Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

GUIDEBOOK

The Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach as an Innovation to Existing ICZM Frameworks

Editors

M.D. Fortes and K. Nadaoka

Principal Contributors

Ariel Blanco Kazuo Nadaoka Wilfredo Campos Masahiro Nakaoka Miguel D. Fortes Homer Pagkalinawan Bryan Clark Hernandez Maria Lourdes SD- McGlone Eugene Herrera Wilfredo H. Uy Kentaro Iwai Takahiro Yamamoto Chunlan Lian Masaya Yoshikai Toshihiro Miyajima

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This GUIDEBOOK was completed with the valuable encouragement and support from a wide range of government and private agencies, academic institutions, programs and projects, NGOs, POs and individuals, all of which or whom are committed to the environmental and social sustainability of Philippine and Asia-Pacific coasts. They include, but are not limited to, the following:

Funding agencies Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA, Manila and Tokyo Offices) Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST, Singapore and Tokyo Offices) Commission on Higher Education (CHED) of the Republic of the Philippines Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS)

Academic Partner Institutions In Japan: Tokyo Institute of Technology Hokkaido University Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology Kochi University LEAD-Japan Asia Pacific Initiative, Tokyo, Japan. Nagasaki University Port and Airport Research Institute The University of Tokyo University of the Ryukyus In the Philippines: University of the Philippines Diliman Mindanao State University Naawan University of the Philippines Visayas

Government and Private Partner Agencies Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Agriculture (DA-BFAR) Biodiversity Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (BMB-DENR) Laguna Lake Development Authority of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (LLDA-DENR) National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) Local Government Units of Pangasinan (Bolinao, Alaminos, Anda, Bani), Laguna, Puerto Galera (Oriental Mindoro), Malay (Aklan), Guimaras, Banate (Iloilo), Laguindingan (Misamis Oriental), Lopez Jaena (Misamis Occidental) Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry – Boracay Chapter (PCCI-Boracay)

Special individuals for their support and inspiration …our Research Assistants and friends in the field whose reliability and consistent help have made the chore so much less tiring and whose intelligent inquiry, more inspiring.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... 3 Chapter 1 Introduction...... 7 Target readers, purpose and structure of this guidebook ...... 7 References ...... 8 Chapter 2 The coastal environment of the Philippines ...... 9 Status of coastal ecosystems in the Philippines: how ‘endangered’ are they? ...... 11 How ‘endangered’ are the Philippine coastal ecosystems? ...... 18 References ...... 23 Chapter 3 The CECAM Approach: Transforming the ‘failures’ into successes . 27 Integrated science-based management...... 27 Establishment of effective MPA network for conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem functions ...... 48 Proper risk assessment with damage potential mapping ...... 51 The CECAM approach as an innovation of existing ICZM frameworks ...... 59 References ...... 61 Chapter 4 Case Studies: The core of the CECAM Approach to ICZM ...... 62 Overview of the design of activities at the project sites ...... 62 Case Studies: How CECAM addresses site-specific issues ...... 65 Bolinao, Pangasinan ...... 65 Laguna Lake, Metro Manila ...... 81 Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro ...... 99 Boracay, Malay, Aklan ...... 113 Banate, Iloilo ...... 135 Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental ...... 152 References ...... 164 Chapter 5 Conclusion and General Recommendations ...... 169 Conclusion and Lessons Learned ...... 169 General recommendations ...... 170 References ...... 170 Annexes ...... 171 I. Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) Guideline ...... 171 II. IDSS Guideline ...... 203 III. MPA Guideline...... 224 Acronyms...... 237 Glossary of Key Terms ...... 238

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Executive Summary

The coastal ecosystems of the Philippines (e.g. seagrass beds, mangroves and coral reefs) are at high risk of further degradation if not of being completely lost in the next three decades. This grim scenario is an offshoot of the current conditions reflected in the following statements, which summarize the gist of the guidebook. They are the compelling reasons that justify the conceptualization and implementation of the CECAM Project.

1. The overall condition of the Philippine coastal environment is POOR to FAIR. The seas surrounding the study sites of CECAM are microcosms reflecting these conditions. Compared with the marine waters of other neighboring countries in Southeast Asia, the Philippine territorial seas are considered as being in poor-to-fair condition. The coastal environment, however, is largely in the ‘poor’ category; many habitats closest to pollution hotspots are even considered beyond recovery. This is a testament to the extreme pressures of the recent past and the present decades, combined with relatively poor conservation and management of high-priority and emerging issues in the last 20 years.

2. Philippine marine science and its usefulness in the sustainable development of coastal resources and institutions are not well suited to the local actual conditions and needs. This is also reflected at the project sites of CECAM. Two of the most significant driving forces which are placing lives of coastal communities and nature’s balance at great risk are: Global warming and resource depletion. While national and local laws exist, these are not or incompletely enforced. On the other hand, while science has shown significant signs of improvement in terms of funding, priorities still remain misguided. What is needed is a better and proper understanding and sustainable use of the environment and its resources, using science within the purview of a social-ecological system, as the base.

3. Philippine decision makers and scientists have an incomplete understanding of why (and especially how) we should sustain our coastal ecosystems particularly seagrass and mangroves. These individuals of authority have a meager understanding that altering these ecosystems alters the peoples’ very own lives and evolutionary future. While conservation initiatives are not wanting, these are undertaken superficially and mainly for economic ends, not to sustain the ecological goods and services of ecosystems from which the benefits are derived.

4. What is needed is a strong effective adoption of Ecosystem Based Management through promotion and application of the CECAM Approach. Ecosystem Based Management (EBM) is ‘…a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. It is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems’ (CBD 2004). The CECAM Approach so far has demonstrated results that closely approximate success

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along the tenets of the EBM to coastal resource conservation and management in the Philippines.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management) provides an appropriate framework for incorporation of protected areas into a larger system of protection and a method of consensus building for their support (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998). Major works on Marine Protected Areas or MPAs (both coastal and oceanic) have pointed out the importance of external factors linking the MPA to surrounding areas (the outside perspective). Managing a marine protected area in isolation from surrounding land uses and peoples, and without wide cooperation from agencies, stakeholders, and polluters, etc. may not fully succeed. The reason is that protected areas alienated from a wider program of coastal resources management exist as ‘‘islands of protection’’ surrounded by uncontrolled areas of threat where pollution, habitat destruction and overfishing may exist (CBD 2004). The CECAM Approach to ICZM is a means to address these concerns.

CECAM (Integrated Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management Under Local and Global Impacts in the Philippines) is a collaborative research undertaking between Japan and the Philippines (2010-2015). It is under the “Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS)” established jointly by JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) and JST (Japan Science and Technology Agency) to promote international joint research, targeting global issues through partnerships between researchers in Japan and those in developing countries.

The ultimate goal of CECAM is enhancing “community resilience”, or the sustained capacity of coastal communities to utilize available resources in order to respond to, endure, and recover from adverse conditions (hence, adapt to these conditions). This is achieved through development of the scientific and socio-economic knowledge base in building the capacity of stakeholders for coastal ecosystem conservation and adaptive management. Its objectives include site-based: (1) investigation of multiple environmental stress propagation in tropical coastal ecosystems based on analyses of material cycle dynamics in a land-ocean integrated zone; (2) investigation of biodiversity, functions and maintenance mechanism of tropical coastal ecosystems and their response to multiple environmental stresses; (3) comprehensive assessment and prediction of multiple environmental stresses and ecosystem response primarily based on the outputs of site-based Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS), and an Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS); and (4) establishment of adaptation schemes for tropical coastal ecosystems and users of their resources under multiple environmental stress conditions. The investigations are focused on addressing site-based impacts of eutrophication, siltation, coastal erosion/accretion, coastal ecosystem degradation, and global warming and climate change. Target readers, purpose and structure of this guidebook

The primary target readers of this guidebook include the policy makers (Local Government Units or LGUs, and central government sectors dealing with the sustainability of the coasts), communities, Non-Government Organizations or NGOs, peoples’ organizations or POs, and the academe (researchers and graduate students). Hence the purpose of this guidebook revolves around:

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 Supporting policy making for a science-based and sustainable coastal ecosystem conservation and adaptive management;  Promoting best practices on the part of local stakeholders for sustainable coastal resource conservation and management;  Providing a reference textbook with step-by-step procedures for local stakeholders to achieve sustainable coastal ecosystem conservation and adaptive management; and  Disseminating CECAM outputs, complimenting other related references on tropical coastal ecosystem conservation and resources management.

To facilitate understanding and ease in use, this guidebook is structured in such a way as to follow a free flow of thought from an introduction section (Chapter 1), which gives a brief of the CECAM project under whose auspices the book is written, its purpose, and how it compliments other related guidebooks. It then proceeds to describe the general coastal environmental setting (status and threats) and the drivers of coastal change, which triggers the urgency to undertake a ‘different’ approach to coastal conservation and management, answering the basic questions, how ‘endangered’ coastal ecosystems are in the Philippines and why are they continuously being degraded and destroyed? (Chapter 2). It continues to describe the main subject of the guidebook –the CECAM Approach- and how it transforms ‘failures’ in previous local conservation and management efforts into successes, offering more effective measures, which reflect ‘transdisciplinary’ contributions from the following thematic components of CECAM (Geochemistry, Hydrodynamics and Hydrology, Marine Ecology and Genetics, Modeling, GIS, and Socioeconomics) (Chapter3). Transdisciplinary is the highest level of integration where both the scientists and the stakeholders strive to understand the complexities of the whole project, rather one part of it. Finally, the last sections summarize the arguments regarding the innovations effected by the CECAM Approach to enhance current coastal resources and management efforts not just in the Philippines but also in the Southeast Asian region. The guidebook closes with case studies (Chapter 4) to facilitate ease in the understanding of the site-specific scientific and technical methods used by CECAM in addressing local issues and familiarize the readers of the site conditions where the activities were undertaken. The last chapter (Chapter 5) gives a brief summary of the project findings, lessons learned from them, and recommendations to guide future actions of coastal resources conservation and management practitioners. For a fuller understanding of the studies, guidelines on CCMS, IDSS and MPA are included as Annexes. List of Acronyms and a Glossary of Key Terms are also included to familiarize the readers with the meaning of main words and concepts used in the guidebook.

References

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). 2004. Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM) Approaches for Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity. CBD Technical Papers 14. CBD, Montreal. Available at http://www.biodiv.org/doc/publi- cations/cbd-ts-14.pdf.

Cicin-Sain, B. and Knecht, R.W. 1998. Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and Practices. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 8 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Chapter 2 The coastal environment of the Philippines

An archipelagic and maritime nation, the Philippines (130 00’ N, 122000’ E) is composed of 7,107 islands fringed by 36,289 km coastline. It is located in Southeast Asia, favorably located in relation to many of the region’s main water bodies: the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Western Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Luzon Strait. It has a total area of 300,000 sq. km (land: 298,170 sq. km; water: 1,830 sq. km). It has a territorial sea, which is an irregular polygon extending up to 100 nautical miles (nm) from coastline as defined by the 1898 Treaty of Paris. Since the late 1970’s, it has also claimed a polygonal-shaped area in the South China Sea up to 285 nm in breadth. Its exclusive economic zone is 200 nm with its continental shelf to a depth of exploitation. The prevailing climate is tropical marine, with the northeast monsoon from November to April and the southwest monsoon from May to October.

The focus of CECAM activities in the Philippines is the coastal zones of six selected representative sites: Bolinao (Pangasinan), Puerto Galera (Oriental Mindoro), Boracay Island (Aklan), Banate (Iloilo), and Laguindingan (Misamis Oriental). Laguna Lake in Metro Manila is also included. The coastal zone is the interface where the land meets the ocean, encompassing river deltas, coastal plains, wetlands, beaches, dunes, seagrass beds, reefs, mangrove forests, lagoons and other coastal features. The limits of the coastal zone are often arbitrary, differing widely among nations, and are often based on jurisdictional limits or demarcated by reasons of administrative ease. For practical planning purposes, the coastal zone is a special area, endowed with special characteristics, whose boundaries are often determined by the specific problems to be tackled or by the limits of the capacity of local governments to manage the resource.

The major driving forces typically exogenous to the decision-making process at the local level include: institutions (e.g. property rights), prices and markets, technology development, ecosystem characteristics, global environmental change, some ecosystem characteristics (e.g., water conditions, trophic structure). Endogenous factors, on the other hand, include: changes in local water and land use and land cover, some ecosystem characteristics (e.g., water nutrient levels), species introductions and removals, technology adaptation and use (e.g. reforestation technology, fish cage cultures), and external inputs (e.g., fertilizer use, pest control, fish feeds). Drivers can interact with each other in different combinations, and these interactions can vary over time.

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Fig. 2.1 Map of the Philippines showing the combined risk to disasters (See sources inset)

As a whole the health of the coastal ecosystems in the Philippines (e.g. coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves) is poor. This condition is for the most part an outcome of the similarly poor condition of its waters and surrounding forests, resulting primarily from unsound development practices of a poor and rapidly industrializing country. Over the course of the 20th century, a major source of pollution has been untreated domestic and industrial wastewater discharged into rivers, which drain into the seas (ADB 2007). 822 out of 1,502 municipalities in the Philippines are coastal, with 429 fishing and 821 commercial ports (www.census.gov.ph), in addition to numerous coastal development facilities which, together, have caused eutrophication of marine waters. Interestingly, of 117 territories included in the Ocean Health Index (OHI), the Philippines came in as the 105th, scoring 51 (Halpern et al. 2012) in 2012 and 59 in 2014 10 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

([email protected]). The OHI is a new system developed to continually monitor the health of the world’s oceans. OHI indicators describe ocean health according to how people benefit from and affect the marine ecosystems in insular Philippines where six out of 10 Filipinos reside along the coast, only 10 kilograms of fish are available for every Filipino yearly—a steep drop from 28.5 kg in 2003. Living in poverty, a large percentage of the coastal population derives basic needs from these coastal resources. With or without conservation they will use this environment in order to survive.

Status of coastal ecosystems in the Philippines: how ‘endangered’ are they?

This section gives the status and problems the three major coastal ecosystems in the Philippines have been confronted with for the last 150 years. These three ecosystems are seagrass beds, mangroves, and coral reefs. The causes of their decline are given, justifying the urgent need for their conservation in the face of environmental and societal uncertainties.

Seagrass beds

Seagrass bed distribution in the Philippines

Seagrass bed is a discrete community dominated by flowering plants with roots and rhizomes (underground stems), thriving in slightly reducing sediments and normally exhibiting maximum biomass under conditions of complete submergence (Fortes 1995). Their unique ecological function provides an immeasurable amount of benefits to coastal dwellers. Unknown to these communities, the contribution of seagrass meadows to the high biodiversity in these areas plus their ability to supply a great deal of revenues from the resources account for much of their daily incomes and benefits. Seagrasses are home to many economically important marine organisms, including shrimps, sea urchins, clams, various fish species, and endangered animals like sea turtles and the enigmatic dugong, some 95% of whose diet is seagrasses. All these make the conservation, rehabilitation, and persistent scientific research on seagrass habitats a high priority in the coastal action agenda of governments in Southeast Asia.

For decades, the main interests of marine scientists of Southeast Asia focused almost solely on the corals, seaweeds, animals, or fish that either live in coastal habitats or are associated with them (Fortes 1995). On the other hand, the traditional orientation of the region's marine science has been to view the ocean as a deep-water mass, neglecting the shallow coastal fringes where seagrasses abound. Investigators with the interest on seagrass research are few and priorities for research and developmental activities are usually directed towards other resources with immediate economic impacts. Ironically, in Southeast Asia where the second highest seagrass diversity in the world is found, seagrass ecosystem has been a focus of scientific inquiry only in the last 30 years and, as an object of natural resource management, only in the last 12 years!

Figure 2.2 shows the current distribution of seagrasses in the Philippines (Fortes 2013). A total of 27,282 sq. km. seagrass area exists in the country, but this figure is incomplete, more than half of the total area remains to be ground-truthed. Satellite

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imageries from remote sensing, complemented by perception surveys with the help of local stakeholders are being undertaken to complete the study by 2015.

Fig. 2.2 Current distribution of seagrass beds in the Philippines (Fortes 2013) In relation to seagrass conservation and management in the Philippines, it is interesting to note that the ecosystem has been considered only very recently as a resource in need of protection. Its status as such is yet largely unknown (Fortes 2008, 2013). Its management, however, is recognized as a key to coastal conservation in the region (Fortes 1991, 1995). This effort, nevertheless, should be science-based (Fortes 2010a, 2010b). Coles and Fortes (2001) reported the approaches and methods to protect seagrass. In the last 50 years, a mix of research works appeared, presenting various methods on conservation, rehabilitation and management of the seagrass habitats in the country, together with the organisms associated with them.

This impetus resulted into a rapidly increasing importance of integrated studies, including analysis along nutrient gradients, genetic markers as a means to understand their phylogeography (or the historical processes that may be responsible for the present geographic distributions of individuals or species) in the region (Matsuki et al. 2012, Nakajima et al. 2012). Focus on interconnectivity among coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves gained prominence with the findings that the inherent ecological relationships among these habitats are crucial to their conservation. Partly in these studies, the meadows’ distinct role in providing a stable foundation for all marine ecosystems emerged. More recently, its unique role came at the forefront in global 12 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

environmental awareness due largely to their effectiveness as a blue carbon (clean carbon from marine plants) source in mitigating the impacts of climate change (UNEP/IUCN 2009). The shifting needs of the times, aggravated principally by an alarming reduction and loss in resources resulting from a decline in coastal water quality and degradation of the environment, dictated a corresponding shift in seagrass research focus from basic to its applications, from purely scientific initiatives to those that now require support and collaboration from social and behavioral sciences (Fortes 2012).

From then on, this new research thrust on seagrasses was and is being pursued, sustained by numerous funding agencies and institutions. Foremost among them is the CECAM Project, a Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)-Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) collaborative research initiative being implemented in the Philippines (2010-2015). This guidebook is a major output of CECAM, being produced largely as a means to influence users to adopt an innovative approach in coastal ecosystem conservation and management.

Seagrass decline in the Philippines: The issues

Eutrophication is a major long-term threat to seagrass ecosystems in the Philippines (Fortes 2001, Holmer et al. 2002). This condition results from waste waters drained into the coasts from industrial, commercial and domestic facilities, inadequate septic systems, boat discharge of human and fish wastes, and storm drain run-off carrying organic waste and fertilizers. Its direct impact is the enhancement of growth in many plant forms resulting in reduction of light. In addition, the growth of Philippine coastal tourism market is one of the most rapid in the region. Together, these degradation factors put a significant portion of the coastal habitats of the country at high risk of being lost in the near future. No wonder, about half of its coastal resources have either been lost or are severely degraded (Fortes et al. 1994) and the rate of degradation is rapidly increasing. Hence, for the first time in decades, a seagrass (Halophila becarrii) has been included in the IUCN Red List as a locally threatened species (Short et al. 2011).

Since 1990, the coastal environmental problems perceived as exerting the most severe impact on the seagrass ecosystems in the Philippines have remained basically the same, the only significant difference from the current and long term condition is the degree some of these have been intensified (e.g. sewage pollution, siltation/sedimentation, agricultural pollution, sea level rise) (Fortes 2013).

The major obstacles to solving the environmental problems and issues with regards to the seagrasses in the Philippines are given below. They are directly or indirectly related to the improper or non-use of scientific knowledge that has been generated, coupled with the small importance (hence, support) governments in the region give to seagrasses. Addressing them effectively would substantially reverse the trend in seagrass ecosystem degradation in the country:

1. Lack of trained seagrass researchers – Scientists principally from only four Philippine institutions produce half of the production of scientific papers on seagrasses in 13 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

primary literature in the country; 2. Limited scope of work – Most of the studies are focused only on 10% of the seagrass flora and from only two biogeographic areas of the country. The works are largely descriptive, and published works are largely qualitative and not synthetic, hence, with low predictive value useful to resource management; 3. There are gaps in basic knowledge – Meager information exists on the extent, status, and uses of seagrass beds that are affected by eutrophication, sedimentation, pollution, unsustainable fishing practices and climate change; 4. Lack of appreciation of seagrasses – The importance of seagrasses and of managing these resources is generally academic and peripheral; 5. Limited and uncoordinated research – Coordination in the country’s seagrass research is extremely limited and fragmented; 6. Misguided management efforts – These have remained focused mainly on identifying the problems and planning remedial or curative, not preventive measures; therefore, not actually solving the problems that the seagrass ecosystem and coastal environments face; 7. Lack of implementation of laws – Simple rules and regulations protecting the coastal environment and resources are violated and/or not implemented. Marine policy in many municipalities remain unenforced for various reasons; 8. Lack of effective linkages – This is especially between marine science institutions (scientific production) and the productive sector (application); and 9. Non-consideration of the social and cultural dimensions – The sociocultural aspect of the problems seagrass studies are facing is either not yet studied or not perceived as an integral part of the process.

Mangroves

Mangrove distribution in the Philippines

Among the major coastal ecosystems that line the long coastlines of the Philippines are the mangroves, which occupy a highly strategic position in the economy and ecology of the coastal areas in the country. The largest remaining mangrove areas are located in Palawan and Quezon in Luzon, Samar provinces in the Visayas, and Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay, Surigao del Norte and Sulu provinces in Mindanao (Fig. 2.3). However, less than 5% of existing areas in old or primary growth forests are found in Palawan. Most mangrove forests in the Luzon and Visayas islands are secondary growth or in plantations. Mangroves have been of much lower quality and cover less than one- third of their original range (UNEP 2008).

Based on the satellite pictures interpreted by the NAMRIA, which had been used as the statistics for mangroves in the Philippines, the reported total mangrove areas are 248,813 hectares in 2003 (UNEP 2008). The major regions where substantial mangrove areas are found are presented in Table 2.1:

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Fig. 2.3 Mangrove distribution in the Philippines (Long and Giri 2011)

Table 2.1 Regions and provinces with the largest mangrove areas (ha) in the Philippines (After UNEP 2008)

Region Total Province in region Total mangrove with largest mangrove area area in mangrove area in province region Southwestern Luzon 58,032 Palawan 54,143 Autonomous Region of 46,218 Sulu 24,701 Muslim Mindanao Eastern Visayas 39,294 Samar 16,337 Northeastern Mindanao 26,731 Surigao del Norte 16,823 (CARAGA) Western Mindanao 22,328 Zamboanga del Sur 11,681

With the foregoing result of analysis of the satellite pictures, the DENR is presently validating the reported mangrove stands in all the 64 coastal provinces of the Philippines. Latest records reveal there are provinces especially in the coasts facing the South China Sea which were not detected, hence, shown in the satellite imagery, but ground validation shows there are small patches of mangrove stands in such provinces. These are the provinces of Ilocos Norte, Zambales, Bataan, Pampanga and Bulacan, all in Luzon. The reported 248,813 ha in 2003 can increase the previous records, when the ground validation is completed. Moreover, the mangrove statistics after 1988 were projections which had been showed constant decrease due to destruction and on the conversion of

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some areas to other uses, especially for prawn/fishpond purposes and for charcoal and fuel wood production.

