solution and often increases the problems for farmers. Essentially, when a dominant, territorial adult mountain lion is removed or killed, its territory becomes vacant, forming a “vacuum” of sorts. Frequently it is young lions who then move in and compete for this territory. They lack the experience and hunting prowess of their older counterparts, which may lead to them taking easier prey such as domestic animals. While competing for this vacant territory, the number of mountain lions may be unusually high, and will only settle down once the territory is re-established and controlled by a dominant animal.

Do you suggest relocating ‘problem’ mountain lions? No, it is not considered sound practice to relocate adult mountain lions. Where a mountain lion is removed (killed or relocated), social disruption follows, as outlined above. When a new mountain lion moves into the vacant territory, it will also most likely kill any kittens it comes across. As the mountain lion would need to be relocated to suitable habitat, an existing resident mountain lion population would already be present, resulting in fighting which could result in fatalities. If the relocated lion is the victor it would likely also kill any kittens in comes across. Hence

5 ‘saving’ one mountain lion by relocating it can result in the deaths of many mountain lions. The only time that it may possibly work is if the lion was relocated to an appropriate area where lions have been exterminated and forms part of a reintroduction program.

What can farmers do to protect livestock from mountain lions and other predators? Livestock farmers invariably have difficulties with predators and need to find ways to protect their livestock as killing predators is not a real solution. Solutions are not always easy and depend on the specific context of both land and type of livestock. Effective methods, often best used in combination, include livestock guardian animals such as donkeys, dogs (e.g. Anatolian guard dogs) and llamas; while predator proof enclosures for night-time, and various deterrent devises using sound, light, water and electricity can be used to scare away predators. We are working on developing an automated pen for use by owners of hobby goats and sheep.

Are my pets in danger and how can I protect them? If your property backs onto or is within mountain lion habitat, then, unless large and ferocious, your pets may well be seen as prey. It is best to keep them safely enclosed at night and also to keep your gardens free of natural prey like deer. When out hiking with dogs, make sure that they stay with you and don’t wander off chasing wildlife. Mountain lions will feed on cats if they come across them.

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS

What do mountain lions eat? Mountain lions are carnivores and have a broad diet, eating most animals they can catch, including other carnivores. They will eat things ranging in size from insects, amphibians and small rodents to elk or even wild horses. However, black-tailed deer would likely make up the highest proportion of food consumed in northern California. We are conducting a detailed mountain lion diet study so will be able to provide further insight into the diet of our cats over the next few years.

How do mountain lions hunt? Mountain lions are ambush hunters. They tend to wait in a good, hidden location for their prey to go past and then stalk it and pounce when they are close. In winter in snowy areas they are also able to track deer and other prey.

STUDYING MOUNTAIN LIONS

Where can I buy a remote camera trap (critter cam or trail cam)? Contact us if you’d like to buy a camera trap – we can advise you on what type will work for your situation, where to put it up and let you know how you can join us by contributing to our work and becoming citizen scientists.

How do you collar your mountain lions?

6 In order to collar a mountain lion, we have to capture it or immobilize it from a distance. Captures will typically be made using wire cage traps whereby we can safely sedate the cat, and then release it at the same location after placing a satellite GPS collar around the neck. The trapping methods used will minimize stress of the animal and great care is taken to ensure absolute safety for the animal when conducting this procedure. During the 45 minutes or so that the cat is sedated, we are given the opportunity to collect valuable data on the animal such as sex, reproductive status, body condition, weight, parasites and tissue samples for DNA analyses.

Do the collars hurt the mountain lions and do the collars stay on for the mountain lions for the rest of their lives? No. This is something that scientists are very concerned about and great care is taken to note any possible adverse effects of collaring. We have seen that the collars we use have no significant or long-lasting effect on the lives of the cats. Every effort is made to remove or recover the collar once the battery dies or the study comes to an end. This can be done by using mechanical or electronic drop-off devices (our are set for 14 months) and failing that, recapturing the animal to remove it.

MOUNTAIN LION MANAGEMENT, THREATS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ENVIROENENT

What is the history of mountain lion legislation in California? From 1907 to 1963 there was a bounty on mountain lions in California. In that time the state paid out $389,345 for the killing of 12,461 lions. Margaret Owings headed up the group who worked on having the legislation changed to protect mountain lions. After the bounty was dropped mountain lions were classified as unprotected mammals and could be hunted unrestricted. In 1969 they were reclassified as game animals with a regulated lion-hunting season. Through Owings’ efforts, this only lasted two years before a moratorium was put in place, which was renewed throughout the 70’s and into the 80’s. In 1985 Fish and Game prepared to open a mountain lion hunting season, however this had strong opposition and was postponed. A massive public campaign ensued and in 1990, voters, for the first time in the USA, passed the California Wildlife Protection Act, in which sport hunting of mountain lions was prohibited. It is still legal to obtain permits to kill mountain lions where livestock/pets or people have been attacked or threatened.

What are the main threats to mountain lions? Humans; loss of habitat through development; human-induced barriers to dispersal (including development, roads/freeways and certain types of farmlands). Human-related threats include direct and indirect causes. Sport hunting; livestock and pet threat related killing; accidental trapping Vehicle collisions are common causes of death, particularly in dispersal animals. Accidental trapping and poisoning, secondary poisoning (through rodenticides, etc); diseases from domestic animals. Small, isolated populations (hemmed in through urbanization) or frequently disrupted populations (due to hunting and killing) can have effects on reproductive rates/success, on genetic variability and on social systems.

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In terms of natural causes of death, fighting with other mountain lions is probably the highest threat, particularly for males who will kill each other or sub-adult males for territorial reasons, or kill kittens if they take over a vacant or new territory. Where wolves are present they have also been known to kill mountain lions. Other threats include injuries incurred while they were hunting and starvation.

How can humans help reduce the effects of development and urbanization? Having a detailed understanding of mountain lion movement is key to finding sustainable ways of sharing our landscape with them. One method that has been used successfully in several places is to build wildlife underpasses or overpasses that give a safe way for animals to cross roads, particularly highways. These need to be built in suitable places that are natural corridors.

What is a keystone species? A keystone species is a species that plays such a key role in maintaining the structure of an ecosystem that if you removed it, the impact would be such that the system would change, affecting the presence or abundance of other species, both animal and plant, and potentially also affecting the physical landscape. Top predators, such as mountain lions, are one type of keystone species.

What role do mountain lions play in their environment? / Why are mountain lions important? Apart from being beautiful, enigmatic creatures that epitomize wilderness, they are also the top predators in California. By protecting them we inadvertently and actively protect the ecosystem in which they live.

Top predators, such as mountain lions, are keystone species, as they maintain both prey numbers and a ‘landscape of fear’ where prey species, such as deer, utilize the landscape in specific ways in order to stay as safe as possible. The reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park is a classic example demonstrating the impact of a top predator in an amazing variety of ways, to the extent that even the rivers changed!

It is not only herbivores that may change their habitat use, but smaller predators (or meso-predators) as well. Where top predators are exterminated or endangered, smaller predators such as coyotes and bobcats and foxes may be able to start using areas or times of day that they would have previously avoided out of fear of mountain lions. This loss of a top predator can result in what is known as a ‘meso- predator release’, where populations of smaller predators increase. This could have a dramatic effect on other species or animal or plant.

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