From 1989 to the present, there had been an increased plantation establishment of mangroves in the country. There were international supports for reforestation projects (e.g. ADB, JBIC, USAID, WB), other banking institutions, non-government organizations, academe, peoples’ organizations and individuals who had contributed much to the increase in mangrove forests nationwide. One documented accomplishment of coastal communities is what had been initiated by an old man in Banacon Island, Getafe, Bohol (Central Philippines). He started planting in small patches in 1957, which was followed by his neighbors when they observed the good effect in increasing fisheries production in their area. That small island of Banacon which is about 15 ha of land area has now man-made mangrove forests of about 500 ha. That old man, because of his initiation to start mangrove reforestation in that small island, received some awards, one of which he received from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN in Bangkok in the mid-90s. The same mangrove area is now a showcase where interested organizations, fisher folk and individuals often frequent to see for themselves the successful contribution of an individual who led his neighbors to improve the mangrove ecosystem in a small fishing village.

Environmental issues confronting Philippine mangroves

Since the early 1900’s to the present, mangrove areas in the Philippines continue to decline (Long and Giri 2011). The major causes, which persist till the present include fishpond development, charcoal production, reclamation, industrial conversion and pollution. At this point in time, faced with the reality of ever-shrinking resources, there is a need to prioritize the issues. An initial step in the process is to review and harmonize existing policies and, if needed, establish new ones that identify sustainable management as the overall framework across all sectors towards integrated ecosystem management approach. Because coastal ecosystems are embedded in nature and primarily governed or controlled by society, policy goals must dictate that mangroves be managed adopting a social-ecological system (SES) approach, where humans are considered a part of nature and the two interact to complement each other towards sustainability. Hence, the socio-economic aspects should be incorporated, giving priority particularly to any developmental programs needed by the coastal inhabitants. Together with the results of the economic valuation of mangroves in some areas, it would be necessary to build on local people’s awareness of mangrove conservation. The coastal communities should play active involvement in stewardship agreements, which could be a basis for their issuance to them.

In a transdisciplinary mode, the ecological aspect should be integrated with those from the socioeconomics. These would include using mangrove resources based on their sustainable limits. In their management, the underlying philosophy is the prevention of degradation rather than restoration. Coupled with these should be more realistic economic valuation of mangrove ecosystem goods and services. Quality research on mangrove ecosystem should be emphasized as the base of most sustainable practices, the scientific information and data to include studies of human habitation and traditional uses of mangrove ecosystem in order to evaluate actual and potential use of the resources from both the natural and social science perspectives. 16 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Coral reefs

Coral reef distribution in the Philippines

One of the highly threatened areas in the Philippines, coral reefs cover an estimated area of 27,000 sq km with over 70% in poor or fair quality and quantity of coral cover, with only 5% are in excellent condition (Gomez et al 1994). The reefs contribute from 8- 20% to about 70% for some island reefs to the total fishery production (Aliño et al. 2004). About 1 million small fishers or about 62% of the population living along coastal areas are directly dependent on reefs for their livelihood (Barut et al. 2004).

Coral reef decline

Overall, Philippine reefs exhibit a declining trend (Wilkinson 2002). Nañola et al. (2004) gives the latest documented status of coral reefs in the Philippines in terms of their cover categories (Fig. 2.4). In agreement with the findings of Gomez et al. (1994), most of the coral reef areas in the six Biogeographic Regions of the country have declined, with the exception of those from the Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea. However, one reason why this is so, is that assessments of the reefs in these sites are very limited. In 2007, Reef Check, the world's largest reef conservation organization, stated that only 5% of the Philippines’ 27,000 square kilometers (10,000 sq mi) of coral reef are in "excellent condition"; the rest are either fair, poor, or highly deteriorated condition. Coral reefs in the Philippines, however, may be in a steady state of decline (from 5% to 3% to >1%), Often interacting with one another to aggravate the situation, the most serious direct threats are overfishing, destructive fishing practices, and sedimentation or terrestrial runoff (Fabricius 2005, 2011). Other threats include coastal development, population pressures, tourism-related activities, pollution, and crown-of-thorns starfish infestations. Overfishing and destructive fishing are the most severe threats to coral reef health. Over 80 percent of Philippine reefs are threatened by overfishing. Mapping of areas at risk from blast fishing and fishing using poisons suggests that, despite existing laws banning them since 1970, over 70 percent of Philippine reefs continue to be at risk from these practices. Rampant blast fishing and sedimentation from land-based sources have destroyed 70 percent of fisheries within 15 square kilometers of the shore in the Philippines (Palma et al. 2010). In these nearshore areas legally defined largely as ‘municipal waters’, some of the most productive habitats in the country are found. Although increased enforcement, larger penalties, and educational campaigns slowed the damage in the 1990s, many fishers have brought destructive practices to new areas. Reports indicate that many operations have shifted to more remote, pristine areas such as the Palawan group of islands, the Sulu Archipelago, parts of the Visayas, and western Mindanao (Palma et al. 2010). In addition, coastal development pressures threaten over 40 percent of Philippine reefs, and about 35 percent of reefs are under pressure from sedimentation and pollution associated with land-use changes. When the various threats from human activities are combined, the model estimates that 98 percent of Philippine reefs are at risk from human activities, with 70 percent at high or very high risk (Nañola et al. 2004).

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Fig. 2.4 Distribution of coral reefs and their cover categories (Redrawn from Nañola et al. 2004)

Rise in water temperature resulting from global warming and climate variability has contributed to the demise of the coral reefs in the Philippines (Gurney et al. 2013). The first ever mass-bleaching event in the country was reported in 1998-99. It began at Batangas, off Luzon, in June 1998 and then proceeded nearly clockwise around the Philippines, correlating with anomalous sea-surface temperatures. Most reefs of northern Luzon, west Palawan, the Visayas, and parts of Mindanao were affected. Subsequent mortalities were highly variable, with decreases in live coral cover ranging from 0.7 to 46 percent and up to 80 percent in Bolinao. (Alino et al., unpublished report). By the 2030s, 90% of the world’s reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change; by 2050, all coral reefs will be in danger (WRI 2011, Kleypas et al. 2006)

How ‘endangered’ are the Philippine coastal ecosystems?

How ‘endangered’ are the coastal ecosystems in the Philippines? With the current impetus of the National Government towards industrial and urban development that is not coupled with a serious and sustained effort to focus more on the natural base of this

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development action (the environment), the remaining areas of seagrass, mangroves, and coral reefs, are expected to decline substantially in the next few decades. Both government and private sectors concerned have not been remiss in their responsibilities, but their on-the-ground actions and actual allotment of resources to environmental imperatives leave much to be desired. Hence, the little hope for ecosystem recovery and resilience from initiatives that reverse the trend could easily be overshadowed by the magnitude and intensity of negative impacts from coastal development, agriculture, aquaculture, land-cover change –and the little understood impacts of climate variability- which threaten the health and integrity of the entire coastal regime.

What are the gaps between conservation efforts and actual status of coastal ecosystems? Why do coastal ecosystems in the Philippines continue to deteriorate?

The literature is replete with accounts on the ‘successes’ of marine conservation and management efforts in the Philippines. This is the primary justification for the substantial increase (59%) in the number of MPAs in Southeast Asia in 2000-2010 (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC 2011). Noteworthy is the birth of the MPA Support Network (MSN) and subsequent motivating mechanisms through the biennial “Para el MAR” (literally, ‘for the sea’, MAR to mean MPA Awards and Recognition). This initiative documents best practices done by the country’s Marine Protected Areas (MPA). Indeed the few finalists since 2009 demonstrated potentials to help the Philippines transit into a blue economy (Aliño 2013). The question remains, however: Why do Philippine coastal ecosystems continue to deteriorate, despite the preponderance of laws, policies, incentives, international conventions (to which the Philippines is a signatory), accumulated knowledge and ‘best practices’? It is clear that the answer lies not just within the MPA or ICZM itself but also far beyond them. In order to address this challenge, CECAM has been formulated and implemented. Primarily, it provides newer perspectives and effective practices that enhance and innovate current programs and policies that guide the development of MPA and ICZM frameworks in the Philippines. CECAM emphasizes the fact that in the final analysis, the root cause of the persistent degradation of coastal ecosystems in the Philippines lies in the following interrelated ‘failures’: Information failure, Intervention failure, and Market failure.

1. Information failure, or the low public appreciation of the biophysical basis and basic importance of ecosystems arising from inadequate and ineffective promotion and advocacy

In the majority of the CECAM project sites, basic informational obstacles were significant in preventing co-ordination between science and policymakers, and between different sectors at the beginning of project activities. With the exception of the easily observable goods (e.g. fishes, seaweeds, edible invertebrates) and services (storm buffer, tourism) coastal ecosystems provide, the basic biophysical basis of why and how these goods and services operate are missing in the psyche and educational background of most coastal dwellers, especially the younger ones. In some cases, a democratic deficit provided little opportunity in decision making for public comment or local accountability, especially where vested interests which conflict with their mandated public service responsibilities are involved. Under the

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auspices of CECAM, early Training Needs Analysis was undertaken which pinpointed what stakeholders needed on a priority basis. The outcomes led to the hiolding, both on- and off-site, of regular affective and issue-oriented consultations, symposia, workshops, focused group discussions, and training courses. In addition, general and site-based brochures and posters were produced, sometimes in the vernacular, which enhanced understanding and appreciation of the issues and benefits of science-LGU-community collaboration in conservation and resource management and use.

It is interesting to note that in the CECAM sites, local coastal practitioners including the LGUs have not clearly and specifically defined the objectives of their MPAs, restoration projects, and ecotourism they all want to develop vis-à-vis conservation and management of their coastal ecosystems and resources. Their general perception still leans towards conservation for economic gains, not maintenance of the goods and services of the ecosystems upon which local economies largely depend.

Part of the factors leading to information failure is the lack of useful and effective framework and tools for supporting proper policy making, especially at level where the inputs (data and information) from scientific studies are needed and in disseminating these information and soliciting ideas and feedbacks from stakeholders. The framework that is critically needed should address the flow of data and information from personnel, stakeholders and decision makers. However, this flow will be hampered with the lack of capacity to gather and process necessary data. Moreover, it is essential to be able to generate and evaluate scenarios of development, environmental conditions, impacts, and interventions. Without tools capable of simulating various processes and their complex interactions, provision of useful information for policy making, development planning, and formulation of interventions to address environment is difficult. The tools should be capable of supporting collaborative planning and decision making. This will make these processes more transparent and participatory, potentially leading to greater understanding of the environmental issues being addressed and promoting increased participation by various stakeholders. This is addressed by CECAM with the deployment of CCMS, GIS, and IDSS at various project sites.

2. Intervention failure, or resources and efforts focus on biased and peripheral, not the root, causes of the problems.

For providing effective and useful scientific information and knowledge to solve actual problems on coastal ecosystem conservation, the information and knowledge should be based on various areas of expertise. And they should not be a simple assembly of various information and knowledge; instead they should be well organized and integrated each other. Besides, the integration should be made also on spatial aspect, because a coastal ecosystem is linked with adjacent systems in terms of physical and bio-geochemical processes. Moreover a coastal ecosystem has inter- connectivity among coral reef, seagrass bed, mangroves and others, and connectivity with even distant coastal ecosystems (reef connectivity). On the other hand, the environmental stresses affecting on the coastal ecosystem should be examined for

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various sources from all the surrounding systems. For example the terrestrial system as one of source areas includes not only the adjacent watershed but also distant watersheds. In this regard, the usual integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approach does not well incorporate these important aspects of ‘integration’. In contrast, the ‘CECAM approach’ introduces various ‘integration’ as will be described later in more detail.

At the study sites, there was an initial lack of effective scheme of ICZM and associated mechanism of its enforcement. This arose from the absence, at the ICZM inception, of a research framework, which identified the different motivations of the stakeholders. As in a number of MPAs and ICZM sites, a policy vacuum was constraining implementation from national to local scales, cutting off the communication lines between decision makers and the implementers. This is aggravated by the enormity and complexity of the responsibilities of concerned authorities which prevented the needed transdisciplinary approach to solve the problems.

There is inadequacy in the proper understanding of the philosophy and principles underlying existing measures like mangrove reforestation, coral transplantation and artificial reefs.

In part this ‘failure’ arises from the emphasis on “pilot” and “demonstration” sites required by, for example, funding institutions, which tended to encourage a project- based approach to ICZM, failing to realize long-term objectives. This is coupled with the behaviors of scientists, academics, policymakers, and practitioners, who offered and actually implemented programs and projects the intentions of which were to solve the problems, but in the end, the outcomes only provided implied, peripheral and indirect data and information that may be useful in their solution. A case in point is the heftily funded mangrove reforestation program of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Agriculture which outright paid money to coastal folks on the basis of how many seedlings they planted, with additional remuneration if these flower or fruit! But when one asks them why they plant the seedlings, most of them never mention the fundamental services the ecosystem provides, only that the money helps them meet their daily needs.

Another example demonstrating this ‘failure’ is the practice of coral restoration or transplantation and artificial reefs. There are very few documented ‘successes’ of this ‘technology’. While there are many claims to their success, almost similar number of accounts attest to their failure. Coral transplantation or restoration has been implemented only on an experimental scale, not on the scale that could actually restore natural-sized reefs. The International Coral Reef Initiative and International Coral Reef Action Network have emphasized this point in their official statements (UNEP 2004). At least two aspects which most coral "transplanters", including scientists, forgot to consider are: they generally did not address the root cause of why the reefs were degraded (and often this is because of water quality and dynamite fishing in some areas, spending the meager resources doing their science instead (e.g. genetics, physiology, ecology) and they failed to consider that rehabilitation using artificial means is necessary only if natural recruitment is no longer possible. On the part of CECAM, the best way to ascertain the success in these

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activities was to go to the field and monitor substantive parameters –both technical and social. In Boracay, the structures are not meeting their objectives primarily because the latter are not clear in the first place. In the second place, the structures are obviously not protecting the coast from the major issue of erosion. In addition, the implementers do not have sufficient empirical data to show that they improve biodiversity. The facts have been laid out in relation to the main cause of the issues: inadequacy in governance which encouraged unregulated coastal development and persistent dropping of anchors by hundreds of boats which decimated the reefs since the late 90s.

Management interventions such as establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) and law enforcement could contribute to averting the decline in the trend in seagrass, mangrove and coral cover, and fish abundance and biomass. Government agencies managing these ecosystems in the Philippines are generally understaffed and insufficiently funded for effective management, monitoring and evaluation. Many laws and regulations concerning mangroves and coral reefs already exist, including bans on cyanide fishing, blast fishing, and the collection or export of hard corals. For the most part, however, these laws are not adequately enforced. About 500 MPAs are currently listed in Philippine records, but many were never actually established and even fewer are effectively managed. The Philippine government has actively encouraged local management of reefs, and there have been some outstanding success stories. Monitoring data, using hard coral cover, fish abundance and fish biomass as indicators, showed that the country still exhibits an overall declining trend especially in non-MPA sites (PhilReef 2008).

3. Market failure, the lack of effective linkage between scientific production and application, or cost-benefit mismatch.

The over-emphasis of institutions on giving higher merits only to publications in peer- reviewed international journals dealing solely with basic knowledge generation is partly the cause of this failure. In addition, those who publish worthwhile articles do not or vaguely recognize the application of their works. It is indeed a responsibility of any researcher to publish his or her work in high quality journals for the purpose of infusing new knowledge. This is a standard practice in institutions of higher learning and in high- end industries. Recently, it is being advocated even in government agencies in the Philippines. However, there are community-based programs and projects that involve multi-stakeholders with extreme ranges of educational attainment. These come from different sectors of society with generally poor formal educational backgrounds (e.g. fisher folk, fish cage operators, tourism practitioners, community, socially-oriented NGOs, lower rank government employees), limits should be recognized and acknowledged in their capacity to assimilate and understand the contents, much more in their responsibilities, resources and availability of these publications. In these cases, publications in the form of posters and brochures posted in public places sometimes are more useful than expensive peer-reviewed articles, which are not or rarely available if at all.

CECAM has substantially obviated this dilemma by having tapped experts in various relevant fields of natural and social sciences, and engineering. After almost five

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years, it has published 70 peer-reviewed articles in international journals and conference proceedings, 16 books, and delivered 32 papers as invited talks, 133 as oral presentations, and 75 posters in both local and international forums. These products augment significantly our knowledge on the nature of the chemical, physical, bio-ecological and social structure and processes underpinning the dynamics of the coastal ecosystems and resources vis-à-vis their conservation and management. In addition, CECAM has produced brochures and site-based posters increasing the awareness of local communities not only the priority problems and issues they face, but more importantly, how the project, with the stakeholders as partners, directly solve them. Together with these materials and to ensure that they understand in order for them to make the necessary actions, CECAM has undertaken on- and off-site consultations, focused group discussions, workshops, training courses, and symposia. A major culminating activity initiated by the project that should be a model in linking science and policy is the Inter-LGU Common Action Agenda. Spear-headed by the highest officials of the local governments of Western Pangasinan, it is currently addressing the issues that derail coastal development in that part of the Philippines. A Covenant Agreement signed by the chief executives of the municipalities concerned guides their actions. This landmark document was the main subject of discussion in a Mayors’ Roundtable within the 2nd CECAM Asia- Pacific Regional Symposium (29-30 January 2015), in the presence of other local chief executives in the Philippines.

In simple terms, Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is an approximation of the equivalent monetary value of the benefits and costs of programs and projects in order to establish whether these are worthwhile. While CECAM did not deal directly with this management tool, the project recognizes its usefulness. In its place, it developed a techno-economic model to convince two LGUs of Bolinao and Anda to collaborate in efforts to at least reduce the number of fish cage structures in order to prevent the occurrence of fish kills in their areas. Computations derived from hydrodynamic models showed the extent of environmental impacts of eutrophication on the waters surrounding the two municipalities. Through scenario simulation from fish kill risk assessment using simulated dissolved oxygen values, stakeholders were convinced that reducing fish feeding by 25% in both Bolinao and Anda will greatly improve water quality. On the other hand, if Anda does not cooperate, water quality will deteriorate and fish kills will likely occur.

References

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Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2007. Asian water development outlook 2007- country paper Philippines. Retrieved 2008-04-14, p. 4.

Barut, N.C., M.D. Santos and L.R. Garces. 1997. Overview of Philippine marine fisheries, p. 62-71. In G. Silvestre and D. Pauly (eds.) Status and management of tropical coastal fisheries in Asia. ICLARM Conf. Prc. 53, 208 p. (ICLARM Contribution No. 1390). 23 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Cicin-Sain, B. and R.W. Knecht. 1998. Integrated coastal and ocean management: concepts and practices. Island Press, Washington, DC, 499 pp.

Coles, R. and M. Fortes. 2001. Protecting seagrass - approaches and methods. In: F.T. Short and R. Coles (eds), Global Seagrass Research Methods. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 445- 463.

Fabricius, K. 2005. Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2: 125–146.

Fabricius, K. 2011. Factors determining the resilience of coral reefs to eutrophication: a review and conceptual model. In: Dubinsky, Z., and Stambler (eds) Coral reefs: an ecosystem in transition. 493-508.

Fortes, M.D. 1991. Seagrass-mangrove ecosystems management: a key to marine coastal conservation in the ASEAN region. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 23: 113- 116.

Fortes, M.D. 1995. Causes of failure (and success?) of mangrove restoration in the Philippines. In: C. Khenmark (ed.) Ecology and management of mangrove restoration and regeneration in East and Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the ECOTONE IV. Wang Tai Hotel Surat Thani, Thailand, 129-141.

Fortes, M.D. 2001. The effects of siltation on tropical coastal ecosystems. In: E. Wolanski (ed.) Oceanographic processes of coral reefs: physical and biological links in the Great Barrier Reef. CRC Press LLC., 93-111.

Fortes, M.D. 2008. Ecological changes in seagrass ecosystems in Southeast Asia. In: N. Mimura (ed.), States of environments and their management, Chapter 3. Springer, 131- 136.

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Fortes, M.D. and Hempel, G. 2002. Chapter 11: Capacity building. In: J.G. Field, G. Hempel, and C.P. Summerhayes (Eds), Oceans 2020: Science, Trends, and the Challenge of Sustainability. (pp. 283-307). Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.

Fortes, M.D. 2013. A review: biodiversity, distribution and conservation of Philippine seagrasses. Philippine Journal of Science, 142: 95-111, Special Issue.

Fortes MD, W. Kiswara, S. Nateekanjanalarp, Poovachiranon, M.G.K. Loo. 1994. Status of seagrass beds in ASEAN. In: S. Sudara, C.R. Wilkinson and L.M. Chou (eds) Proceedings, third ASEAN Australia symposium on living coastal resources Vol. 2: research papers. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, 243 249.

24 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Gomez, E. D., P. M. Aliño, W. Y. Licuanan, H. P. Yap. 1994. Status report of the coral reef of the Philippines. In: C. R., Wilkinson, S. Sudara and L. M. Chow (eds) Proceedings of the 3rd ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, 57-76.

Gurney, G.G., J. Melbourne-Thomas, R. C. Geronimo, P. M. Aliño, C. R. Johnson. 2013. Modelling coral reef futures to inform management: can reducing local-scale stressors conserve reefs under climate change? Plos One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080137.

Halpern, B.S., C. Longo, D. Hardy, K.L. McLeod, J. F. Samhouri, S.K. Katona, K. Kleisner, S. E. Lester, J. O’Leary, M. Ranelletti, A. A. Rosenberg, C. Scarborough, E. R. Selig, B. D. Best, D. R. Brumbaugh, F. S. Chapin, L. B. Crowder, K. L. Daly, S. C. Doney, C. Elfes, M. J. Fogarty, S. D. Gaines, K. I. Jacobsen, L. B. Karrer, H. M. Leslie, E. Neeley, D. Pauly, S. Polasky, B. Ris, K. St. Martin, G. S. Stone, U. R. Sumaila and D. Zeller. 2012. An index to assess the health and benefits of the global ocean. Nature 488, 615–620. doi:10.1038/nature11397.

Holmer, M., N. Marba, J. Terrados, C.M. Duarte and, M.D. Fortes. 2002. Impacts of milkfish (Chanos chanos) aquaculture on carbon and nutrient fluxes in the Bolinao area, Philippines. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 685-696.

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IUCN and UNEP-WCMC. 2011. The world database on protected areas (WDPA). Cambridge, UK, UNEP-WCMC.

Kleypas, Joan A., Richard A. Feely, Victoria J. Fabry, Chris Langdon, Christopher L. Sabine and Lisa L. Robbins. 2006. Impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs and other marine calcifiers: a guide for future research. Long, J. and Giri C. 2011. Mapping the Philippines' mangrove forests using Landsat imagery. Sensors 2011, 11(3): 2972-2981. doi:10.3390/s110302972.

Matsuki, Y, Yuichi Nakajima, Chunlan Lian, Miguel D. Fortes, Wilfredo H. Uy, Wilfredo L. Campos, Masahiro Nakaoka and Kazuo Nadaoka. 2012. Development of microsatellite markers for Thalassia hemprichii (Hydrocharitaceae), a widely distributed seagrass in the Indo-Pacific. Technical Note. Conservation Genet Resour. doi: 10.1007/s12686-012- 9694-6. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012.

Nakajima, Yuichi, Yu Matsuki, Chunlan Lian, Miguel D. Fortes, Wilfredo H. Uy, Wilfredo L. Campos, Masahiro Nakaoka and Kazuo Nadaoka. 2012. Development of novel microsatellite markers in a tropical seagrass, Enhalus acoroides. Technical Note. Conservation Genet Resour. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Nanola, C. L., H. Arceo, A. Uychiaoco, and P. M. Alino. 2004. Monitoring the effects of marine protected areas in CRMP learning areas (1997–2003). Coastal Resource Management Project of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute, Cebu City, Philippines, 62 p.

25 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Palma, MA, M. Tsamenyi and W.R. Edeson. 2010. Promoting sustainable fisheries: the international legal and policy framework to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. BRILL, p. 10. ISBN: 978-90-04-17575-4.

Short, Frederick T., Beth Polidoro, Suzanne R. Livingstone, Kent E. Carpenter, Salomão Bandeira, Japar Sidik Bujang, Hilconida P. Calumpong, Tim J.B. Carruthers, Robert G. Coles, William C. Dennison, Paul L.A. Erftemeijer, Miguel D. Fortes, Aaren S. Freeman, T.G. Jagtap, Abu Hena M. Kamal, Gary A. Kendrick, W. Judson Kenworthy, Yayu A. La Nafie, Ichwan M. Nasution, Robert J. Orth, Anchana Prathep, Jonnell C. Sanciangco, Brigitta van Tussenbroek, Sheila G. Vergara, Michelle Waycott and Joseph C. Zieman. 2011. Extinction risk assessment of the world’s seagrass species. Biological Conservation, 144(7): 1961-1971.

United Nations Environment Programme. 2004. UNEP Annual Report 2004. UNEP Nairobi. 65 pp.

United Nations Environment Programme. 2008. National Reports on Mangroves in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 14. Wilkinson, C. 2002. Status of coral reefs of the world: 2000. p 120.

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26 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Chapter 3 The CECAM Approach: Transforming the ‘failures’ into successes

Distilled from the products of CECAM are certain measures, which are effective in transforming the above information, intervention and market failures into successes in properly conserving and managing coastal ecosystems in the Philippines. Hence, the following are concrete examples resulting from project activities:

Integrated science-based management

The importance of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is well known and there have been many papers and reports on ICZM with various examples. In spite of this, attempts of ICZM have been limited in the actual extent and contents of ‘integration’ in the ICZM concerned. On the other hand, in the ‘Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach’, the targets and contents of "integration" are quite extensive, comprehensive and holistic for various aspects as summarized below and in Fig. 3.1.

Transdisciplinary framework The CECAM project is not a usual ‘research-oriented’, but a ‘solution-oriented’ project aiming at providing useful scientific information for properly understanding the changes in a coastal ecosystem concerned from various aspects and their linkages with possible environmental drivers causing degradation of the coastal ecosystem and thereby for identifying the targets to which proper actions should be taken. For this purpose, in the CECAM approach, we have introduced and organized transdisciplinary activities among various disciplines such as marine biology and ecology, geochemistry, genetics, coastal oceanography and engineering, hydrodynamics, hydrology, meteorology, remote sensing (RS) and GIS, computer simulation and modeling, socio-economics, and others. More important is that experts in these disciplines, together with the stakeholders, worked closely and strived to understand the complexities of the whole project, rather than just one or two parts of it.

Spatial integration The CECAM approach emphasizes the fact that any target area or ecosystem is not isolated individual entity; instead it is an open system connected and mutually interacted with various surrounding systems. In case of Banate Bay and its surroundings, as shown in detail in the case study section, the results of analysis with the Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) for Banate and Guimaras area clearly showed the connectivity between the multiple watersheds and coastal areas in terms of fine sediment discharge and resultant changes in turbidity in coastal water. Moreover this analysis was made by developing an atmospheric-terrestrial-coastal-ocean coupling model system, because water quality in coastal water is governed by terrestrial runoff, which is in turn affected by atmospheric forcing like rainfall. The atmospheric forcing also directly influences coastal water dynamics. Bolinao area, as another example, is treated as a local strait-reef complex system, which is further connected with surrounding watersheds and Lingayen Gulf as larger scale systems. For this multi-scale linkage framework, we have developed a corresponding multi-scale watershed-coastal model system. Besides, we have made physical and biogeochemical monitoring and

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modeling for multi-scale reef connectivity and integrated coral reef-seagrass bed- mangrove ecosystems.

Integrated monitoring and decision support system with CCMS and IDSS Continuous and comprehensive monitoring system (CCMS) is one of the most important outputs in the CECAM project. The system consists of various types of monitoring schemes; platform-based system equipped with various logger-type sensors for continuously monitoring physical, hydrodynamic, water quality and metrological parameters, another continuous monitoring system with logger-type sensors for terrestrial runoff monitoring (TOMAS), periodical sampling and survey scheme for biological and geochemical parameters, participatory monitoring for horizontal transparency in nearshore zones. CCMS includes also surveys of socio-economic factors. A unique feature of the CECAM approach is that the comprehensive monitoring data with CCMS is directly linked with and applied in IDSS, which is another most important output in the CECAM project. The IDSS is a powerful tool for supporting effective coastal ecosystem conservation and adaptation policy-making. It should be emphasized that the IDSS has also a function of ‘integration’ of various outputs of the project; physical/geochemical/biological/socio-economic knowledge and information acquired by the project, CCMS data, RS and GIS information, computer simulation models for scenario analysis, etc.

Close linkages and partnerships among various sectors For proper implementation and subsequent applications and management of the CECAM project outputs like CCMS and IDSS, capacity of potential users and institutions like LGUs should be well enhanced. At the same time it is also important to find actual specific needs and subjects at each site for developing and implementing the project outputs. For these purposes, the CECAM project held site-based workshops and provided training opportunities many times at each site. The project held also national conferences and regional symposia by inviting key persons at each site like mayors of LGUs and relevant central government offices. Besides we held inter-LGU meetings in, e.g., Bolinao area, for establishing an inter-LGU partnership mechanism. In the process of its establishment, recommendations from the CECAM project based on the scientific surveys and analysis, especially the IDSS application outputs, facilitated the fruitful discussion which culminated in the signing of a covenant agreement among 4 Chief Executives in the province. It is also crucially important that the academic sectors have a good supporting system for the users in local sites to effectively manage and operate CCMS and IDSS by themselves. For this purpose, the project implemented a network system connecting all the IDSSs with the academic institutions (UP Diliman, UP Visayas and Tokyo Tech). This network system may serve as a tool not only for technical support but also for enhancing partnerships among the LGUs and academic institutions.

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Various INTEGRATION in ‘CECAM Approach’ ◆Transdisciplinary framework: Marine biology & ecology, geochemistry, genetics, coastal oceanography & engineering , hydrodynamics, hydrology, meteorology, RS & GIS, computer simulation & modeling, socio-economics, etc. ◆Spatial integration: Atmosphere-land-coastal- ocean coupling, inter-watersheds, multi-scale reef connectivity, integrated coral reef-seagrass bed-mangrove ecosystem, etc. ◆IDSS + CCMS: ◆Close linkages and partnerships among various sectors: Local & central government, inter-LGUs, NPOs, academic institutions, etc.

Fig. 3.1 Key aspects of Integration in the ‘CECAM Approach’

Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS)

Rationale

Management of coastal resources for the protection of water quality, aquatic life and other uses must be approached somewhat differently in the tropics from how it is approached at temperate latitudes (Lewis, 2000). Oxygen is less soluble and microbes have higher metabolic rates in the tropics due to higher minimum water temperatures. Tropical ecosystems have higher potential for eutrophication due to higher nutrient recycling efficiency. The stronger connectivity of tropical inland waters to their watersheds (riverine nature) also warrants the need for an integrated and proactive approach to management that is more sensitive to land-based anthropogenic activities. Protection of coastal waters therefore needs to be approached more holistically, i.e., integrated coast-river-watershed management, especially in the tropics.

Tropical ecosystems have marked diurnal cycles dominating over seasonal variations (Talling, 2001). The foundation for understanding tropical aquatic environments, therefore, needs to be centered on physical and bio-chemical mechanisms occurring within shorter time cycles, i.e., diurnally. Given that natural resources encompass a broad range of dynamic environmental processes laid –out in vast dimensions, a combination of long-term field data monitoring, field surveys, laboratory analyses and numerical simulations within short time cycles are requisite to properly understand their processes. Existing monitoring schemes however are sufficient only to providing information for regulatory water allocation management, because of budgetary and man-power limitations. Thus, research endeavors have long since been hampered by the lack of complete (spatial and temporal) environmental data sets necessary for detailed and reliable studies essential for conservation efforts. Given that natural 29 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

resources encompass a broad range of dynamic environmental processes are laid out in vast dimensions, a combination of field data monitoring, field surveys, laboratory analyses and numerical simulations are requisite to properly understand their processes. With respect to competing and conflicting coastal resource users and increasing threats to ecological integrity, coherent and participative relationship between and among its stakeholders therefore is crucial for sustainable management. Knowledge-based efforts from managers, leaders, scientist, and other stakeholders need to be consolidated for a holistic approach to management. LLDA-Tokyo Tech Research Collaboration and CCMS

In June 2005, a collaborative agreement between Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) and Nadaoka Lab at Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech) has been formulated and formalized through a memorandum of agreement (MoA), although more informal joint activities have been carried-out by both parties since 2001. A platform for monitoring various hydrodynamic and water quality parameters has since constructed/reconstructed to support the management of both lake-use and lake- research activities. In 2012, the CECAM project formally continued the support to the collaborative undertaking with the renewal of the MoA with LLDA. The CECAM Project has since reconstructed another (wooden-type) monitoring platform (2012), provided a new complete set of monitoring instruments, and is currently in the process of putting up a more durable version of the platform (bottom-anchored stainless steel structure) for the continuation of a more dependable Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS).

The CECAM Project and CCMS

One of the overall main goals of the CECAM Project is to develop a science-based decision support system to manage coastal resources and biodiversity in the face of environmental degradation and climate change. Accordingly, the CECAM Project has since established collaborative monitoring and research with the coastal municipalities of its study sites, namely Bolinao (Pangasinan), Puerto Galera (Mindoro Oriental), Banate Bay and adjacent coastal zones facing the Guimaras Strait, Boracay Island (Aklan), and Laguindingan (Misamis Oriental), following what has already been started with Laguna Lake. The objective mainly is to improve understanding of the hydrodynamic and bio-chemical processes in coastal waters valuable for generating scientific information towards conservation and resource-use management. To achieve this purpose, the CECAM Project has set-up various monitoring schemes for the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) of its study sites where various data-logging sensors were installed to measure hydrodynamic and water quality variables such as velocities, waves, depths, salinity, temperature, chlorophyll-a, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, including video coverage among others. The selected monitoring scheme varied per site depending on the governing critical physical- biochemical dynamics of the area and local climate. Later, the CECAM Project expounded on the concept of CCMS to include river discharge long-term monitoring (TOMAS), periodical spatial field surveys with biological and geochemical sampling to complement with point platform-based long-term monitoring, and the participatory monitoring with the locals to encourage resource management participation and sustainable monitoring efforts. With these additional schemes, stakeholder 30 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

participation is enhanced to build better understanding and promote action of complex, cross-boundary problems through shared information and resources. Responsibility sharing in natural resource management is crucial in achieving sustainable human ecology and minimizing the negative effects of growing human populations. With the CCMS approach, real-time observed information is implemented from the deployed sensors, providing more flexible data for analysis, and making pre- and post- ecosystem disturbance assessments possible with the availability of short-to-long-term datasets. Numerical modeling analyses and simulations can also yield regeneration of actual hydrographic and biochemical conditions with the comprehensive datasets, providing linkages among piecewise information and enabling scientific investigation in broader space and time scale.

TOMAS for Watershed Monitoring and Modeling

The CCMS, being a comprehensive system, includes as sub-system for monitoring watersheds, including surface water and groundwater. This called TOMAS or the Terrestrial Output Monitoring and Assessment System (Fig. 3.2). While the CCMS sensors for coastal marine areas monitor hydrodynamic and water quality parameters, the TOMAS continuously measures variables for hydrologic modeling such as rain fall and water level in the river. In addition, water quality (primarily turbidity) is monitored using data-logging sensors measuring turbidity and Chl-a. This is TOMAS for surface water studies. In addition to river monitoring, TOMAS also consists of sensors (e.g., water level loggers, conductivity sensors) for collecting data necessary for salinity intrusion and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) assessment and modeling. Field surveys are also conducted using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) instrument to investigate groundwater-saline water interaction dynamics for SGD and salinity intrusion assessment. This is TOMAS for groundwater investigations. The field-based monitoring data obtained by these sensors are then used to calibrate and validate watershed and groundwater models. Under the CECAM project, watershed models have been developed for the Bani and Alaminos watersheds in Pangasinan Province and for watersheds draining to Banate Bay in Panay Island. Groundwater model for salinity intrusion assessment in Guimaras Province has also been developed. These models are then used to assess impacts of changing land cover, land use, meteorological conditions, sea level rise, and other phenomena related to climate change.

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Fig. 3.2 The TOMAS set of sensors for watershed monitoring and assessment: a.1- a.2 - rain gauges, b.1-b.2 – turbidity and water level sensor deployment scheme in the river, and c. – well monitoring and electrical resistivity tomography survey.

The Platform-based CCMS

One of the best ways to comprehensively and continuously monitor environmental parameters of the coast is the set-up a platform or a moored-buoy system that houses or holds various data-logging sensors set-out on field. Under the CECAM Project, a total of six platform housing structures and one moored-buoy system were utilized for the continuous and comprehensive monitoring of coastal conditions with the use of installed data-logging sensors. The sites were these were installed are enumerated below:

Bolinao, Pangasinan Bolinao CCMS’s are platform-based (Fig. 3.7 below and Fig. A1.22 and 23 of Annexes). Two monitoring platforms were installed, one at the aquaculture area and the other one at the reef area, primarily to observe aquaculture activity effects on the reef side. The platforms were configured to have both weather and water monitoring sensors. Self- contained automatic data-logging sensors for measurement were deployed using bottom-fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system. Hydrodynamic and water quality data-logging sensors were installed for long-term continuous monitoring. The weather sensors were connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval.

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Puerto Galera, Mindoro Puerto Galera CCMS’s are platform-based (Fig. A1.24 of Annexes) also. Two monitoring platforms were put-up, one at the channel entering the lagoon and the other at one of the coves, mainly for monitoring the effects of the influx from outer sea and the anthropogenic discharges near the coast. The platforms were configured to have both weather and water monitoring sensors. Self-contained automatic data-logging sensors for measurement were deployed using bottom-fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system. Hydrodynamic and water quality data-logging sensors were installed for long- term continuous monitoring. The weather sensors were connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval.

Banate Bay, Iloilo

Banate Bay CCMS’s are moored deployed-based (Fig. A1.25 of Annexes). Due to the difficulty of putting-up a fixed platform structure at a location with a dynamic wave environment, continuous and comprehensive monitoring in Banate was relegated to a moored-based system. The stations were selected to observe the effects of both coastal and inland activities in/from the municipalities of Anilao, Banate, Barotac Nuevo and Barotac Viejo to the ecosystem balance of the bay. Self-contained automatic data-logging sensors for measurement were deployed using bottom-fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system using buoys. Hydrodynamic and water quality data-logging sensors were installed for long-term continuous monitoring. The weather sensors connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval were housed on land.

Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental

Laguindingan CCMS is platform-based (Fig. A1.26 of Annexes). One monitoring platform was put-up to monitor various hydrodynamics and water quality parameters under changing weather conditions primarily for ecological connectivity studies in the area. The platform was configured to have both weather and water monitoring sensors. Self- contained automatic data-logging sensors for measurement were deployed using bottom-fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system. Hydrodynamic and water quality data-logging sensors were installed for long-term continuous monitoring. The weather sensors were connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval.

The CCTV-based CCMS

Boracay Island, Aklan Boracay CCMS is CCTV-based (Fig. 3.3). CCTV cameras are installed at high grounds along the coast mainly for understanding the key processes of coastal dynamics and its functions both in spatial and

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Fig. 3.3 Boracay CCMS using CCTV camera temporal time scales (short and long term), as well as human activities along the coast essential for managing beach erosion in the island. The images and recordings are later brought to the laboratory for image processing and extraction of various beach dynamics information like wave breaking characteristics, beach material transport, and algal bloom development, among others.

The Participation-based CCMS

In order to continue the monitoring activities even after the end of CECAM Project, it is important to solicit interest from local people for them to join and continue the coastal environment monitoring activities, even with simple and practical but effective methods. Monitoring sensors are usually quite expensive and due to the limited number of sensors, only selected localized areas can be monitored. With participatory monitoring, qualitative data for various places can be available periodically. Participatory monitoring also promotes stewardship of the environment and greater understanding of environmental processes. One example of a simple monitoring technique that can be participated by the locals is the measurement of transparency. By just merely recording the distance from which a white board/plank remains visible under water, one gets a good information of the state of water transparency of the specific location during the time of measurement. Transparency is an indicator of turbidity, a significant water quality parameter affecting respiration and production cycles of coastal ecosystems.

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Fig. 3.4 Participation-based monitoring for transparency measurement (Photo: courtesy of Mr. Akira Naito)

Periodical spatial monitoring

To complement with point platform-based long-term monitoring, spatial field surveys with biological and geochemical sampling were periodically conducted for understanding spatial variations of environmental parameters occurring over extended areas.

Scientist and researchers from both Japan and the Philippines regularly conducted intensive field measurements at CECAM study sites. The main goal of the field campaign mainly was to monitor local-scale ecosystem dynamics vis-a-vis their environmental connectivity, and correspondingly understand their seasonal variations. The objective of the surveys were accomplished through the following activities: 1. deployment of logger-type sensors to monitor spatio-temporal variations of physico-bio-chemical parameters; 2. spatio-temporal water sapling and water quality profiling; 3. bathymetric survey; 4. drifter experiment; 5. electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey and radon monitoring; 6. sediment and micro-algae sampling; 7. coral and sea-grass survey; 8. fish-tracking experiment. Equipment was brought from Japan for in-situ hydrodynamic and water quality measurement and processing.

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Fig. 3.5 Periodical spatial monitoring with with biological and geochemical sampling

Fig. 3.6 A socio-spatial approach for the evaluation of environmental conditions of tourist destinations in Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro

Socio-economic survey

Tourist locations were mapped from field surveys, interviews with the local stakeholders and crowd-sourced data. Tourist activity and environmental perception based on different criteria were gathered from socio-economic data, and linked to the digitized tourist locations to produce point density maps. From these point density maps, visualization and spatial analysis were done to locate areas of tourist activity and provide spatial representation of their perceptions on the different environmental

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conditions of the areas they visited. The relationship between the intensity of tourists’ activities and their perception was also explored.

CECAM Project

Mean sea level depth = 13.0 m

Sensor / Instrument Parameter Hydrodynamic ADCP Vertical 2D velocity Water Level Logger Water depth Water quality Compact-DO Dissolved oxygen (2) Infinity CLW Chlorophyll-a, Turbidity Infinity-CT Salinity, Conductivity (2) Infinity-LW Light penetration Water Temp Pros Water temperature (3)

Fig. 3.7 Bolinao Aquaculture-side Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

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Table 1 Summary of CCMS related activities. MoA stands for Memorandum of Agreement.

Sample CCMS Datasets Bolinao Aquaculture-side CCMS Water Level Data (October 2011-February 2012)

9.00 Water Depth

8.75

8.50

8.25

Water Depth (m) Depth Water 8.00

Water Depth Water(m) 7.75 Dissolved Oxygen

Bolinao Aquaculture-side CCMS Dissolved Oxygen Data 7.50 Oct/20 Oct/28 Nov/04 Nov/12 Nov/20 Nov/28 Dec/05 (OctoberDec/13 Dec/21 2011-FebruaryDec/29 Jan/05 2012)Jan/13 Jan/21 Jan/28 Feb/05 Feb/13 8 30 Time (days) 7 Temperature 29

6 28

5 27

4 26

3 25

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) Oxygen Dissolved 2 24 Temeperature (deg. Celsius) (deg. Temeperature

1 23 Dissolved Oxygen 0 22

Oct/20 Oct/28 Nov/04 Nov/12 Nov/20 Nov/28 Dec/05 Dec/13 Dec/21 Dec/29 Jan/05 Jan/13 Jan/21 Jan/28 Feb/05 Feb/13 Dissolved(mg/L)Oxygen

Time (days) Dissolved Oxygen Temperature Daily average DO Fig. 3.8 Continuous time series plots of water level, temperature, and dissolved oxygen at Bolinao aquaculture area. Bottom dissolved oxygen concentrations at the aquaculture area are shown most critical (hypoxic) during neap tides.

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Fig 3.9 Summary of deployed CCMS’s in the Philippines under the CECAM Project

References

Lewis Jr., M. W. 2000. Basis for the protection and management of tropical lakes. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 5: 35-48. Santos-Borja, A. and D. Nepomuceno. 2003. Experience and Lessons Learned Brief for Laguna de Bay, Philippines. Presented in the Lake Basin Management Initiative ILEC/LakeNet Regional Workshop for Asia: Sharing Experience and Lessons Learned in Lake Basin Management. Manila, Philippines. Talling, J.F. 2001. Environmental controls in the functioning of shallow tropical lakes. Hydrobiologia, 458: 1-8. Wetzel, R.G. 2001. Limnology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, USA:800pp.

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Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) A Decision Support System (DSS) is a computer-based information system designed to assist the decision making process through the analysis of data and modeling of processes. It comes in many forms and has a wide variety of applications including environmental protection and conservation. According to Poch et al. (2004), the complexity of environmental problems necessitates the development and use of tools capable of processing a wide range of data from numerical to experiences from experts and public participation to support decision-making processes. Environmental decision support systems (EDSSs) are considered to be among the most promising approaches to confront this complexity (Poch et al., 2004). Decision support systems enable an improved understanding of the relationships among natural and socio-economic variables towards better decision-making (Westmacott, 2001).

IDSS: Data to Information to Decisions and Actions

The IDSS facilitates transformation of data to information and then to decisions and actions. Figure 3.10 illustrates the general components, features, and processes to be able to make decisions. The IDSS-enable decision making begins with defining the policy questions through consultations with stakeholders. This is followed by the identification of data requirements, evaluation, and selection. Data comes in various forms and from a variety of sources. On-site monitoring systems such as the CCMS, including the TOMAS and CCTV, provide continuous and detailed data from which variations in environmental conditions can be examined. Remote sensing platforms and sensors provide synoptic snapshots of the environment from which needed data layers such as land cover and benthic cover can be derived. Monitoring and mapping are critical activities in measuring changes in the environment and further understanding environmental processes and their linkages. These data must be organized into an integrated database and then transformed to information by means of human interpretation and digital processing. Information refers to data analyzed or processed to answer specific queries or questions. Data to information transformation can be achieved using map interpretation, database queries, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis, visualization, and simulation using numerical models. These packets of information then serve as the bases for decisions and actions that will be undertaken to address specific issues. It is essential that decision makers are provide with tools to explore and evaluate different scenarios as there can be multiple solutions satisfying set objectives. Evaluation of measures as implemented must be carried out to determine if desired and expected outcomes are realized. In all these stages, consultation with stakeholders is necessary as their inputs are critical in identifying priority issues, describing the problems, setting the objectives, developing scenarios, evaluating potential solutions, arriving at decisions and actions and evaluating effectiveness of measures undertaken.

Considering the complexity of environmental process and inherent limitations in data collection and models, EDSSs must embody an integrated approach that considers the linkages of processes in the environment consisting of various ecosystems. Thus, an Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) is needed to assist in making informed decisions based on the interaction of various processes and the evaluation of potential consequences.

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Fig. 3.10 IDSS: components, features and processes

Characteristics of the CECAM IDSS

The following characterizes and distinguishes the CECAM IDSS. These can serve as guidelines in establishing IDSS for other sites not covered by CECAM.

1. The IDSS is site-specific and addresses specific issues at each site. As such, each IDSS is unique in terms of the parameters, data collection protocols, and models used to generate and evaluate scenarios. This approach that the issues are adequately described to provide valid solution alternatives. See “CECAM IDSS for Various Sites” section for details.

2. The IDSS utilizes primary and secondary data to describe bio-physical, ecological, and socio economic processes. The use of primary data collected using remote sensing, CCMS, water quality surveys and socio-economic surveys ensure that processes at work at each site are identified and properly characterized and modeled. Workflows have been developed to extract thematic layers from remotely sensed data.

3. Data are organized using spatial databases or geodatabases and are analyzed and visualized considering spatial location using Geographic Information Systems. Location (geometry, coordinates system) matters and is utilized to tie together various data sets. The CECAM Integrated Database is composed of MS Access data tables and geodatabase (ArcGIS and QGIS). GIS base layers act as the unifying theme to which data tables linkable.

4. The IDSS recognizes the linked systems in the coastal environment. It should be able 41 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

to address the connectivity of these systems or aspects in the coastal environment through the linkages of various models as shown in Figure 3.11. Models describing the processes in the coastal watersheds and coastal main environments included in the IDSS are watershed models, hydrodynamic model, water quality model, ecological model, spatial model, and socio-economic model. Note that these models are linked to each other, i.e., model outputs serve as inputs to other models. Spatial models refer to geospatial models of spatial relationships such as proximity and adjacency. Spatial models can be used for spatio-temporal assessment using various data sets on the coastal environment. Spatial models describe the spatial relationship between stressors and ecosystem response. Examples of spatial models are regression models and damage potential assessment model. These spatial models are implemented using GIS.

Fig. 3.11 Representation of the coastal environment in IDSS as a linked system of models.

5. The IDSS can be used to generate and examine scenarios at various levels (spatial and temporal scales) with the aim of identifying solution alternatives. It is emphasized that decisions are to be made by the decision makers considering inputs from the stakeholders. The IDSS only facilitates the identification and evaluation of solution alternatives. They may be other factors not considered by the IDSS and these are expected to be taken into account by the decision makers. Decision making involves trade-off (e.g., choosing the 2nd best solution instead of the best solution) but the IDSS can help in assessing the consequence of such trade-off. Figure 3.12 shows the process flow in IDSS as applied to the fish kill problem.

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Fig. 3.12 Sample IDSS process flow for the case of fish kill problem.

6. The IDSS comes in two modes: the Desktop IDSS and the Network IDSS (see section on “Modes of IDSS” for details). The provision of these two modes recognizes the range of complexities associated with the issues or question addressed by IDSS (Figure 3.13). Some questions are relatively simpler and can be addressed by simpler spatial models while others are fairly complex that simulations using numerical models are warranted (Figure 3.14). This makes the IDSS scalable.

Fig. 3.13 Comparison between Desktop IDSS and Network IDSS: questions and operations

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Fig. 3.14 Comparison between Desktop IDSS and Network IDSS: models and tools

7. More than just a computerized information system for supporting decision making, the IDSS is an active network of organization (LGUs, universities, etc.) and people (stakeholders, researchers, etc.) working together to address environmental issues. This is crucial in ensure the sustainability of the IDSS.

Modes of IDSS

The IDSS was developed to be operational in two modes: the Desktop IDSS and the Network IDSS. This modality addresses the varying complexity of questions to be answered as well as the different levels of information needed for various applications.

1. Desktop IDSS

The components and process flow in the Desktop IDSS is shown in Figure 3.15. Desktop IDSS is designed to be used by stakeholders with minimal assistance from the academe or none at all. The Desktop IDSS is GIS-based, thereby making use of data layers organized in local database. GIS spatial analysis is applied to these data to generate information to be presented through geovisualization products and deliberated upon by stakeholders and decision-makers. As the content of the local database should be kept updated, a linkage with the geoserver is made for the accessing other data and updating the database at both ends. This geoserver hosts measurement and monitoring data obtained from CCMS field surveys, and from other data sources.

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Fig. 3.15 The components and process flow in a Desktop IDSS

Fig. 3.16 The components and process flow in a Network IDSS. Note that the Desktop IDSS is embedded within thframework of Network IDSS.

2. Network IDSS

Figure 3.16 shows the components and process flow in the Network IDSS, which is designed as an online system. Database, simulation model and other contents of IDSS are stored in the geoserver, managed and maintained in the university. With Desktop 45 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

IDSS deployed in several locations, users can prepare or extract required the data and run the scenario analysis using model in the Network IDSS. Scenario analysis runs on a databased-middleware system called ASNARO (Quatre I Co., Ltd.) which provides graphical user-friendly interface to execute various types of scenario analysis and manipulate the output data. Database module runs on an object-relational database system called PostgreSQL which is one of the most widely used database system around the world. The data and models in the Network IDSS are dynamic considering the update of the database and further development of models are undertaken. More than just a network of hardware and software systems, the Network IDSS is supported by a collaborative arrangement between and among government units, stakeholders, and universities.

CECAM IDSS for Various Sites

CECAM IDSS was implemented for five (5) sites, each of which has specific environmental issues being addressed by the IDSS as shown in Table 3.1. Each IDSS typically consists of GIS, watershed model, hydrodynamic model, water quality model and the geodatabase for managing various data.

Table 3.1 Environmental issues addressed by CECAM IDSS at specific sites Site Environmental Issues IDSS Modules: Data and Models Addressed Bolinao and Erosion and GIS nearby sedimentation  Land cover layers (historical, municipalities Water quality degradation recent) of Anda, Bani, Fish kills  Sediment discharge estimates Alaminos and Seagrass loss provided by GSSHA model Sual in o Bani and Alaminos Pangasinan watersheds  USPED Model for estimates of erosion and deposition patterns in all watersheds draining to the municipal waters of Bolinao, Anda, Bani, Alaminos  Benthic cover layers (historical, recent) o More focused on seagrasses Hydrodynamic and water quality simulations  TSS, turbidity, DO  Tied to economic model for mariculture Spatial regression analysis  Seagrass loss vs. proximity- intensity factors Boracay Coastal erosion (Effect of CCTV monitoring 46 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

artificial structures, coral  CCTV Videos for loss, storms, sea level investigating, shoreline rise) change, waves, and Declining Water quality macroalgal blooms (Impacts of Socio-economic surveys discharges/effluents) Wave and beach erosion models Rapid development Geodatabase Land use planning  Includes land cover, benthic redevelopment cover layers, buildings, roads, DEM, images  Multi-temporal land and benthic cover  Water quality parameters Nitrate loading model  Implemented in ArcGIS GIS model for the analysis and visualization of ordinances, etc. Hydrodynamic model Geodesign to evaluate land use scenarios 3D geovisualization

Puerto Galera Pollutant loadings into the GIS bay and coastal waters Hydrodynamic model Rapid development Water quality model Socio-economic surveys

Laguna Lake Intensive aquaculture GIS Pollutant loadings from Hydrodynamic model surrounding watersheds Water quality model Lake water quality issues Watershed model for estimating discharges

Banate Bay Erosion and GIS and sedimentation Soil erosion and sediment discharge surrounding Excessive turbidity of bay Hydrodynamic model watersheds waters Water quality model Watershed model

Sustaining the IDSS Once an IDSS is set up, the biggest challenge is in sustaining the operation and continuous development of the IDSS. It is viewed that IDSS should grow and evolve to address issues of concern to the stakeholders in order to remain relevant and useful. As pointed out earlier, the IDSS utilizes data and models to provide information for decision support. These data must be updated in order for the models to function and produce information layers necessary for decision making. The models were developed, calibrated, and

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validated to address specific issues. Extending these models to other issues requires additional calibration and validation. These tasks are challenging for LGUs to do by themselves. While certain data can be readily measured or obtained by LGU personnel, other environmental data require equipment and expertise. The model outputs can be prone to misinterpretation if the users are not aware of the limitations of the models implemented in the IDSS. Thus, to ensure sustainability and continuous development of the IDSS, active collaboration between the academe and stakeholders is needed.

Fig. 3.17 Framework for active collaboration between universities, government units, and other stakeholder

Figure 3.17 illustrates the Network IDSS as an active network of collaboration and cooperation among the LGUs, stakeholders, and researchers in addressing coastal issues. This active network will ensure proper use and further development of these models meant for supporting decisions by providing mechanisms to evaluate scenarios within acceptable accuracy. The framework also ensures that training, mentoring, and technical support are provided to government personnel.

Establishment of effective MPA network for conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem functions

MPAs (Marine Protected Areas) are one of the most effective management tools for conservation of coastal biodiversity and resources. Numerical studies conducted in the past demonstrated that MPA can protect not only commercially-important species for fisheries, but also other components of biodiversity, which offer valuable ecosystem services to human. The Aichi Target made by Convention of Biodiversity requested each country to set the area of MPA at least 10% of its EEZ by 2020. In fact, the number of MPA is increasing rapidly around the world.

MPAs are effective for conservation from the two points of views; Firstly, they provide insurance against decline of species by decreasing anthropogenic impacts within MPAs. Secondly, they enhance the biodiversity and productivity of organisms even outside of MPAs through movement and dispersal of organisms from MPA area, which effect known as “spillover”. Careful designing of the location of MPAs is needed to make these points most effective. Currently however, site selection of most MPAs is determined arbitrarily without the consideration of ecosystem status and biology/ecology of marine organisms. This is also true for the case in the Philippines where more than 1,000 MPAs have been established since

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1967 although each of them is set by each LGU without enough scientific knowledge on its effectiveness.

CECAM project considered how we can plan and establish most effective MPAs for adaptive conservation and management, based on scientific knowledge on marine ecology and oceanography. To set the actual plans, tight collaboration between stakeholders and scientists is a key process for their success. An example of scheme for setting MPAs and running their adaptive management is shown in Fig. 3.18. Generally, a group of stakeholders consisting of representatives of different communities and of (local) governments makes decisions and specialists in research institutions give scientific information and criteria to support their decisions. Even after the execution of MPAs, the tight collaborations should continue by incorporating monitoring data for their adaptive management.

The spatial scale of MPA plans and their management should also be considered. We propose to establish hierarchical approach focusing on three spatial scales accounting for decision making at different sectors/stakeholders; (1) country-wide scale analyses for decision making at the governmental level, (2) the strait-wide (meso) scale analyses for provincial, or inter-LGU decision making, and (3) local scale analyses for supporting decision making at LGU level (Fig. 3.19).

MPA guideline at the whole-coast scale of the Philippines (for decision making at the governmental level) Most of the key marine species in the Philippines, such as mangrove, seagrass and coral species, as well as most commercially-important fish species, have wide distributional range within/over the whole Coral Triangle Area. However, they are not homogeneous with respect to biodiversity. Selection of target ecosystems and organisms

Determination of conditions for MPA plan (e.g., classification of bioregion, connectivity at the straits scale, Identification of hotspots with highest biodiversity, etc.) based on available scientific knowledge

Planning of MPA designs Revision of MPA designs

Execution of MPA Further analysis on effectiveness of management MPA using additional scientific data

Follow-up monitoring of the effectiveness

Decision-making Scientific supports Initial setting by stakeholders by specialists Adaptive management loop

Fig.3.18 A schematic flow of decision-making processes for setting effective MPAs 49 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Guimarus Bolinao Straits P1 P5 P8 P9 P4 P6

P7 P3 P2

Country-wide scale Meso (Strait-wide) scale Local (site) scale

Government Province, or inter-LGU LGU

Target decision makers

Fig.3.19 A schematic presentation of hierarchical approach for effective MPA design by CECAM

Understanding broad-scale patterns in biodiversity, and setting several “bioregions”, meaning the unit of regions or area with similar composition of species and genetic diversity, is important for establishing the grand design of MPA network systems by the government. Our study on genetic diversity of seagrasses distinguished 4 bioregions for seagrass community in the Philippines, which are (1) northern Luzon, (2) eastern Luzon, (3) from Visayas to Mindanao, and (4) from Visayas to Palawan (see Annexes). This grouping is well explained by the ocean current patterns. Based on this result, it is advised that the plans for establishing MPA networks for the effective conservation of seagrass species and their associated biota should be made for each of the 4 bioregions. It should be noted, however, different types of organisms may be grouped by different patterns of bioregion classification. The consultant with specialists of marine biodiversity is necessary to plan the grand-design for each target organisms and ecosystems.

MPA guideline at the strait-wide (meso) scale (for decision making at provincial, or inter- LGUs) Major marine organisms, such as animals and plants with drifting larva and seeds, can migrate over quite a long distance. For such species, conservation plans considering conditions only at local sites are insufficient. Broader-scale plans incorporating the connectivity of reefs by migrating organisms over long distances (hereafter defined as “reef connectivity”) are worthwhile to achieve good design of MPA networks. In CECAM, we propose a guideline for MPA network designs at this scale (see Annexes). A case study conducted at Puerto Galera and surrounding Verdi Island Passage area using anemone fish showed that more than 90% of baby fish born in Puerto Galera migrate out, and that most new fish come from outside. Furthermore, it was found that current MPA number and size along Verdi Island Passage are not sufficient to conserve reef-associated fish with average dispersal period (1-2 weeks). Based on the study, it is advised that setting more MPAs with greater area than the current status would be more effective for the conservation of reef fish communities. Cooperation of multiple LGUs along Verdi Island Passage is important to

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plan such MPA networks. If the number and area of MPA is limited and difficult to increase, the second best solutions may be to set in the core protected areas (e.g., no-take zones) at each of the existing MPA, while setting buffer zones (with limited fisheries and recreational activities) around the core areas using an existing information of reef connectivity in the area.

MPA guideline at local scale (for decision making at LGU level) To make each MPA most effective, a careful determination of its location, size and spatial arrangements are required by each LGU. We investigate this problem using field census, molecular genetic analyses and acoustic telemetry survey (Annexes). A rule of thumb is to set core areas of MPA (such as no-take zones) where biodiversity (both species diversity and genetic diversity) is the highest. The sites with least human impact usually have higher species diversity and genetic diversity as shown in our study, and thus can be primary candidates for core MPA sites. It is recently recognized that ecosystem arrangement, such as connectivity among mangrove, seagrass beds and coral reefs play an important role for enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem functions of coastal areas. This is especially true for large and mobile organisms such as fish. The results of research by CECAM revealed that that major commercially-important fish species often change their habitats from mangrove, seagrass beds to coral reefs as they grow, and that adult fish individuals regularly migrate between seagrass beds and the coral reefs. For the conservation of such species, each MPA should include all the components of coastal areas, i.e., mangrove, seagrass bed and coral reef in conjugation.

Proper risk assessment with damage potential mapping

Damage potential is the probability or likelihood of damage occurrence. It can be equated to risk, which is the co-occurrence, in space and time, of three factors, namely, hazard, exposure, and vulnerability (Fig. 3.20). For example, seagrasses are vulnerable to poor water quality (e.g., high turbidity and sediment concentration). Degraded water quality caused by effluents from watersheds and mariculture areas represents one of the hazards that can adversely impact the seagrass ecosystem. However, this adverse impact will not be realized if the seagrass patches are not sufficiently exposed or subjected (the exposure) to poor water quality conditions (one of the hazards) over a considerable period of time. In addition, seagrass species have different tolerance to poor water quality conditions. This translates to varying vulnerability of seagrass, which is also influenced by a range of factors aside from the tolerance level of the species. Prior damage and prolonged exposure to adverse environmental conditions, for example, can increase the vulnerability of seagrass ecosystem.

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Fig. 3.20 The damage potential concept for coastal habitats as a function of hazard, exposure and vulnerability.

Damage Potential Mapping Framework

Two conceptual frameworks for damage potential mapping (DamPMap) have been developed in CECAM, consistent with the modality of IDSS implementation. The first framework is designed for a general level of assessment utilizing GIS spatial analysis to model the damage potential (Fig. 3.21). This involves generation of various factor layers, including the location and intensity of hazards or potentially damaging elements. Fig. 3.22 shows the conceptual framework for a more detailed assessment based on the results of numerical simulations implemented at the CECAM Project sites. Note that in both frameworks, the past, present, and predicted future conditions are taken into consideration.

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Fig. 3.21 Conceptual framework for a GIS-based general assessment of damage potential

Fig. 3.22 Conceptual framework for a numerical model simulation-based detailed assessment of damage potential

General Procedure for Damage Potential Mapping

1. Collection of secondary data covering sufficiently long periods 2. Multi-temporal mapping of land cover land use, benthic cover and related parameters 3. Spatio-temporal analysis of the changes 4. Numerical simulation of hydrology, hydrodynamics and water quality 5. Comparison of the observed changes with changes in variables potentially influencing the observed changes 6. Establishment of relationship using spatial regression

Example: Seagrass Damage Potential Mapping

Seagrass meadows have been drastically reduced in Bolinao and Anda in the Province of Pangasinan, Philippines. It is imperative to understand the patterns of seagrass cover change in order to be able to protect seagrasses from further loss. Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 images available for years 1993 to 2014 were processed to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of changes in seagrass coverage. The images were corrected for water column effects using the Lyzenga method. Fractional seagrass coverages were estimated using the Mixture Tuned Matched Filtering (MTMF)

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technique on Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) images. Pixels with high MTMF scores and low Infeasibility values

Fig. 3.23 MTMF Fractional seagrass cover in the Bolinao-Anda area from 1992 to 2014. The last four images show the seasonal variation in seagrass cover. were identified as seagrasses. Seagrass fractional cover was derived from the MTMF scores. The results were compared to seagrass cover maps derived from high resolution. Fig. 3.23 shows the fractional seagrass cover layers produced using a combination of the MF score and infeasibility images generated by the MTMF. These layers show the dramatic decline in seagrass cover, especially in areas surrounding the Santiago Island and the Anda Island. Zonal analysis was performed to characterize seagrass changes in eight zones as shown in Fig. 3.24. In 1992/1993, seagrasses, in varying densities, cover approximately 71.07 km2 – 30.78 km2 in Bolinao and 40.29 km2 in Anda. These have been reduced to 14.48 km2 (Bolinao) and 8.15 km2 (Anda) in 2013/2014. These figures represent the of seagrass cover with varying percent seagrass cover. To elucidate the impacts of seagrasses extent in terms of the extent considering density, the fractional cover of seagrass were summed for all pixels in a given zone to give the Equivalent Full Coverage Seagrass Area (EFCSA). In terms of EFCSA, seagrass full coverage was reduced from 52.92 km2 in 1992/1993 to around 11.25 km2 in 2013/2014. EFCSA has been reduced by 66% in Bolinao and 84% in Anda over the 20- year period. The pattern of seagrass changes indicated significant reduction in areas impacted by waters from the mariculture areas. This is evident in the northwestern part of Santiago Island, Bolinao. Seagrasses continue to thrive in areas not impacted by mariculture activities. Seagrasses in the eastern part of Anda Island were almost decimated.

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Fig. 3.24 Equivalent Full Coverage Seagrass Area (EFCSA) in square kilometers from 1992 to 2014 evaluated for the eight zones shown in the inset map

These patterns of seagrass changes hint on the potential causal factors that led to the dramatic decline of seagrass cover. Factors such as proximity from mariculture areas, built-up areas, river mouths as well as the magnitude and intensity of discharges or loadings coming from these areas must be examined. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) were utilized to explain the observed seagrass variability considering hydrodynamics and water quality variables in addition to the proximity and intensity variables. Spatial regression results indicated that the decline in seagrass cover in most areas can be attributed to the impacts of specific mariculture zones. Variability in cover change was in part explained as well by the other factors such as the spatial distribution of total suspended solids and proximity from rivers, coastline, and built-up areas.

Enhancing capacity and promotion of environmental education to the youth

Internal and stakeholder capacity enhancement

Utilizing the science, technology and the partnerships the project developed, CECAM pursued stakeholder capacity enhancement in order to overcome the additional threats posed by a changing local and global environment. The purpose is for them to achieve resilience in improving conservation of the coastal ecosystems and environment, enhancing livelihoods, and in mitigating and adapting to the impacts of hazards and disasters. In the process, CECAM initially built internal capacity, honing the knowledge and skills of its members, or the system of the project itself. This is necessary to ensure that CECAM members are highly trained and qualified to achieve its capacity building objectives. Finally, CECAM enhanced the capacity of its various stakeholders, which, with almost quarterly, direct and personal contacts in both formal and informal meetings, comprised improving behaviors (ability to ask the right questions, ability to interpret,

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ability to learn, ability to appreciate), as well as provision of a set of informative materials or guidebook for action.

Fig. 3.25 Yearly distribution of 61 training programs offered by CECAM in Japan (2010 – 2014)

Hence, after 5 years of implementation, the project offered training programs, both short-term (less than one year) and long-term (more than one year, towards obtaining a Master of Science or a PhD degree) to 61 students and faculty of partner institutions (Fig. 3.25). The subjects of these programs included basic natural and social sciences and modeling and simulation, both useful in preparation for developing a major product of the project, which is the Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS). CECAM produced a total of 327 publication materials broken down into the following: 70 technical articles in international peer-reviewed journals and conference proceedings, 17 books, 32 invited papers mostly in international forums, and 133 oral and 75 poster presentations in national and regional conferences and symposia.

Directly related to capacity enhancement of local stakeholders, on the other hand, CECAM held site-based workshops about 30 times in total including those for training on GIS and IDSS conducted by CECAM experts, including provision of computers and the necessary software so that local expertise is developed for purposes of sustainability after the termination of the project. It has produced about half of the total number of posters presented in local, national and international conferences. Many of these focused on site-specific conditions, assessment and solutions of local issues (Fig. 3.26) (see also Fig. 4.21, PG poster). It has produced also site-based brochures which introduced the project and how it addresses local issues. In addition, it has disseminated these materials to the intended recipients on site and make sure that the materials are used for their purpose. Most often, the quarterly surveys included consultation meeting with LGU officials and other local stakeholders on coastal environmental matters of mutual concern.

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Fig. 3.26 A poster specific for Bolinao, emphasizing the need to protect seagrass (in the vernacular, some parts in English)

That the capacity of the various stakeholders was enhanced was manifested in different forms. One is in the substantial contribution (financial and in-kind) of local LGUs and NGOs which facilitated the implementation and operation of the CCMS; another is in their permission for CECAM to setup the CCTVs in private beach properties; and in holding of site-based workshops and meetings. Similar manifestations were observed in the more informed manner some of the participants in CECAM workshops write about the outcome of the activities in local newspapers. The same can be said of those participants who broadcast environmental news in local radio and television. In addition, there were obviously more sensible questions participants asked in subsequent forums, in contrast to the generally ‘silent’, uninterested attitude in previous meetings. Topping them all are the agreements reached by CECAM with local decision makers and stakeholders, representing commitments on their parts to improve and enhance their coastal environments along CECAM thrusts (e.g. CECAM MOAs with the LGU and Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry –Boracay Chapter in Malay (Aklan), Laguindingan (Cagayan de Oro), and the Covenant Greement with four muicipalities of Agricultural Sector I of the Province of Pangasinan) (See Chapter 4, Case Study Bolinao, From Recommendation to Action)

Promotion to the youth of the benefits derived from CECAM

An integral part of the capacity building, which CECAM developed, was the promotion of some benefits generated from CECAM to the youth sector. In February 2012, an ecotour for the youth was implemented by CECAM and SATREPS, with funding support from the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the H.I.S. Group, one of the biggest Travel

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Agencies in Japan. The title of the Ecotour was: “Youth and Decision-Makers: Promoting Marine Science in Sustainable Coastal Tourism in Puerto Galera” with the theme: “Science Without Borders”. With the outcome from CECAM as the base of the activity, it was participated by 15 students from Japan and 15 from the University of the Philippines, and the Municipal Technical College of Puerto Galera, where the main cooperating agency is the Local Government Unit (Fig. 3.27). Briefly, the main concern of the Ecotour was investigating local marine ecotourism as an economically viable nature conservation measure in the face of the many problems confronting the area. The participants realized that ecotourism in Puerto Galera has the potential to:

1. Support environmental conservation efforts of the local populations 2. Create additional income opportunities for residents; 3. Stimulate investment in the area; and 4. Protect its natural and cultural resources.

In Boracay, youthful members from the Red Cross -Boracay Chapter were treated by CECAM to lectures and actual participation in Focused Group Discussions on the imperatives of conservation and management of the island’s coastal resources (Fig. 3.28). The participants were very much aware of how degraded are some of the prime tourism destinations in the island and how their conditions could be improved. They developed their own recommendations on what immediate steps to take to reverse the situation with them as the prime movers. It was agreed that this positive development would be pursued in the coming months.

Fig. 3.27 Participants of the Ecotour in Puerto Galera with their CECAM mentors 58 DISCLAIMER: Use of such uploaded unpublished data, information and figures for any purpose should be with the expressed or written permission from CECAM or the author(s). Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM) Approach Guidebook

Fig. 3.28 In Boracay, CECAM engaged the youth in addressing coastal issues

The CECAM approach as an innovation of existing ICZM frameworks

Thence, how does CECAM scale up the ICZM framework? CECAM does it by introducing and applying an innovative approach, which directly addresses site-based issues. It puts in a solid scientific and social dimensions into the legal and institutional frameworks necessary so that development and management plans for coastal zones are truly transdisciplinary and participatory. CECAM’s initial approach is the recognition and elucidation through transdisciplinary research of the special characteristics of the coastal zone. Hence, it gathered, on real-time temporal and spatial scale at representative sites, a robust set of primary and secondary data and information on:

1. The dynamic nature of the coastal zone, with its frequently changing biological, chemical, geological, and social attributes; 2. The high productivity and biodiversity of its component ecosystems that offer crucial nursery and feeding habitats for many marine species; 3. The role of coastal ecosystems (e.g. seagrass beds, mangrove forests and coral reefs) as natural defenses (“bioshields”) against, storms, flooding and erosion; 4. The role of these coastal features, especially seagrass beds, in moderating the impacts of eutrophication from mariculture and land-based pollution; and 5. The impacts of vast human settlements on nearby sea’s living and non-living resources, aggravating those of global climate change.

With the data and information, CECAM then espouses, advocates for, and implements issue- and site-based activities that:

1. Initially consider traditional methods, but goes beyond these, focused on

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conservation and adaptive management of the coastal zone with its habitats as one interlinked macroecosystem; 2. Introduce to stakeholders, an analytical continuous process that leads to concrete consensually agreed actions towards establishing LGU priorities in the use, development, and protection of the coastal zone and its resources, trade-offs, problems, and solutions; 3. Operate within established geo-political limits, as defined by the local LGUs, and with all important stakeholders to help establish an appropriate governance structure which decides on policies for the equitable allocation of space and resources in the coastal zone; 4. Help provide a mechanism to reduce or resolve inter-LGU conflicts that may occur, involving unintended negative impacts from local industrial or livelihood activities (e.g. fish cage culture); 5. Promote understanding at the local, national and international levels of government and community about best practices in coastal ecosystem conservation and adaptive management within the purview of sustainable development; 6. Adhere to the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement System (PEISS), which is “…a systems-oriented and integrated approach to ensure a rational balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection for the benefit of present and future generations”. Hence, CECAM takes into account the need to minimize the impact on the environment, to mitigate and restore if necessary; and 7. Emphasize the fact that ICZM is “…an evolutionary process, often requiring iterative solutions to complex economic, social, environmental, legal, and regulatory issues”.

In the Philippines, there is yet no comprehensive legislation that covers all aspects of coastal resource management and development. Unlike the basic ecological principle that recognizes the interconnectedness of ecosystems, existing laws regard the coastal zone in a disaggregated manner. There is a need for opportunities for people or local community participation in development. Through CECAM, it was shown that the solution to policy and management issues is not always new laws, and policies. Answers can be found in building linkages and leverages, organizational development of institutions and stakeholders, training, and other forms of capability-building, public information, or research. These practices are essential in sustaining creative modes of engagement, partnership or involvement among national agencies, LGUs, academe, local communities, and NGOs.

Briefly, the CECAM Approach to ICZM develops the capacity of coastal communities to be resilient in the face of environmental and social uncertainties. This is through sustaining and optimizing the use of goods and services provided by the coastal zone and reducing the conflicts and harmful effects of activities upon each other, on resources, and on the environment.

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References

Blanco, A.C., Pagkalinawan, H., Tsuchiya, T., Nadaoka, K. (2014) Elucidating factors of seagrass fractional cover change using spatial regression. Proceedings of the 7th ASEAN Environmental Engineering Conference, 21-22 November 2014, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines

Blanco, A.C., Tamondong, A., Tagle, E., Fortes, M., Nadaoka, K. (2014) CHANGE IN SEAGRASS FRACTIONAL COVER IN BOLINAO AND ANDA, PHILIPPINES DERIVED FROM LANDSAT IMAAGES. Asian Conference on Remote Sensing, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar

Blanco, A.C., Tamondong, A., Tagle, E., Fortes, M., Nadaoka, K. (2014) Seagrass Cover Change Mapping in the Bolinao-Anda Area. National Remote Sensing Conference, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Blanco, A.C., A.Tamondong, E.Tagle, M.D. Fortes, and K.Nadaoka (2014) Seagrass Cover Dynamics (1993-2014) in Bolinao and Anda, Philippines Based on Satellite Image Analysis, “Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management” 2nd National Conference/Workshop of the Philippines-Japan Collaborative Project, 17-18 June 2014, Quezon City, Philippines.

Lewis Jr., M. W. 2000. Basis for the protection and management of tropical lakes. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 5: 35-48.

Poch, M., Comas, J., Rodriguez-Roda, I., Sanchez-Marre, M., Cortes, U. (2004) Designing ang building real environmental decision support systems. Environmental Modelling and Software 19, 857–873

Santos-Borja, A. and D. Nepomuceno. 2003. Experience and Lessons Learned Brief for Laguna de Bay, Philippines. Presented in the Lake Basin Management Initiative ILEC/LakeNet Regional Workshop for Asia: Sharing Experience and Lessons Learned in Lake Basin Management. Manila, Philippines.

Talling, J.F. 2001. Environmental controls in the functioning of shallow tropical lakes. Hydrobiologia, 458: 1-8.

Wetzel, R.G. 2001. Limnology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, USA: 800 pp.

Westmacott, S. (2001) Developing decision support systems for integrated coastal management in the tropics: Is the ICM decision-making environment too complex for the development of a useable and useful DSS? Journal of Environmental Management, 62:1, 55-74

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Chapter 4 Case Studies: The core of the CECAM Approach to ICZM

Overview of the design of activities at the project sites

Site selection

Certain objective criteria were considered in the selection of priority sites for the CECAM studies in the Philippines. Hence, site prioritization was based on the following:

A. Urgency – The ecosystems, people dependent upon them, and certain species are or could be at great risk of being lost in the next decade; B. Importance – Included in priority national and regional efforts to understand biodiversity dynamics vis-à-vis prevailing issues; sites needing protection (e.g. Marine Key Biodiversity Area, Marine Protected Area, Biosphere Reserve, areas with high national and international value), and where previous ecosystem studies have been initiated; with high potential to account for habitat connectivity because of the presence of varied ecosystems; C. Representativeness – because of the vast areas to be studied, coupled with the limited resources at hand, there is a need to select areas which could serve as ‘surrogates’ of the varied issues in terms of environmental drivers and concerns, states and conditions of the ecosystems, e.g. pristine vs. disturbed (human- induced vs. natural); in sandy vs. muddy habitats; primary vs. secondary stand; exposure to climate change impacts; D. Capacity – the ability to undertake studies at these critical habitats depend on the personal and resources capacity of the stakeholders; and E. Success potential – supporting baseline data, manpower, infrastructure, and local institutions will largely already exist to support the effort.

Based on the above criteria, the following sites were selected as shown in Fig. 4.1, in which main environmental drivers and issues are indicated for each selected sites). The study was undertaken in 2010-2015. The criteria to justify the selection, generalized under three categories or ranks, are also given (Table 4.1). These ranks are: H or ‘high’ (satisfies highly the criteria); M or ‘medium’ (satisfies moderately the criteria); and L or ‘low’ (few criteria satisfied):

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Fig. 4.1 The six CECAM study sites in the Philippines. Site-specific environmental issues being addressed are also given.

Table 4.1 Ranking of the CECAM sites based on the selection criteria SITE Bolinao, Laguna Pto. Boracay Banate Laguindingan vicinity Lake, Galera, Bay, CRITERIA etc. VIP vicinity Urgency H H H H H H Representativeness H H H H H M Importance H H H H H H Capacity H M M L M M Success potential H M M M M H RANK H H H H H H

All six sites highly satisfied the criteria for selection for the CECAM study. It should be noted that the Yaeyama Islands in Okinawa, Japan, which is located in a subtropical climate, was selected as a comparative study site in the CECAM project. But it is not included in the descriptions in this guidebook since the focus is on the investigations conducted in the Philippines only. Laguindingan, the control site, exhibits conditions similar to those in one of the Ishigaki Island in Japan, where an airport has just been opened for operations. Its importance is high, as a source of baseline data for assessment of the impact of the development activity in the area.

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Applying the DPSIR Framework

In relation to the technical design of the studies, it follows the Drivers-Pressure- State- Impacts-Response, or DPSIR, framework. Hence, for the sites in question, Fig. 4.2 gives the overall parameters under each category and the relationships among them.

Fig. 4.2 The DPSIR Framework as applied to the sites of the CECAM Project (After EEA 2000)

European Environment Agency (EEA) (2000). Environmental signals 2000, Report nr 6. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

CECAM adheres to the tenet that society is embedded in nature. When society expands, natural resources contract. At this point, conservation and management interventions are necessary to retain the goods and services the ecosystem provide. Hence, incorporating the social dimension of the ecosystem, CECAM adopted the DPSIR Framework in its activities at the six sites. Thus, the social and ecological goals of the project become apparent (Table 4.2):

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Table 4.2 The social and ecological goals of the CECAM project Goals Objectives Indicators (Maintaining:) Organization: Conserve Biodiversity Biodiversity ecosystem structure at all Species distribution levels of organization so as Species distribution to maintain the (spatial and temporal) biodiversity and natural resilience of the Species abundance Abundance ecosystem Vigor: Conserve the Primary production and Production and function of each reproduction reproduction component of the Trophic interactions Trophic interactions ecosystem so that its role in the food web and its contribution to the overall Mortalities below Recruitment and mortality productivity are thresholds maintained Quality: Conserve the Species (and human) Species (and human) geophysical, chemical health health properties, and social Water and sediment Water and sediment dimensions of the quality quality ecosystem so as to maintain the overall social Habitat quality Habitat quality and environmental quality Source: Adapted from CBD 2004.

Case Studies: How CECAM addresses site-specific issues

Bolinao, Pangasinan

Bolinao is a municipality in the province of Pangasinan located in the northwest coast of Luzon, Philippines (McManus et al., 1990). It has a land area of 23,320 hectares, population of 74,545 (2010 Census) and politically subdivided into 30 barangays. Bolinao is one of 18 towns bordering the Lingayen Gulf. It has one of the most extensively developed reef systems and associated habitats in northern Luzon (McManus et al., 1992). The major source of livelihood from the sea includes fishing; fish farming; salt making; shellcraft, bagoong and dried fish making. Bolinao has also become a tourist destination with its historical sites and natural attractions.

Environmental issues

1. Eutrophication (with HABs and fish kills) from mariculture

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History of mariculture

Prior to the early 1990s, demersal fish, shellfish, sea urchins, and seaweeds in reef and seagrass areas dominate the fisheries of Bolinao (e.g. Talaue and Kessner, 1995). In the 1990s, fish farming through aquaculture and mariculture has increasingly played a significant role in fisheries production. This arose from the greater demand for food fish by the increasing human population, which demersal and capture fisheries could no longer meet. Mariculture has supplied 49% of the overall food fish requirement of the Philippines (Luna et al., 2004). The culture of Chanos chanos popularly known as milkfish, in Bolinao started in the 1970s in brackish water ponds and intensified in the 1990s to fish pens and cages along Bolinao’s coastal waters and channels (Verceles et al., 2000).

NH3 (µM) NO3 (µM) 10.00 10.00

0.00 0.00 PO4 (µM) NO2 (µM) 2.00 0.50

0.00 0.00 Fish structures Chl-a (mg/m3)

10.00 1000

0.00 0

5 6 8 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3

9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 Fig.4.3 Annual mean of water quality parameters over time (1995-2013) in Guiguiwanen Channel, Bolinao (San Diego-McGlone et al., 2014)

In 1995, mariculture in Bolinao started with 242 fish pens (Verceles et al., 2000) and increased in number to a maximum of 1170 fish pens and cages in 2001 (Fig. 4.3). This high number is more than double the carrying capacity of 544 units for number of fish structures set by the Municipal Fisheries Ordinance of 2000. After the massive fish kill event in 2002, the number of fish structures has remained within the prescribed carrying capacity.

Changes in nutrients and oxygen over time

Congestion in an area from a high number of fish structures will bring in a host of problems, including overstocking, excessive feeding, and pollution (Wu 1995). Continuous unregulated mariculture operations have resulted to degradation of water quality conditions (Fig. 4.3), especially in the Guiguiwanen Channel in Bolinao and Caquiputan Channel in the adjacent town of Anda. Concentrations of nutrients (NH3, NO3– , NO2–, PO43–) that arise from decomposition of fish feed have increased from 2002 and remained elevated over time (Fig. 4.3). These recycled nutrients further cause the bloom of phytoplankton, sometimes harmful algae; in turn, the phytoplankton blooms result in higher sedimentation and oxygen consumption that leads to formation of hypoxic water mass. This bottom-water hypoxia enhances release of iron and phosphorus from the

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sediment, causing even further eutrophication. Such a cascading decline in water quality with attendant high chlorophyll-a and low dissolved oxygen concentration in these area are attributed to increased input of nutrients and organic material from wasted feeds (San Diego-McGlone et al., 2008; Escobar et al, 2013). Sedimentation rates in the fish farm areas are high and positively correlated with feed input (Holmer et al., 2003). Presence of a large number of fish pens and cages also restrict the natural flow of water thus affecting flushing rate or water residence time (Udarbe-Walker and Magdaong 2003). Physical obstructions that decrease flushing rate enhance the deterioration of water quality conditions.

Table 4.3 Reported bloom and fish kill occurrences in Bolinao-Anda, Pangasinan YEAR Organism Occurrence 2002 Prorocentrum minimum bloom, fish kill 2004 Chatonelle marina bloom, fish kill 2005 Skeletonema costatum Bloom 2007 Unknown causative organism fish kill 2010 Skeletonema costatum bloom, fish kill 2011 Unknown causative organism fish kill 2012 Unknown causative organism fish kill 2013 Scrippsiella spp Bloom Prorocentrum minimum Karenia mikimotoi

Occurrence of phytoplankton blooms (red tide) and fish kill over time

A most significant effect of eutrophic conditions in Bolinao has been the major fish kill event in 2002 that coincided with the first reported Philippine bloom of a dinoflagellate Prorocentrum minimum (Azanza et al. 2005; San Diego-McGlone et al., 2008). Blooms of various harmful algal species have since been recorded some associated with fish kill events (Table 4.3). These include Chattonella marina in 2004, Skeletonema costatum in 2005 (Azanza et al. 2005), Alexandrium spp in 2010 (Escobar et al. 2013, Azanza and Benico, 2013). The increase in nutrient and organic matter loading from mariculture activities has affected the structure, composition, dominance, and biomass of phytoplankton in the area.

2. Seagrass habitat degradation

Siltation and degradation of seagrass beds

Effects of fish culture can alter the adjacent ecosystems. Tanaka et al. (2014) compared seagrass species compositions in 2012 with those in 1995, when fish culture was less intensive. Observations were conducted at the same four sites around Santiago Island, Bolinao: (1) Silaqui Island, (2) Binaballian Loob, (3) Pislatan and (4) Santa Barbara, and by using the same methods as those of Bach et al. (1998). These sites were originally selected along a siltation gradient, ranging from Site 1, the most pristine, to Site 4, a heavily silted site. By 2012, fish culture had expanded around Sites 2, 3 and 4, where

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chlorophyll a (Chl a) was greater in 2012 than in 1995 by one order of magnitude. Enhalus acoroides and Cymodocea serrulata, which were recorded in 1995, were no longer present at Site 4, where both siltation and nutrient load are heavy.

Decline in fisheries and biodiversity due to seagrass degradation

The impacts of mariculture pollution on seagrass bed fishes was studied by comparing the diet, growth, and abundance of Parupeneus barberinus and Acreichthys tomentosus along a pollution gradient caused by intensive milkfish Chanos chanos farming in Bolinao (Watai et al. 2014). The two fish species and potential food items exhibited increasingly enriched δ13C values with greater distance from the milkfish farming area, thereby indicating that stable carbon isotopes facilitated good discrimination between fishes from polluted and unpolluted areas. P. barberinus fed on epi-/benthic crustaceans, whereas A. tomentosus consumed a wide range of food, including invertebrates and plant materials in the unpolluted areas, but zooplankton were the most commonly predated food items in the polluted areas for both species. The growth rate of P. barberinus was marginally lower in the polluted area than in the unpolluted area, whereas that of A. tomentosus did not differ between the two areas. The abundance of both species did not differ significantly between the polluted and unpolluted areas, but the growth patterns of the two species suggest that A. tomentosus has greater physiological tolerance of the polluted environment than P. barberinus.

In general, macrobenthic biodiversity in the seagrass beds in Bolinao showed a marked response along the nutrient-siltation-chlorophyll-a gradient (Fortes et al. 2012). Fig. 4.4 shows that abundance of macrobenthic invertebrates (sea urchins, sea cucumbers, mollusks, gastropods) increased from Stn 1 (nearest the fish cage/pen cultures) to Stn 4 Seagrass Reserve). This trend was also true for the number of fish species. Both responses is apparently related to the concomitant increase in the density and cover of one of the dominant seagrass species, Thalassia hemprichii, which was a prime object of herbivory and under the canopy of which the juvenile stages of the animals spend much of their time to forage and seek protection from predators. On the other hand, the number of fish individuals, biomass, density, cover, and growth rates of the other but the most adaptive seagrass, Enhalus acoroides, as well as the abundance of infauna decreased from Stn 1 to Stn 4.

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Fig. 4.4 Seagrass biodiversity and other structural components of the ecosystem showed marked increase-decrease along the nutrient-siltation-chlorophyll-a gradient from Stn 1 (nearest the fish cages/pens) to Stn 4 (Seagrass Reserve) (Fortes et al. 2012)

Seagrasses covering the reef flats at the Bolinao Seagrass Demonstration Site (BSDS) demonstrate the bioshield function of the ecosystem by reducing nutrient, chlorophyll-a and sediment loads along the gradient.

Emerging Environmental Issues

1. Transboundary pollution by atmospheric nutrient deposition

Nutrient loading from the land to the ocean occurs not only by river and ground water discharge but also by rainfall and dry fallout via the atmosphere. As a result of recently increasing atmospheric pollution by industrial and agricultural activities, the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (N) to the world ocean is now quantitatively comparable to the sum of the N loading by rivers and groundwaters (Gruber and Galloway 2008). N can be depositied in the forms of NH4+ (roughly 50% on average), NO3– (40%), and organic N (10%). Because the average residence time of reactive N species in the atmosphere is less than 1 week, the intensity of atmospheric N deposition is principally determened by (i) proximity from the pollution sources, (ii) wind regime, and (iii) precipitation.

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Recent industrial development in Continental China (especially Northeast region) has caused heavy atmospheric pollution, and a significant portion of the emitted N pollutants is being transported and deposited to adjacent seas (Yellow, Japan, East China, and South China Seas), especially in winter months (December to March) when the northwest monsoon gets stronger. The pollutants produced in and transported from high-latitude regions such as NE China are characterized by particularly high oxygen isotopic signature (δ18O, >90‰ vs. VSMOW) in deposited NO3–. In Yaeyama Islands of Japan, approx. 1,000 km NNE of Bolinao, the atmospheric deposition of N transported from Continental China is already one of the major eutrophication threats to the coastal ecosystems in winter. Based on the results of CECAM project, the influence of transboundary pollution from Continental China to Bolinao area does not seem so significant at present as in Yaeyama Islands (Fig. 4.5). This is probably due to the facts that this area is more distant from the major pollution sources in NE China and that the NW monsoon season in East Asia coincides with the dry season in Bolinao. However, industrial development in the Philippines and southern China in near future potentially intensifies the atmospheric pollution and significantly increases atmospheric nutrient fluxes to coastal ocean surrounding the Philippines. Therefore, periodical monitoring of atmospheric deposition at several representative coastal sites is strongly recommendable.

Fig. 4.5 Concentrations of NO3– and NH4+ in rainwater samples collected at Bolinao Marine Laboratory of UPMSI.

2. Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) as anthropogenic source of nutrients

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) on the reef flat of Bolinao, Pangasinan (Philippines) was mapped using electrical resistivity, 222Rn, and nutrient concentration measurements (Cardenas et al., 2010; Senal et al. 2011). Nitrate levels as high as 126 μM, or 1–2 orders of magnitude higher than ambient concentrations, were measured in some areas of the reef flat. Nutrient fluxes were higher during the wet season (May– October) than the dry season (November–April). Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN = NO3 + NO2 + NH4) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) fluxes during the wet season were 4.4 and 0.2 mmoles m−2 d−1, respectively. With the increase in population size and anthropogenic activities in Bolinao, an enhancement of SGD-derived nitrogen levels is

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likely. This could lead to greater nutrient into the Santiago reef flat and surrounding waters. In the CECAM project, many artificial attachment plates and buoys were manually placed near the bottom and surface of the waters, respectively, around Santiago Island, and chemical components of the epiphytic algae attached to the plates and buoys were analyzed. The locations where higher algal δ15N values were observed only at the bottom plates had correspondence with the location where SGD was reported based on higher 222Rn and nutrients. This could indicate that groundwater- derived nutrients were used by primary producers in the reef, and had potential to affect the reef ecosystems.

3. Ocean acidification and Global Warming

Oceanic water is becoming more and more acidic by absorbing anthropogenic CO2 every year, which is called ocean acidification (OA). Normal surface seawater pH is now around 8.1, and it is expected to go down to 7.8-8.0 by the year 2100. The surface seawater entering Bolinao area also has pH of around 8.1, and as it enters Bolinao’s mariculture areas pH becomes lower, sometimes reaching as low as 7.6. The decomposition of organic material from wasted feeds and fecal matter from intensive mariculture activities release CO2, which results in more acidic waters or lower pH. On the contrary, pH measured in the seagrass meadows NE of Santiago Island showed much higher values, sometimes reaching as high as 8.6. Because the OA has negative impacts on calcifying organisms such as corals and bivalves, healthy seagrass meadows may act as a buffer against the OA, while local OA caused by mariculture activities may already be impacting calcifying organisms there together with other environmental drivers such as anoxia, high turbidity and so on.

Negative impacts of OA and GW (i.e., elevated sea surface temperature) can exacerbate its negative impacts on calcifying organisms particularly on the early stages of corals. Study on the combined impacts of OA and GW on the early development of several species of scleractinian corals were conducted on coral spawning season (March to May 2014) in Bolinao-Anda reef complex. Results showed that fertilization, embryogenesis, larval survival and settlement were more affected by GW than OA. Longer exposure to elevated temperature (6°C above ambient) enhanced higher frequencies of embryo malformations and mortality. Larval survival was reduced by GW but not by OA and its combination. Similarly, coral settlement was negatively affected by GW but were unaffected by OA and its combination. Thus, early stages of corals in the Bolinao-Anda reef complex are more threatened by GW than OA in the future scenario of climate change.

4. Shift in the trophic structure in seagrass beds

Trophic shifts in producer-consumer levels can have broad food web and biodiversity consequences through altered trophic flows and vertical diversity. Although robust emperical data are not yet available, there are indications that such shifts may be occurring. This is in the case of the fishes caught in the seagrass beds in Bolinao (1980-2012) which, although yet cursory, showed a slight shift from herbivore-omnivore to carnivore-omnivore types. In addition, there was a change towards more abundant scavenger species. Pelagics were clearly depauperate. Associated with this observation, is a change in seagrass species composition. After 17 years from 1989 to 2006, seagrass cover change and the dramatic

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disappearance of most seagrass species from areas near the fish cages with the accompanying dominance of only the species least sensitive to disturbance (e.g. Enhalus acoroides, C. rotundata, T. hemprichii) (Fortes et al. 2012; Tanaka et al. 2013) coincided positively well with the preponderance of the fish structures within the period 2001-2004. The current periodic occurrence of harmful algal blooms until at present and even after the removal of significant number of fish structures may be differenty controlled. This needs to be studied in relation to the overall biophysical changes in the ecosystems in Bolinao.

Socio-economic Issues

Unsustainable mariculture practices (poor feeding practice, use of feeds with low FCRs)

As described in Section 1, and based on reported information, the number of fish structures has remained within the prescribed carrying capacity of 544 units after the massive fishkill that happened in 2002. However the incidence of fishkill and degradation of water quality conditions in Bolinao waters has remained. Why? Because there continues to be poor feeding practice for cultured fish in the area where the amount of feed given exceeds the amount needed by the fish to grow.

FCR (Feed Conversion Ratio) is the amount of feed it takes to grow a kilogram of fish. Ideal FCR is 1, but it is difficult to achieve. Therefore around 1.5 is still considered good FCR. However, the feeds distributed in Bolinao and its surrounding areas have poor FCRs of 2.5 or higher. Poor FCR feeds are detrimental to the coastal environment and bad for economic profitability.

The calculations below illustrate a case of low profit operation due to use of poor-FCR feeds;

[Case of Operator A (fish pen operator in Bolinao)]

Initial stock: 39,501 fish Harvest: 34,050 fish (22,456.70 kg) Unit feed price: 700P/sack Total sacks of feeds used for harvest: 2,277 Total amounts of feeds (kg) :56,937.5 ∴ FCR: 2.535 (56,937.5/22,456.7)

Cost-profit of his operation is as follows;

Total operational cost P1,896,670.38 Total cost of feeds P1,594,250.00 (84.06%) Total sales from harvested fish P1,879,669.29 Profit/Loss -P 17,001.09 (Loss)

From the above example, it can be seen that as much as 84.06% of operational cost goes to the cost of feeds. The operator has lost P17,001.09 in one cycle of business operation. Thus, the poor feeding practice is not only environmentally unfriendly, but also economic unprofitable.

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The next calculations illustrate how profit can be attained if the FCR is improved to 2.0;

If FCR=2.0, for the same amount of harvest as the case of Operator A (22,456.70 kg), total amount of feeds will be 44,913.4kg (= 1796.536sacks).

If the unit feed price is 800php/sack, cost-profit of his operation will be as follows;

Total operational cost P1,739,649.18 Total cost of feeds P1,437,228.8 Total sales from harvested fish P1,879,669.29 Profit/Loss P 140,020.11 (Profit)

Thus, If the FCRs of feeds and feeding practice of caretakers are improved, it will surely make coastal environment better and will help economic development of the region as well.

CECAM initiatives to address issues

1. CCMS

With the objective of developing a science-based decision support system to manage coastal resources and biodiversity in the face of environmental degradation and climate change, the CECAM Project established collaborative monitoring and research with the municipality of Bolinao to improve understanding of the hydrodynamic and bio-chemical processes in its coastal waters valuable for generating scientific information towards conservation and resource-use management. To achieve this purpose, the CECAM Project constructed two monitoring platforms for the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) of Bolinao coastal waters where various data-logging sensors were installed to measure hydrodynamic and water quality variables such as velocities, waves, depths, salinity, temperature, chlorophyll-a, turbidity and dissolved oxygen, among others. Two monitoring platforms were installed, one at the mariculture area (Fig. 4.6) and the other one at the reef area, primarily for observing mariculture activity impacts on the reef side. The platforms were configured to have both weather and water monitoring sensors. Self- contained automatic data-logging sensors for measurement were deployed using bottom- fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system. Hydrodynamic and water quality data- logging sensors were installed for long-term continuous monitoring. The weather sensors were connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval.

With the CCMS approach, real-time observed information is implemented from the deployed sensors, providing more flexible data for analysis, and making pre- and post- ecosystem disturbance assessments possible with the availability of short-to-long-term datasets. Numerical modeling analyses and simulations can also yield regeneration of actual hydrographic and bio-chemical conditions with the comprehensive datasets, providing linkages among piecewise information and enabling scientific investigation in broader space and time scale. Sample processed datasets (Fig. 4.7) showed bottom dissolved oxygen concentrations at the mariculture area being most critical (hypoxic)

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during neap tides. Also, watershed discharges during the rainy season were demonstrated significantly contributing to heightened reef production, which attested to the strong reef- channel connectivity dynamics of the area.

CCMS

Fig. 4.6 CCMS is the mariculture area in Bolinao

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Fig. 4.7 Processed data from the CCMS in the mariculture area

2. IDSS

The Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) is the system developed by CECAM Project to provide multi-function data, models and analysis to help achieve various site- specific objectives and resolve site-specific issues. The system includes the GIS Module and the Modeling Module. The GIS module includes various kinds of multi-temporal data of coastal and land features and conditions of Bolinao and adjacent municipalities. Users can browse land cover maps, coastal habitat maps and examine how the coastal and land conditions have been changed. As an example, Fig. 4.8 shows how the seagrass coverage around the Santiago Island has been changed. Fig. 4.9 describes the temporal change in area of seagrass coverage in terms of equivalent full area coverage (i.e., summation of fractional seagrass cover per pixel). As shown, seagrass coverage clearly decreased from 1996 after the introduction and proliferation of mariculture activities. These data provide users the information on environmental issues in the area and the information on vulnerable areas where countermeasures should be taken. The GIS Module also includes spatial regression models relating seagrass cover change to proximity to and intensity of various pollutant sources such as mariculture areas and rivers. On the other hand, the Modeling Module provides tools to examine the potential effectiveness of possible countermeasures prior to decision making. The coastal water conditions under varying management scenarios are simulated using hydrodynamic- water quality models in a server computer. The models can be used to predict future scenarios of fishkill risk and seagrass conditions. As an example, Fig. 4.10 describes the calculated fish mortality for two scenarios. Scenario 1 is the case where a 25% feed

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reduction in all mariculture areas is implemented, while Scenario 2 is the case where a 25% fee reduction is implemented in Bolinao mariculture area but with a 25% feed increase in Anda mariculture area. The decrease in fish mortality is rather limited if the management is undertaken only in the Bolinao area (Fig. 4.10 right). Fig. 4.11 describes predicted areas where seagrass species increase in the case of 25% feed cut in all mariculture areas. These results indicate that reduction of environmental loads from mariculture areas is an effective strategy to improve seagrass conditions as well as decrease in fishkill risk. These significant effects can be expected especially when management is undertaken by both Bolinao and Anda LGUs. These results clearly demonstrate the importance of inter-municipality cooperation for sustainable ecosystem and mariculture practices.

Fig. 4.9 Change in Bolinao seagrass cover in terms of equivalent full area coverage. Fig. 4.8 Visualization of change in seagrass coverage. Gradation from green (1) to red (- 1) indicates the range from increasing to decreasing seagrass cover.

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Fig. 4.10 Calculated fish mortality (%) for two mariculture feeds management scenarios. Case 1 corresponds to a 25% feeds reduction in in Bolinao and Anda. Case 2 if for a 25% feeds reduction in Bolinao but a 25% feeds increase in Anda.

Fig. 4.11 Areas where seagrass species are predicted to increase in the case of 25% feeds reduction in all mariculture areas.

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Recommendations

1. Need to establish sustainable inter-LGU arrangement to address common problems

There is the need for all neighboring municipalities to fully comply with standard regulatory requirements in their commitment to continuous improvement of the environment and way of life of coastal communities. They need to build and enhance the partnerships to go beyond regulatory requirements by observing best practices in order to sustainably use their coastal resources, minimize or eliminate discharges to the waters, or enhance the habitats through stewardship.

Concrete recommended actions;

A. To re-activate the inter-LGUs platform for common CRM issues (according to the covenant agreement of Mayors of neighboring municipalities drafted in November, 2014) B. To introduce the “sustainable FCRs standard” of 1.5 for intensive mariculture, C. To build clear collaboration scheme with LGUs, POs, NGOs and academes such as establishment of independent organization which focuses on the Inter-LGUs collaborative CRM and regular fund for promoting its activities

2. Sustainable mariculture practices

While the mariculture industry can set off negative effects such as eutrophication, algal blooms, anoxic conditions, fish kills, and seagrass habitat degradation, its sustainable development can also bring about benefits. Strategies should maximize the benefits at minimal social, environmental, and economic costs. A mix of regulatory and incentive systems complemented with monitoring and feedback system is essential. Below are some legal instruments and strategies.

A. Enforcement of existing national and local policies

a. Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA 8550 Article 3 Section 48). Provisions on aquaculture in the Fisheries Code include incentives and disincentives for Sustainable Aquaculture Practices, granting of licenses to operate culture structures, non-obstruction to navigation and defined migration paths, and granting of privileges for operations.

b. The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) Code of Conduct for Aquaculture provides guidelines for municipalities in managing the aquaculture industry and promoting sustainable aquaculture practices. BFAR may also be consulted for recommendations on the different aspects of aquaculture management including feeding, stocking and improving water quality.

Pursuant to Section 47 of RA 8550, the Code of Practice for Aquaculture outlines the general principles and guidelines for environmentally sound design and

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operation for the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry (FAO, 2001).

c. Municipal ordinances. A listing and review of municipal ordinances regarding the mariculture/aquaculture industry is important.

B. Development of a Zoning Plan

Identifying specific zones for mariculture/aquaculture activities in a given area regulates and controls the proliferation of fish structures. The zoning plan may include the number and sizes of structures allowed in the area. Though zoning for aquaculture would be best rationalized by technical assessment of the carrying capacity of the area (based on flushing rates, residence times, etc.) and an assessment of existing uses in the area (navigation, traditional fishing, land- based activities that have impacts on the area), an initial simple and practical manner of rationalizing the zones based on best available knowledge may be undertaken.

C. Incentives and accreditation for the compliance of standards and codes.

To complement regulation, it is essential to develop incentives for mariculture/ aquaculture products. For example, certification that these products were produced through environment-friendly means is a form of incentive. Along with product quality standards, this certification has become a requirement for keeping abreast with the global market.

D. Developing a monitoring and feedback system

Aside from the monitoring done by fish farmers of their cages/pens, a wider monitoring scheme should also be established to benefit the entire industry and be the basis of regulations and good practices. Monitoring and feedback prompts fish-farmers on what to do in case of emergency (algal blooms, low dissolved oxygen, etc) and may serve as warning on potential ill effects (fishkills, etc.). Monitoring information also helps regulate the industry, enforce regulations, and serve as a basis for the continued enhancement of good mariculture/aquaculture practices. There should be a mechanism to ensure regular dissemination of updated information to the public as wells as to policy makers/enforcers.

From recommendations to actions

Unique to Bolinao and three other municipalities in Pangasinan, recommendations have been translated into a program of action through a covenant agreement signed by the chief executives (mayors). This covenant is a commitment, through the Inter-LGU Multisectoral Task Force, to use their mandated authority and resources, in meeting the base criteria for high environmental quality, wherein these base criteria include but are not limited to:

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 Promote conservation, protection and rehabilitation of coastal and marine environment for sustainable fisheries and marine resource development;  Formulate and implement integrated management plan within the Sector 1 of Lingayen Gulf to address common issues and problems confronting sustainably management, conservation and development of coastal, marine and fisheries resources;  Enforce resource management and fishery regulation in conformity with the existing national and local laws, rules and regulations;  Proper use and management of the foreshore areas in conformity with existing Philippine Laws;  Commit to enhance and protect mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs;  Adhere to the provisions of Code of Practice for Aquaculture (FAO 214) in the implementation of mariculture program / activities;  Conform with the allowable limit for number of fish cage/pens/traps and other fishery structures;  Conform to no over-stocking/overfeeding in fish cage/pen areas, use of feeds of high environmental quality;  Conform with the submittal of all standard permit applications and renewals where feasible (in electronic format, if possible) to the designated authorities within the LGU;  Commit to a single point of contact within the LGU for all permitting applications;  Commit to the implementation of Pollution Prevention Plan, requiring no significant water, air or material discharge/emission that will affect the coastal waters of Sector 1 of Lingayen Gulf, Pangasinan;  Ensure waste disposal approvals/permits are current and consistent with local recycling laws/ordinances and applicable municipal and provincial or national waste management plans;  Commit to a disaster risk reduction and mitigation plan in place;  Commit to timely submission of feedback/ monitoring report as an integral part of the Community Right to Know surveys;  Commit to working together to conduct expedited R and D project application reviews if requested;  Commit to the implementation of a Community Outreach and IEC program;  Respect each other’s domain and territorial integrity

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Laguna Lake, Metro Manila

Laguna Lake (Fig. 4.12) being one of the largest lakes in Southeast Asia, is one of the most important natural water-resource bases in the Philippines. Regarded as the 18th Living Lake of the world by the Global Nature Fund, the economic and environmental significance of the lake is well recognized. Strategically located at the center of urban development, Metro Manila, it is the focal point of national development efforts not only in the agriculture and fishery, water supply and energy sectors, but in the regional development program as well (Santos-Borja et al., 2004). The watershed of the lake has undergone significant changes from population increase, urbanization, industrialization and land use conversion for this matter (Nauta et al., 2003). The changes have resulted to increased siltation, eutrophication and pollution of the lake. In addition, seawater intrusion in the dry season further aggravates the situation with the entry of polluted waters from coastal Manila Bay and Pasig River. Approximately thirteen million watershed-based inhabitants depend on the lake for environmental goods and services. It provides food, water for irrigation, power supply, cooling of industrial equipment, flood detention basin, navigational route, and more recently, domestic water supply to stakeholders inside and outside its watershed. Its dominant use nonetheless is fishery, both open water fishing and aquaculture. With the lake’s invaluable water resource, competition and conflicts among its stakeholders are common occurrences.

Fig. 4.12 Location of Laguna Lake, Philippines. Shown also are the relative locations of Manila Bay, Pasig River, Napindan Channel, West Bay, Central Bay, East Bay, South Bay, and the Lake watershed (Herrera et al., 2011)

The situation is further exacerbated by the confusing and fragmented institutional arrangement of authority (Santos-Borja et al., 2003). Thus, aside from the pressure of

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environmental degradation, user and institutional conflicts compounds to the problem of sustainably managing the lake resources with consideration for environmental integrity.

Environmental Issues and Concerns

From analysis of available information, the root causes leading to rapid deterioration of the water quantity and quality of Laguna Lake and its watershed can be summarized below. Most anthropogenic-based stressors can be assumed common to lake environments and correspondingly, protective regulations based on developed diagnostic science can be applied for restoration methods. Some are site specific and intrinsic in nature however that will need special attention and careful analysis in finding appropriate solutions and/or mitigating the environmental effects.

1. Watershed land use/land cover change resulting to increased waste loads from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources through tributaries (Figs. 4.13, 4.14). Domestic sources of pollution contribute near 70% of the total organic loading into the lake, industrial sources 10%, agricultural sources 12% and forest/others 8% (LLDA, 2005). The lake has long served as the receptacle of solid and liquid waste and pollution. The government has no specific programs to treat domestic and agricultural waste. Inventory of the industrial sources of pollution remain incomplete and institutional authority to exercise regulations remain weak. 2. Land conversion resulting in heightened watershed erosion, and leading to increased lake siltation (Fig. 4.15). The lake is getting shallower from an average depth of 3 m in the 1970s to the current 2.5 m. Denudation of forest areas and land conversion resulting from the urbanization and industrialization of the region have caused much of the problem. Recent studies have shown that the average lake sediment input is at 7.93 x 106 m3/y equivalent to a shoaling rate of 8.36 mm/y (NIGS, 1999). Flash floods and mudslides carrying tons of sediment and solid waste have become more frequent in recent years. 3. Shore land encroachment resulting in lake pollution. Uncontrolled human settlement along river bank and lakeshore areas has contributed to the growing solid and liquid waste problem (Fig. 4.16). Treatment of septic waste may be common for urban residential areas, but not for rural areas especially places occupied by informal settlers. Occupation of shore land areas have also resulted in significant loss of habitat of aquatic lake species. 4. Pollution and sedimentation during seawater intrusion. Domestic sewage discharged to Pasig River from eleven major areas in Metro Manila is estimated at 168 metric tons per day (PRRP, 1998). Field observations revealed high nutrient and suspended particle concentrations originating along the 27-km stretch of Pasig River (Fig. 4.16). During reverse flow of Pasig River in the dry season therefore polluted seawaters get to enter Laguna Lake. The occurrence of saltwater-induced flocculation of suspended matter in the lake has been monitored to coincide with bottom anoxic conditions. 5. Unmanaged intensive aquaculture operations. Before the 1970s, the lake reduction in fish catch was related to bad and mismanaged fishing practice that led to the destruction of the lake bed which is the source of fish food and habitat. In the 1980s, intensive and extensive aquaculture operations beyond the

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carrying capacity of the lake have resulted in the depletion of natural fish food and alteration of flow conditions (obstruction) brought by excessive aquaculture structures (Fig. 4.12). Though aquaculture operations have been regulated in recent years, lake fish production was never able to recover. Unfortunately, the organic loading from fish pens and fish cage has not been monitored. 6. Turbid lake waters causing light limitation for production. Turbid environment is an intrinsic feature of Laguna Lake because of its high area-volume ratio, thus mitigation should focus more on watershed-based activities than lake-based solutions (Fig. 4.16). The heightened turbidity levels is primarily brought by lake siltation that showed a 15-30 times rate increase in the last 70 years (LLDA, 2001). The land use/land cover change of the surrounding watershed can be significantly accounted for this. Forest denudation and land conversions resulted in high sediment load flash floods that eventually find its way to the lake. The operation of the Mangahan Floodway that diverts flood waters from clay-rich Marikina watershed to Laguna Lake during the wet season further aggravates the problem. In the dry season on the other hand, backflow of polluted waters from Pasig River carries along significant sediment loads as well. 1993 Land-use

Built-up Plantation 10% 28% Forest 13%

Brush Grass 11% 25% Barren 13%

Legend

Arable land, crops mainly cereals and sugar Built-up Area Closed canopy, mature trees covering > 50 percent Open canopy, mature trees covering < 50 percent Coconut plantations Crop land mixed with coconut plantation Crop land mixed with other plantation Cultivated Area mixed with brushland/grassland Grassland, grass covering > 70 percent Marshy area and swamp

1993 LANDSAT

Fig.4.13 1993 land cover-extracted map of Laguna Lake watershed

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2003 Land-use

Plantation Built-up 20% 16%

Forest 11%

Brush 23% Grass Barren 21% 9%

Legend

Arable land, crops mainly cereals and sugar Built-up Area Closed canopy, mature trees covering > 50 percent Open canopy, mature trees covering < 50 percent Coconut plantations Crop land mixed with coconut plantation Crop land mixed with other plantation Cultivated Area mixed with brushland/grassland Grassland, grass covering > 70 percent Marshy area and swamp

2003 LANDSAT

Fig. 4.14 2003 land cover-extracted map of Laguna Lake watershed

1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8

Fig. 4.15 1963 to 2008 bathymetric change of Laguna Lake (NIGS, 1999)

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Laguna Lake Total Nitrogen Distribution (Surface) (February) Concentration (milligram/liter)

0.00 to 0.20

Nitrate (mg/L) 0.20 to 0.40

0.40 to 0.60

0.60 to 0.80

0.80 to 1.00

1.00 to 1.20

1.20 to 1.40

1.40 to 1.60

1.60 to 1.80

1.80 to 2.00 Laguna Lake Total Phosphorous Distribution (Surface) (February)

Concentration (milligram/liter)

0.00 to 0.05 Phosphate (mg/L) 0.05 to 0.10

0.10 to 0.15

0.15 to 0.20

0.20 to 0.25

0.25 to 0.30

0.30 to 0.35

0.35 to 0.40

0.40 to 0.45

Laguna Lake Surface Turbidity Distribution (February) 0.45 to 0.50 Turbidity (ftu) Turbidity (ftu) 0 to 10

10 to 20

20 to 30

30 to 40

40 to 50

50 to 60

60 to 70

70 to 80

80 to 90

90 to 100

Fig. 4-16 Laguna Lake water quality spatial distribution

Aside from the environment-based problems, management of the Laguna Lake ecosystem is also faced with natural resource-based conflicts that continue to limit ecosystem management efforts. User- and institutional-based conflicts threaten the sustainability of lake resources to provide products and services to stakeholders within bounds of environmental integrity. The following have been identified by the Laguna Lake Development Authority (Santos-Borja et al., 2004) that compound on the problem of ecosystem management of Laguna Lake.

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Institution-based:

1. Fragmented, often-conflicting policies in environmental and natural resources management of the lake and its watershed. 2. Limited capacities in environmental management, particularly at local government units. 3. Exhausted administrative and civil service, and a weak political will in the central and regional environmental agencies, thereby preventing agencies from expeditiously addressing the region’s conflicting institutional arrangement. 4. Slow devolution of responsibilities and resources from central agencies to LGUs, and inadequate efforts to strengthen the governance and capabilities of LGUs to assume greater responsibility in fulfilling their mandates. 5. Narrow opportunities for community and private sector participation in the management and sustainable use of the region’s natural resources.

Lake user-based:

1. The use of lake water for irrigating agricultural lands face the problem of increasing salinity and contamination from Pasig River during backflows that makes the lake water unsuitable for agriculture. Fishermen on the other hand favor this phenomenon because of the enhancement in lake productivity. 2. The operation of the hydraulic control structures conflicts with the interest of both fishermen and farmers. Fishermen oppose to the regulation of the Napindan Hydraulic Control Structure on the entry of polluted seawater from Manila Bay. Farmers on the other hand fight against the operation of the Mangahan Floodway that diverts Marikina flood flows to Laguna Lake. Lake flood detention results in flooding of farmlands, aquaculture structures, and lakeshore developments. 3. Intensive aquaculture operation conflicts with the use of the lake for open water fishing and navigation aside from its environmental effects. Local institutions continue to debate on the wisdom, size, location, and benefits of aquaculture structures. 4. The lake’s increasing demand to provide the domestic water need of Metro Manila conflicts with all other lake-user needs. 5. Regulated quarrying operations around the lake’s watershed contribute to the lake’s pollution and sedimentation problem. Regulations for the permitting, clearance and enforcement have not been streamlined yet. 6. A large portion of the region’s population consists of informal settlers cluster in flood and pollution-prone areas (shore lands, river banks, etc.). These areas become significant sources of lake pollution. 7. Attempts to protect the lake as a protected site have long been ignored to favor unavoidable demands for water and fish.

CECAM initiatives to address issues

Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

The Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA), the government agency with regulatory and proprietary functions for comprehensive and integrated management of

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Laguna Lake and its surrounding watershed, regularly monitors various physical and biochemical lake parameters, including a few selected tributary rivers. Water quality sampling and measurements are done at several stations around the lake. Parameters such as turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), various nutrients (e.g. nitrate, phosphate, ammonia) and suspended and dissolved solids among others are monitored monthly. Heavy metals and other toxic substances are measured bi-monthly on the other hand. The sampling frequency and methodology may be sufficient for analyzing general water quality trends in the long term but definitely cannot capture short-term variations essential for detailed description of the biochemical dynamics. Moreover, monitoring of both hydrodynamic and lake-based meteorological condition was also lacking.

In June 2005, a collaborative agreement between Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) and Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech) was formulated and formalized through a memorandum of agreement (MoA), although more informal joint activities have been carried-out by both parties since 2001. The MoA stipulated for collaborative monitoring, data-sharing, and research of Laguna Lake. A platform (Fig. 4.17) for monitoring various hydrodynamic and water quality parameters was constructed at the northern west lobe of the lake to initiate the start of the collaboration. The location (Fig. 4.12) of the platform was selected based on the following criteria: proximity to Pasig River to monitor seawater intrusion; 4-m average water depth for monitoring wave dynamics; and adequate distance from aquaculture structures for undisturbed water movement. Meteorological, hydrodynamic and water quality data-logging sensors were installed for long-term continuous monitoring of lake variables. Self-contained automatic data-logging sensors for lake water monitoring were deployed using bottom- fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system. Parameters monitored are salinity, density, conductivity, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll-a, turbidity, water depth, 2D velocity, and wave height. The weather sensors (solar radiation, air temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, and wind velocity) on the other hand were connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval. Several joint field activities have also been conducted since the formalization of the collaboration, both intensive and extensive in scale.

The platform has since provided long term, continuous, fine time resolution information of different hydrodynamic and water quality parameters in Laguna Lake under changing weather conditions. Although the monitoring platform has been regularly ruined by typhoons (2006, 2009, 2013), it has always been reconstructed every time for the continuance of measurements. In 2012, the CECAM project formally continued the support to the collaborative undertaking with the renewal of the MoA with LLDA. The Project has since reconstructed another (wooden-type) monitoring platform (2012), provided a new complete set of monitoring instruments, and is currently in the process of putting up a more durable version of the platform (bottom-anchored stainless steel structure) for the continuation of a more dependable Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System.

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Anemometer Temperature and Solar radiation humidity meter meter Stay wires

Rain gauge with rubber Pressure gauge

Data logger

Average water level (4.0 m) Salinity meter Wave meter Chlorophyll-a meter Thermometer Current meter Thermometer

Thermometer Thermometer weights Water Level Logger DO meter Salinity meter Sinker weights Sinker weights

Fig. 4.17 Laguna Lake Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

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Manila Bay-Laguna Lake Water Level Difference 3.53.5 Water Level Difference 3.03 Salinity Concentration 2.52.5

2.02 Manila Bay-Laguna Lake Water Quality 1.51.5

1.01

0.50.5 Depth (m) ; ; Salinity (psu)(m) Depth

00 Depth Difference (meters); Salinity (psu) Salinity (meters); Difference Depth Mar-07 Apr-07 Jun-07 Aug-07 Sep-07 Nov-07 Jan-08 Feb-08 Apr-08 Jun-08 Jul-08 Time (months) 1515 35150 Dissolved oxygen Chlorophyll-a 1212 12028

99 2190 a (microgram/L) a 66 1460 -

3 7

DO concentration (mg/L) concentration DO 3 30 Chlorophyll DO concentrationDO(mg/L) 00 0 Mar/09Mar/09 Apr/28Apr/28 Jun/17Jun/17 Aug/06Aug/06 Sep/25Sep/25 Nov/14Nov/14 Jan/03Jan/03 Feb/22 Apr/12 Jun/01Jun/01 Jul/21Jul/21 Time (months)

Fig. 4.18 Comparison of Laguna Lake west bay water quality parameters taken from CCMS long-term observation

Long-term Monitoring and Laguna Lake water quality dynamics

Seawater intrusion has always been perceived to promote fishery in Laguna Lake through increased primary production. However, this has not always been the case. The phenomenon has always been accompanied by fish kill occurrences. Fig. 4.18 shows water quality data obtained from CCMS long-term monitoring at the west lobe of Laguna Lake. The figure demonstrates the entry of saltwater to the lake from late April that lasted until the beginning of July. A decline in chlorophyll-a concentration was observed concomitantly, probably due to the saltwater-induced flocculation of suspended matter. During the same period, drops in dissolved oxygen concentrations were recorded near the lake bottom. This may have been causing the regular fish kill incidents in the Laguna Lake in the latter part of the dry season. Apparently, seawater intrusion in the lake during the dry season also carries nutrient- and microorganism-rich polluted waters from Metro Manila (through Pasig River) and coastal Manila Bay. Increase in microbial activity results from the higher suspended matter concentration settling in the lake bottom. Oxygen is consumed faster and is removed more rapidly from the bottom layers as a result. In the advent of sudden wind surges after an extended calm weather therefore, abrupt mixing of the water column may bring large amounts of the anoxic water and reduced substances to the upper layers and significantly cause massive fish

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mortality. Thus, what is perceived as ideal for fish production is actually detrimental to the fish ecosystem itself (Herrera et al., 2010).

Integrated Decision Support System

An Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) is an integrated set of mathematical models and supporting software, which provides a comprehensive scientific description of environmental systems for the comparison of different strategies and measures for resource- use and conservation. Management-wise it is an important tool for integrating research efforts in scientific disciplines and translating results to management level; increasing the understanding of the relationship between users of a water system and the system itself; providing a common and user-friendly framework for the analysis and comparison of management decisions; facilitating the comparison of many different management options and measures; iteration of the decision making process in a consistent way after additional or different information has become available (LLDA, 2003), and; promoting a holistic approach to water resource management.

Research-wise, it is a valuable tool for the regeneration of actual hydrographic and biochemical conditions; linking piecewise information (physical, biochemical, ecological) for an integrated analysis; scientific investigation in broader space and time scale; sensitivity and carrying capacity analysis for conservation, and; deeper and better understanding of the environmental system.

Integrated Decision Support System and LLDA

The existing decision support system at LLDA was designed to simulate and explain a range of scientific problems and processes within Laguna Lake and its watershed. This includes hydrology, hydrodynamics, sediment transport, waste load, water quality and ecology. These are addressed in the various DSS modules of the Delft3D Software presently set-up at their Project Development Management and Evaluation Division with pre-processing and post-processing tools. The existing DSS and the coupling between the DSS modules and the GIS has been set- up under the 3-year Sustainable Development of the Laguna de Bay Environment Project (SDLBE) during the period 2000-2003.

The present set-up of the numerical model of Laguna Lake is dependent upon several meteorological, hydrological, oceanographic and other environmental forcing factors, which are obtained from models or from actual observations around the lake. And like any other environmental modeling tool, an accurate quantitative description of the physical- biochemical dynamics of the lake ultimately depends on the accuracy of the specified forcing mechanisms. A prerequisite for setting up a successful ecosystem model therefore is a good understanding of the system itself.

Current LLDA monitoring effort however is only sufficient for analyzing general water quality trends in the long term but definitely cannot capture short-term variations essential for detailed description of the bio-chemical dynamics. Moreover, meteorological and hydrodynamic parameters are lacking.

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The general approach taken for the upgrade of the present LLDA Decision Support System set-up therefore, as part of the CECAM initiative, is predominantly field-oriented, with secondary emphasis on model development. The upgrading of the DSS in the project shall adopt the below framework (Fig. 4.19) where improvements will concentrate on various forcing functions on meteorology, hydrodynamics, water quality and hydrologic inputs and processes including a better characterization of the watershed around the lake using a GIS- based watershed model.

Essentially under the CECAM project, LLDA’s decision support system models were improved to describe the hydrology of the watersheds, the hydrodynamics of the lake, and the transport of nutrients, sediments or contaminants from the watersheds to/within the Lake. These models are expected to provide information and scientific basis for developing policies and strategies for integrated coastal management planning as well as to assess the consequences, effects or impacts of possible actions and alternative management schemes imposed on the lake through model simulation studies. It is also aimed that for certain model simulation scenarios, the modeling analysis results (figure-form) can also be used interactively in a GIS platform interface during workshops and discussions with key stakeholders (government agencies, civil society, NGO’s and PO’s) to develop policies and management schemes of the lake system so that decisions or actions taken can be evaluated and tested at reasonable time though model simulation.

External data External models sources and expertise

Map conversion Model integration Image processing Knowledge engineering Data filtering DATA AND INFORMATION PREPROCESSING

Monitoring Geographic Simulation Analysis and Information Models Modules Databases System - Hydrology - Stakeholder - Hydro - EI dynamics - Socio- Rule and - Water economic quality Knowledge - Scenario base - Others

INFORMATION SYSTEM ANALYTICAL SYSTEM

Visualization Help and explanation functions Geo-database

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

Fig. 4.19 Decision Support System scheme for Laguna Lake

Information system

Intensive and extensive field observations, long-term monitoring, and laboratory analyses were utilized in the generation of required information for describing the physical and bio-geochemical characteristics of the lake ecosystem.

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In this module, the project officially shared all relevant hydrodynamic, water quality and weather data collected from field surveys and long-term monitoring using data- logging sensors and water sampling analysis since the start of the research collaboration. This includes published research outputs as well generated from data analysis. Together with LLDA’s current and historical water quality data, further scientific investigation of the physical and biogeochemical functioning of Laguna Lake and its environs will be performed through the analysis of the collected and shared information from field monitoring, surveys and other research activities.

An important component of the data analysis activity was entering the data in computerized databases, establishing effective data management procedures and developing and standardizing graphical presentation methods. GIS was established as the main software tool for these activities. GIS also forms an important component of the Integrated Decision Support System.

Analytical system

Upgrading of LLDA’s Decision Support System for this Module focused on the improvement of the characterization of various forcing functions that define the Laguna Lake environment like meteorology, hydrology, hydrodynamics and water quality. Both field- and simulation-based inputs, and realistic process definitions were introduced.

To enhance the existing DSS modeling tool and the technical background of LLDA personnel, the following components were incorporated:

Lake Hydrology

1. The use of Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Neitsch et al., 2005) for describing Laguna Lake’s hydrology and quantifying the Lake watershed environmental loads in particular. SWAT was chosen for this study for its focus on modeling the hydrological impacts of land use/land cover change, while specifically accounting for the interactions between regional soil, land use/land cover and slope characteristics. The SWAT system is embedded within geographic information system (GIS) for the definition of watershed hydrological features and storage, as well as the organization and manipulation of the related spatial and tabular data. 2. The use of an existing or commercially available modeling system for atmospheric simulation and prediction (Weather Research Forecast System) as input to the SWAT hydrologic model. 3. Intensive model calibration and validation using field observed information and CCMS datasets.

Lake Hydrodynamics

1. Three-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling of Laguna Lake. 2. Incorporation of spatially-varying lake meteorological forces like rainfall, evaporation and wind onto the hydrodynamic modeling set-up. The use of an existing or commercially available modeling system for atmospheric simulation and prediction

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(Weather Research Forecast System) as input to Delft3D-Flow model (WL|Delft Hydraulics, 2007). 3. Model calibration and validation of lake hydrodynamic parameters (water levels, velocities, waves) for better representation of the advective and dispersive transport of water quality variables. Intensive model calibration and validation using field observed information and CCMS datasets. 4. Better representation (incorporating wind and wave-driven flows and water level fluctuation) of oceanographic tidal conditions for hydrodynamic model open boundary definition. Lake Water Quality

1. Three-dimensional water quality modeling of Laguna Lake. 2. Incorporation of spatially-varying lake meteorological forces like rainfall, evaporation and wind onto the water quality modeling set-up. The use of an existing or commercially available modeling system for atmospheric simulation and prediction (Weather Research Forecast System) as input to Delft3D-Flow model (WL|Delft Hydraulics, 2007). 3. Model calibration and validation of lake water quality parameters (chlorophyll-a, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients) for better representation of the advective and dispersive transport of water quality variables. Intensive model calibration and validation using field observed information and CCMS datasets. 4. Short-term (hourly) water quality simulation of Laguna Lake.

Model simulation analyses were undertaken vis-a-vis the assessment of various stakeholder needs and socio-economic conditions. Stakeholder consultations through meetings, workshops and trainings were conducted for this purpose (in addition to the wealth of information LLDA already has).

Model scenario simulations

With proper calibration and validation, the Laguna Lake hydrodynamic and water quality models were utilized to simulate planned and possible future scenarios to help predict/forecast how the lake will behave under varying conditions. Also, the models were used to simulate events in the past for generating information that may serve as solutions to environmental problems in the present. Topics covered in Lake scenario simulations during training sessions and workshop presentations include:

1. Land Cover Effects on Lake Watershed Hydrology. With the increasing concern over the ecological effects of land conversion and the availability of geospatial datasets, physically-based distributed hydrologic models are increasingly being used to investigate the hydrological impacts of land use/land cover change. Numerical models extend the spatial and temporal scope of field-based studies and are especially significant for addressing large-scale issues such as land use/land cover and climate change impacts. 2. Water Resource-Use and Ecosystem Integrity. Discussions on maximizing the use of the lake for water supply have become more significant and critical over the past years with the aggravating condition of water scarcity in Metro Manila and the vicinity. At the close of the 20th century, with the

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pressure of growing population and expanding urbanization, the water supply planners of Metro Manila started to eye additional sources, such as more surface water transfers from other adjacent mountainous catchments, and the potential surface water diversions from Laguna Lake. It is important to understand therefore not only the engineering feasibility but more importantly the possible environmental implications of such water-resource use of Laguna Lake. 3. Hydrodynamic Effects of Aquaculture Structures. Aquaculture structures occupy nearly 17% or 150 km2 of the total area of the lake. Fish pens and fish cages may significantly affect lake circulation and current patterns for this matter. Fishing nets cause resistance to flow, more so, if they are completely covered with water hyacinths. 4. Effects of Lake Conservation Efforts. Anthropogenic eutrophication is the accumulation of organic production by algae and aquatic plants that results in detrimental changes in water quality and biological populations (Gikas et al., 2006). The problem has adversely affected aquatic ecosystems, especially estuarine environments which have strong watershed connectivity. On this regard, it is important to know the effectiveness of management conservation efforts (environmental regulations, treatment facilities) in ameliorating the environmental condition of the lake ecosystem. 5. Morphologic Evolution and Eutrophication. Bathymetric changes affect the lake’s physical and bio-chemical dynamics. Lake volume capacity, circulation pattern, water balance, and density gradient among others change with the evolving lake contour. The biological functioning of biotic organisms accordingly is influenced by the density structure of the ecosystem. Analysis of the influence of morphological changes on the overall lake circulation characteristics is therefore important. Establishment of the conditions prior to rapid urbanization and industrialization is essential in the proper evaluation of man’s impact on the lake. 6. Climate Change Impacts. The impacts of climate change are widespread in the lake environment. With the projected increased in precipitation in the tropics, biophysical impacts can include increased coastal erosion, more extensive coastal inundation, higher storm-surge flooding and landward intrusion of seawater. Management need to be prepared for such scenarios to mitigate possible loss of lives/habitats and damage to properties/ecology.

Graphical user interface

Modeling tools are eventually applied to analyze important lake system parameters and to assess the effects of multiple catchment and reservoir variables on, for instance, lake water quality. A Geographical Information System (GIS) provides an efficient and consistent tool for an integrated database for these multiple data sets. Furthermore, a GIS has the advantage that it allows for the spatial analysis of multiple data sets and that it can generate output that can subsequently be used for modeling tools and decision support systems.

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All lake information generated from field surveys/monitoring and model scenario simulation results were compiled interactively in a GIS platform interface. A geo- database will eventually be developed for this purpose for ease of access and easy understanding of the designated user. The user/s will be trained for the design and implementation of this geo-database which will include data entry, quality control, file format conversions, data analysis and representation, among others. This will function as the central library of all spatial digital data generated from field observation and numerical simulation analysis.

A geo-database dealing with (digital) spatial data helps to have one uniform, standardized data structure. The availability of state-of-the-art technology makes it possible to have accurate, accessible data for LLDA. With use of the software it is easy to integrate data from other units and therefore qualitative analysis can be done easily and accurately. This is particularly important for LLDA considering the spatial mandate the authority has to manage. With the GIS-based central information system, spatial data and its interaction with other sorts of information and data can make geo-information efficient in helping LLDA consistent in policy making (with the implementation of one coordinate and projection system).

Sample IDSS application: Laguna Lake Water Abstraction

Based on simulation results, Laguna Lake water level (not shown here) lowers by about 1.5-2.0-cm in storage depth for every 400 million liters per day (MLD) of lake abstraction rate. This water level drop correspondingly promotes the backflow condition of Pasig River with the increase in negative water level gradient between Manila Bay and Laguna Lake. Lake circulation patterns (not shown here) did not show much difference with various abstraction rates following the same current patterns as the normal simulation condition, i.e., counterclockwise except for the south bay of the lake. Current magnitudes however are higher, 0.5-1.0-cm/s more for every 400 MLD incremental abstraction rate, particularly the shoreline bound currents. The incremental change in Pasig river flow for every increment in withdrawal rate was computed to be about 4.0- m3/s, which is equivalent to about 30 % increase in backflow rate and about 3 % drop in Pasig River outflow. Thus, with the drop in annual average Pasig River outflow, the eventual exit of saline water from the lake with the start of the rainy season (hydraulic residence time), will take a longer time as compared to the normal condition without any abstraction. This is equivalent to an increase of about 0.4 ppt (222 mg/l chloride) in peak salinity concentration for every 400 MLD withdrawal rate increase (Fig. 4.20). This is expected to have corresponding eutrophic vulnerability implications with the associated entry of polluted seawater from both Pasig River and coastal Manila Bay.

Recommendations

A wealth of information have already been produced from the monitoring activities of the Laguna Lake Development Authority, little effort however was made on assessment activities and researches to guide management on planning and decision-making (Santos-Borja et al., 2003). Monitoring of the lake and tributary rivers, report

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production, and numerical modeling have become a routine activity for the agency with limited analytical assessment of the information. Parameters monitored are scarce (no hydrodynamic and atmospheric parameter), sampling stations are insufficient, and the sampling frequencies (once or twice a month) are very limited. Research efforts are hindered by the lack of comprehensive and continuous monitoring data as a result, which are necessary for detailed and more reliable studies. Evidently, such monitoring scheme was structured to serve the authority’s regulatory mandate and not for developmental purpose. Lack of proper recognition and valuation of the authority to decision support system for management is apparent.

A. A well-defined management framework

For an effective ecosystem management, a framework is necessary for collecting and interpreting environmental information at a resolution, scope, and scale necessary for addressing economic and ecological considerations inherent to decision-making. Watersheds provide the fundamental unit, and watershed analysis renders the analytical framework for spatially-explicit, process-oriented scientific assessment to support informed decision-making. From here therefore, it is evident that a watershed-based ecosystem management approach is necessary for managing Laguna Lake’s natural resources and conservation efforts, considering its lake and watershed size.

Adapting the watershed analysis framework for Laguna Lake and its watershed would provide a systematic procedure for characterizing the physical and biological processes active within its basin, their spatial distribution, history, and linkages; past and current habitat and biological conditions; and the linkages between landforms, surface processes and biological systems.

B. Watershed as an ecosystem management unit Watersheds should be viewed as systems, where linkages among processes and watershed elements are addressed. A comprehensive description of the landforms, physical processes, and biological factors governing the ecosystem and an analysis of their inter-relationships are necessary. Identification of the dominant processes and linkages controlling and influencing ecosystem structure and dynamics should define management goals and priorities.

C. An Integrated Decision Support System in management Mechanisms for integrating scientific outputs to management should be developed and implemented. Enhancement of stakeholder participation, particularly with the scientific community is definitely a must considering the number of lake water resource users. Development and/or improvement of the management’s decision support system through research with proper management recognition should be exercised. Melioration of monitoring and field activities for establishing current conditions and evaluating potential hypothesis concerning past influences should be part of the agencies regular activities.

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D. Developmental roles through research should go hand-in-hand with regulatory function

Proactive approach to environmental assessment should be exercised by enhancing the authority’s developmental and environment protection functions. Utilization of the authority’s decision support system should be a standard management procedure.

E. Sustainable continuous and comprehensive monitoring system Comprehensive monitoring and data gathering should be ecosystem-designed and utilized for research and not only for regulation. The sustainability of the continuous and comprehensive monitoring system (CCMS) is important as possible shifts in ecosystem response can take a long time and there is a continuous need for validating management decisions through field measurements. Conduct of field surveys for specific ecosystem research purposes should be regularly considered. Enhancement of research collaboration with international and local academic and research institutions to compensate existing research capabilities should be pursued.

F. Lessons of the past should serve as building blocks for the future Historical information and trends should be assessed and incorporated to research. Collation of historical information, integration with recent observations and utilization for ecosystem assessment and trend analysis are needed. Comparison of historical and current conditions for assessing ecosystem changes should be a practice. Evaluation of the role of human activities through trend analysis of causal mechanisms should be done.

G. Feedback system in management

Management options and alternatives should be tested. Scenario analysis in a decision support system framework for managing options and alternatives is necessary. Ecosystem components sensitive to future changes should be identified and ecosystem response to different management alternatives needs to be evaluated. Application of the Integrated Decision Support System to management decision-making is imperative and should be properly validated with field observed information.

H. An enabling authority in management A structured and strengthened authority is needed to establish an effective watershed management agency in planning, regulatory and enforcement activities, as well as facilitating investments in environmental infrastructure through partnership with the private sector.

I. Encourage stakeholder groups and promote regular stakeholder consultations

Laguna Lake serves a number of functions namely, aquaculture, irrigation, domestic water supply, hydropower generation, navigation, and flood mitigation.

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For the integrated water resources management approach to lake management, there is a need to involve all stakeholders in decision-making to properly consider all concerns. Considering the sheer size of Laguna Lake, representative participation from stakeholder groups should considerably help in managing and reaching all possible concerns. Stakeholder consultation is vital for soliciting information, concerns, opinions and feedback for IDSS, and should therefore be regularly conducted.

CECAM for its part has provided and is continuously providing local concerned agencies the data and information necessary to implement these recommendations.

No abstraction 400 x 106 lpd

800 x 106 lpd 1200 x 106 lpd

1600 x 106 lpd 2000 x 106 lpd

psu

Fig. 4.20 Laguna Lake IDSS application for varying domestic-use abstraction rates (liters per day). The blue-colored contours indicate the salinity concentration gradient in Laguna Lake (psu) for varying abstraction rates.

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Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro

Environmental issues and concerns

There is a general acceptance of tourism activities among community members. The surveys, however, indicate that these activities are negatively impacting the quality of the waters and beaches upon which the industry largely depends. In addition, interviews indicated that the community members associate some negative effects of tourism such as the increase in prices of basic commodities, drug cases and prostitution. But it is also a general perception that the benefits brought about by tourism such as job generation, infrastructure development and increased income for the municipality far outweigh its negative effects. To most of the community members, the prime consideration is the availability of jobs for the economic survival of the families. The interviews did not indicate that people are actually thinking about the link of environmental protection with the very survival of their communities.

Fig. 4.21 The six primary environmental issues prevalent in Puerto Galera.

The site-based poster (Fig. 4.21) gives the six priority coastal environmental issues that confront the municipality of Puerto Galera: (1) heavy localized congestion of resorts, (2) destruction of seagrass, reefs and mangroves, (3) heavy nutrient, waste, and pollutant load in waters around congested resort areas, (4) coastal erion from storm surge, strong wind and waves, and sea level rise, (5) underutilized forest resources, and (6) lack of knowledge and skills to address the issues. The impacts of these issues on the community and the environment are also given.

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CECAM initiatives in Puerto Galera

In a nutshell, how CECAM directly addresses four of these six issues is given in Fig. 4.22 (one side of the site-based brochure only). It provides, through a platform, the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS), data and information needed by the LGU, resort owners, and residents in support of ordinances and community actions to improve the water quality in Puerto Galera Bay (declared by UNESCO and the Club of the World’s Most Beautiful Bays in 2005 as a member) and in front of resorts, especially in Sabang Cove and White Beach. CECAM is undertaking field surveys and sampling on the status of concerns regarding biodiversity in seagrass, mangroves and coral reefs (e.g. fishes, macroinvertebrates, seaweeds) as these are affected by water quality, erosion and sea level rise. Data and information gathered are disseminated and discussed in official meetings with stakeholders to guide policy makers in making informed decisions. In return, the municipal government has committed itself to co-host project activities, utilizing a part of its budget.

Fig. 4.22 One-side of a site-based brochure produced by CECAM, giving a brief description of the site and the four key issues, which the project is addressing.

The actual field research undertaken by CECAM in Puerto Galera brought to light current practices and projected issues on coastal tourism development especially in the light of Puerto Galera as a Biosphere Reserve. These concerns are now a source of information that may be useful in guiding future actions and plans in similar protected areas. One intangible but highly significant benefit that was derived from CECAM is the training especially of local entrepreneurs and stakeholders in participating in the highly

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specialized, focused, and authoritative modular and interactive sessions. The quality and quantity of directly usable information gained is building their capacity and confidence in undertaking future actions upon which the integrity of Puerto Galera as a Biosphere Reserve will depend.

Scientific Research and Puerto Galera

The integrated use of field surveys, numerical modelling and remote sensing form the basis of the methodologies employed in the physical-bio-chemical studies conducted so far for Puerto Galera coastal environment. Intensive and extensive field measurements were conducted to variations of various physical and water quality parameters in both time and space. Remote sensing technology was employed to map benthic and land cover features and to analyze changes, which is necessary for establishing relationship between the water body of interest and the watershed. The data collected via field surveys are then used for calibrating and validating numerical models of hydrodynamics and water quality, thereby ensuring reliability of simulation results.

Intensive and comprehensive field surveys on physical and biochemical processes have been made since 2004 with assistance of local municipalities and others. Numerical simulations of hydrodynamics and water quality have been set-up and conducted as well and results have been disseminated so far in symposiums and workshops. Social surveys were also conducted to find the public awareness on the deterioration of coastal water quality in front of each community and its possible relationship with their sewage treatment practice.

As the success of coastal management programs largely depends on the support of the community, the social aspect was incorporated in the methodology. Understanding the people’s perception of water quality deterioration is important as it can enable formulation of management programs with potentially higher success rate and acceptability to the local community. This was carried out through questionnaire surveys and interviews. The surveys included question on a variety of aspects: toilet facilities; sewage disposal; and causes, effects, perception and indicators of seawater quality deterioration. The survey also assessed people’s idea on water quality management (e.g. actors/stakeholders, tools) and their willingness to pay for improved water quality. The analysis of responses to questions, people’s perception of water quality deterioration was established to be affected by the following factors: experience of health problems attributed to poor water quality and occurrence of obvious changes (e.g. increased algal growth).

In addition to all of these, a considerable amount of scientific research has also been made on the rich and diverse aquatic resources of Puerto Galera, its tropical marine flora and fauna in particular, including coral reefs, seagrasses and mangroves. All these generated scientific information however have yet to be formally introduced and integrated into the decision-making arm of the local government of Puerto Galera to help achieve sustainable coastal development.

Decision Support System and Puerto Galera

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Currently, Puerto Galera is not utilizing decision support system tools, so far as coastal resource management is concern. Existing numerical models and hydro-geographic information are generally outputs of research institutions and/or non-governmental organizations studying on its coastal environments. This is one important concern on the effective coastal resource management of Puerto Galera amidst its thriving tourism industry. Numerical models of physical and biochemical processes serve as powerful tools for assessing quantitatively water quality in addition to the analysis of physical- biological interactions among ecological variables. A centralized geo-database dealing with (digital) spatial data on the other hand helps to have one uniform, standardized data structure where data-integration and qualitative analysis can be done easily and more accurately for policy-making.

The general approach for the set-up of the Decision Support System of Puerto Galera is predominantly field-oriented, with emphasis on geo- and socio- database development. The development of the DSS in the project shall adopt the below framework (Fig. 4.23) where methods will concentrate on the synthesis of all available field observed and research information (natural and social), incorporation of the socio-economic aspect into ecosystem analysis, improvement on the various forcing functions input and process-definition to numerical modeling, numerical scenario simulations for coastal resource management, and development of a geo- and socio- database graphical user interface on a GIS platform.

Data and Information Pre-processing

In this module, the Puerto Galera environment (lagoon and its watershed) is characterized on the basis of available studies and reports; inspection and processing of maps and images; filtering and analysis of secondary data including outputs from other models; general impressions during field measurements; and conversations with local stakeholders.

Information System

Intensive and extensive field observations, long-term monitoring, and laboratory analyses were utilized in the generation of required information for describing the physical and bio-geochemical characteristics of Puerto Galera ecosystem.

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External data External models sources and expertise

Map conversion Model integration Image processing Knowledge engineering Data filtering DATA AND INFORMATION PREPROCESSING

Monitoring Geographic Simulation Analysis and Information Models Modules Databases System - Hydrology - Stakeholder - Hydro - EI dynamics - Socio- Rule and - Water economic quality Knowledge - Scenario base - Others

INFORMATION SYSTEM ANALYTICAL SYSTEM

Visualization Help and explanation functions Geo-database

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

Figure 1.1 Proposed schematic diagram of a Decision Support System for Laguna Lake Fig. 4.23 Schematic diagram of a Decision Support System for Puerto Galera

As already mentioned above, several field activities have been conducted since 2004, both intensive and extensive in scale. Among the extensive Puerto Galera field surveys conducted so far include: observation of the spatial distribution of chromophoric or coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM) and algal composition, and their relationship with other water quality parameters; groundwater discharge potential mapping using radon activity; water sampling and vertical water quality profiling; social response to water quality management; bathymetric survey and; extensive hydrodynamic and water quality surveys including image processing. The surveys were conducted for both the dry and wet seasons to capture temporal variations in distribution. In the development of IDSS for Puerto Galera, the CECAM Project established collaborative monitoring and research with the municipality of Puerto Galera to improve understanding of the hydrodynamic and bio-chemical processes in its coastal waters valuable for generating scientific information towards conservation and resource-use management. To achieve this purpose, the Project constructed and set-up two monitoring platforms for the Comprehensive and Continuous Monitoring System (CCMS) in Puerto Galera Bay coastal waters where various data-logging sensors were installed to measure hydrodynamic and water quality variables. The two monitoring platforms are currently located at the coast fronting Barangay Boquete and Muelle cove. Continuous and comprehensive monitoring started last January 2012.

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In this module, the project officially shares all relevant hydrodynamic, water quality and weather data collected from field surveys and long-term monitoring using data-logging sensors and water sampling analysis since the start of the research collaboration. This includes published research outputs as well generated from data analysis.

Analytical System

The development of the Puerto Galera Decision Support System for this Module focused on the synthesis of all available field observed and research information (natural and social), incorporation of the socio-economic aspect into ecosystem analysis, improvement on the various forcing functions input and process-definition to numerical modeling, and numerical scenario simulations for coastal resource management. Both field- and simulation-based inputs, and realistic process definitions will be introduced. To enhance the existing numerical models of Puerto Galera, the following components shall be incorporated:

Hydrodynamic and Water quality

1. Three-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality modeling of Puerto Galera using detailed bathymetric information from multi-beam echo-sounder data. 2. Incorporation of spatially-varying meteorological forces like rainfall, evaporation and wind onto the hydrodynamic modeling set-up. The use of an existing or commercially available modeling system for atmospheric simulation and prediction (Weather Research Forecast System) as input to Delft3D-Flow model. 3. Model calibration and validation of hydrodynamic parameters (water levels, velocities, waves) for better representation of the advective and dispersive transport of water quality variables. Intensive model calibration and validation using field observed information from CCMS. 4. Short time-interval (hourly), long-term hydrodynamic and water quality simulation using field observed information from CCMS.

Model simulation analyses were undertaken vis-a-vis the assessment of various stakeholder needs and socio-economic conditions. Stakeholder consultations were conducted for this purpose (in addition to the information Puerto Galera LGU already has). Considering the need for a proper technical background in the conduct of numerical simulation works, on top of the intensive training needed on software use, the decision-support system tools (numerical models) for the case of Puerto Galera will be co-managed and -operated with the University of the Philippines for this matter.

Model Scenario Simulations

With proper calibration and validation, the Puerto Galera hydrodynamic and water quality models can be utilized to simulate planned and possible future scenarios to help predict/forecast how the lagoon will behave under varying conditions. Also, it can be used to simulate events in the past for generating information that may serve as solutions of problems in the present. Topics for Puerto Galera scenario simulation include:

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1. Shoreline reclamation studies. With the increasing concern over the ecological effects of coastal developments associated with tourism and the availability of geospatial datasets, numerical models are increasingly being used to investigate the hydrodynamic and water quality impacts of such anthropogenic-based activity. Numerical models extend the spatial and temporal scope of field-based studies and are especially significant for addressing large-scale issues such as coastal development impacts on coastal ecosystems. 2. Tourism-based development and ecosystem integrity. It has always been wondered if the reopening of the sandbar in Puerto Galera lagoon to create a third connection to outer sea will enhance the residence time of the lagoon. For this matter, it is important to understand not only the engineering feasibility but more importantly the possible environmental implications of such tourism-based development. 3. Effects of conservation efforts. Anthropogenic eutrophication is the accumulation of organic production by algae and aquatic plants that results in detrimental changes in water quality and biological populations (Gikas et al., 2006). The problem has adversely affected aquatic ecosystems, especially estuarine environments which have strong watershed connectivity. On this regard, it is important to know the effectiveness of management conservation efforts (environmental regulations, treatment facilities) in ameliorating the environmental condition of the coastal ecosystem. 4. Climate change impacts. The impacts of climate change are widespread in the coastal environment. With the projected increased in precipitation in the tropics, biophysical impacts can include increased coastal erosion, more extensive coastal inundation, higher storm-surge flooding and landward intrusion of seawater. Management need to be prepared for such scenarios to mitigate possible loss of lives/habitats and damage to properties/ecology.

Graphical User Interface

All information generated from field surveys/monitoring and model scenario simulation results (with regular updates from the academe) will be compiled interactively in a GIS platform interface. A geo- and socio-database will be developed for this purpose for ease of access and easy understanding of the designated user. Considering that the geo-database will be housed with the local government of Puerto Galera, the user will be trained for the design and implementation of this geo-database which will include data entry, quality control, file format conversions, data analysis and representation, among others. This will function as the central library of all spatial digital data generated from field observation and numerical simulation analysis.

Puerto Galera Lagoon Field Observation and Numerical Modeling Analysis

Hydrodynamic and water quality field observations and numerical modeling analyses can reveal the mechanisms behind water circulation patterns and can detect critical sites for water pollution. In Puerto Galera lagoon, the low water circulation and seawater exchange between the innermost bay area and the outer sea, in addition to high terrestrial discharge, have been perceived to be potential triggers for the

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accumulation of polluted waters. Results from field observations however revealed that the oxygen, phytoplankton, and nutrient concentrations in the lagoon had minimal signs of environmental problems (Fig. 4.24). Previous studies in the bay have largely been biological in nature with few studies on the physical environmental condition, although physical processes are essential in the functioning of the geological and biological processes in reef environments. Most semi-enclosed bay sites with low circulation have shown low carrying capacity to absorb wastewater as compared with open bays. This correspondingly brought about the recent efforts to deeply understand the connectivity between the circulation and bio-chemical characteristics of the lagoon.

Chlorophyll-a (mg/m3) Ammonium (mg/L) Nitrate (mg/L) Diatom

L L

H

Turbidity (FTU) Phosphate (mg/L) Silicate (mg/L) Green algae

L

H

Fig. 4.24 Observed spatial distribution of various water quality parameters within Puerto Galera lagoon (Pokavanich et al. 2009) Research studies conducted by Tokyo Institute of Technology and carried-on much recently through the CECAM Project provided crucial information for understanding Puerto Galera lagoon’s circulation and water quality characteristics. Hydrodynamic and bio-chemical aspects were examined by means of intensive field observations coupled with numerical models. Intensive field campaigns were carried out to instantaneously collect both hydrographic and bio-chemical characteristics of the lagoon scattered at various stations (Fig. 4.25). State-of-the-art numerical simulations were performed to reproduce the three dimensional hydrodynamic and bio-chemical features of the lagoon. Data and information gathered were correspondingly disseminated and discussed to local communities and government officials through workshops, meetings and educational trips to promote the sustainable resources-use and conservation of Puerto Galera environment.

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Water depth (meters) MOORED STATION SYNOPTIC SURVEY ●Survey Stations

O2

Chl.a & Turbidity O3

C T T T T C C C C

CLW CLW CLW CLW C3

Thermometer C1

HOBO HOBO HOBO Salinity&Thermometer AAQ1180 C2 B1 B4 Dissolved Oxygen Water sampler

B3

CT CT

CT W

OPTODEOPTODE

OPTODE Fluoroprobe

E M M M E E E E M E B2 0 0.5 1.0 km

Current meter

Fig. 4.25 Field survey methods and sampling stations in Puerto Galera (Pokavanich et al., 2009)

Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

With the objective of developing a science-based decision support system to manage coastal resources and biodiversity in the face of environmental degradation and climate change, the CECAM Project established collaborative monitoring and research with the municipality of Puerto Galera to improve understanding of the hydrodynamic and bio- chemical processes in its coastal waters valuable for generating scientific information towards conservation and resource-use management. To achieve this purpose, the CECAM Project constructed two monitoring platforms (Fig. A1.24 of the Annex) for the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) of Puerto Galera lagoon where various data-logging sensors were installed to measure hydrodynamic and water quality variables such as velocities, waves, depths, salinity, temperature, chlorophyll-a, turbidity and dissolved oxygen, among others. Two monitoring platforms were put-up, one at the channel entering the lagoon and the other at one of the coves, mainly for monitoring the effects of the influx from outer sea and the anthropogenic discharges near the coast. The platforms were configured to have both weather and water monitoring sensors. Self-contained automatic data-logging sensors for measurement were deployed using bottom-fixed deployment and taut-wire moorage system. Hydrodynamic and water quality data- logging sensors were installed for long-term continuous monitoring. The weather sensors were connected to a separate data logger for data storage and retrieval.

With the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) approach, real- time observed information is implemented from the deployed sensors, providing more flexible data for analysis, and making pre- and post- ecosystem disturbance assessments possible with the availability of short-to-long-term datasets. Numerical modeling analyses and simulations can also yield regeneration of actual hydrographic and biochemical conditions with the comprehensive datasets, providing linkages among piecewise information and enabling scientific investigation in broader space and time scale. Sample processed datasets showed evident increases in chlorophyll-a concentrations coinciding with lower lagoon salinity concentrations. This may correspondingly signify rainfall events coinciding with neap tide periods bring

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significant amount of nutrient-rich anthropogenic discharges into the lagoon area that causes algal production.

Aside from the CCMS-based monitoring, various field surveys (hydrographic, bio- chemical and socio-economic information) were also conducted under the CECAM project for improving the integrated decision support system tools (model calibration), detail (additional bio-chemical studies) and scheme (socio-economic information integration). Shown below is a sample model improvement with the use of a more detailed bathymetry from multi-beam echo-sounder measurement.

Old bathymetry New bathymetry

Spring Tide Velocity Magnitude Comparison

Neap Tide Velocity Magnitude Comparison

Fig. 4.26 Puerto Galera model improvement through the use of more detailed lagoon bathymetry Puerto Galera General Circulation

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Figure 4.27 shows the scatter plot of measured flow velocity. Data and simulation results (Fig. 4.28) demonstrated that the circulation feature of Puerto Galera is composed of two current regimes i.e. swift current offshore and along the channels, and a sluggish water movement inside the lagoon. The currents exhibited non-zero mean velocity at channel and offshore stations having east-ward direction. These were produced by eddies generated close to the channel entrances offshore of Puerto Galera. When the current reversed direction and flows to the west, the fast-moving current move through the slower-moving water offshore of Puerto Galera and captures additional water. The current velocity at channels obtained maxima during neap tide, and minima during spring tide, with changes in flow direction into and out of the lagoon. Furthermore, velocity fluctuations also displayed semi-diurnal pattern in diurnal fluctuations of the water level. Regional scale simulations (not shown here) suggest that these circulation characteristics are regulated by the water level difference between the two ends of the Verde Island Passage. The water level oscillation at South China Sea and Sibuyan Sea were not exactly synchronous, driving currents to slosh back and forth along the Verde Island Passage.

0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2 Unit: m/s 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.0 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 -0.1 0.2 -0.2 0.1 -0.3 0.3 0.3 0.0 -0.4 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 -0.1 -0.5 0.1 0.1 -0.2

0.0 0.0 -0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.1 -0.1 -0.4 0.3 -0.2 -0.2 -0.5 0.2 -0.3 -0.3 0.1

0.0 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.1

-0.2

-0.3

Fig. 4.27 Scatter plots of measured near-bottom flow velocity during the 2007 field survey in Puerto Galera (Pokavanich et al. 2009)

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FLOOD

0.4 m/s

EBB

0.4 m/s

Fig. 4.28 Puerto Galera general circulation patterns for one tidal cycle based from numerical simulation (Pokavanich et al. 2009)

Offshore Seawater Intrusion

Based from field data and numerical modelling analyses (WL|Delft Hydraulics, 2007), the lower layer water temperature in the lagoon was shown to abruptly drop intermittently (Fig. 4.29). These abrupt changes in water temperature were also appreciable at the inner most cove of the lagoon (Muelle). Numerical simulations revealed that these phenomena were brought about by the massive intrusion of offshore water through Manila channel. The simulated distribution of lower layer water temperature during the intrusion event indicate that the cold water mass took about five to six hours to travel from the channel entrance to arrive at Muelle cove. The intrusion of the offshore cool water mass to the warm water mass inside the lagoon has important implications to the hydraulic residence time and carrying capacity of Puerto Galera through the flushing of accumulated pollutants.

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Survey Data NEAR SURFACE AND BOTTOM WATER TEMPERATURE 1 2 3 29 28.5 28 27.5 27 26.5

Celsius 26 25.5 25 B1-Layer1

24.5 B1-Layer4 Date (2007) 24 23-Feb 24-Feb 25-Feb 26-Feb 27-Feb 28-Feb 1-Mar 2-Mar

Numerical Simulation 1Mar2007 5am 1Mar2007 8am 1Mar2007 11am

1 2 3

Close to the bottom water temperature

Fig. 4.29 Puerto Galera outer sea cool water mass intrusion based from field observation and numerical simulation (Pokavanich et al., 2009)

Numerical Simulations for Integrated Decision Support

Different management scenarios were also simulated to evaluate various conservation schemes for improving the environmental condition within Puerto Galera lagoon: 1) reopening the sandbar for additional outer sea connection; 2) reduce the current pollutant influx by half and; 3) triple the current pollution influx. The reduction in pollutant influx se infers the possible implementation of wastewater treatment facilities or better sanitary practices in the future. Increase in influx on the other hand, is development without regard to the environment with increase in untreated waste discharged to the lagoon. Simulation results showed (Fig. 4.30), the water quality (in terms of dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll-a concentration) for the present condition is quite similar to the case of reopening the sandbar while the other two cases look significantly different. It appeared that halving the wastewater load case translated into significant improvement of the water quality condition in the lagoon, in terms of dissolved oxygen concentration. In contrast, three times increase in effluent discharge will further reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen. In terms of phytoplankton biomass, the more wastewater load, the higher concentration of phytoplankton biomass. Although, the phytoplankton added DO into the water column by photosynthesis, they do respiration and consume DO to decompose their biomass after they die. The zone of high concentration of phytoplankton, therefore, in long-term becomes greatly vulnerable for the development of hypoxia and consequently deterioration of benthic ecosystem. The weak current regime of the lagoon’s inner cove (during weak intrusion events) promotes rapid settling of organic detritus of phytoplankton to the bottom, requiring large amount of DO during decomposition. It appears therefore that re-opening the sandbar alone cannot mitigate the water quality

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problem in Puerto Galera. The most effective way to mitigate the water quality problem in the lagoon remains to be the reduction in pollution load.

Present condition Reopening Sandbar Effluent dischargeX0.5 Effluent dischargeX3

Chlorophyll-a conc. (mg/m3) Dissolved oxygen conc. (mg/L)

0 2 6 7

Fig. 4.30 Puerto Galera scenario simulations for integrated decision support system (Pokavanich et al., 2009)

Over-All Recommendations

Overall, the recommendations will have to take a two-pronged approach. On one hand, there is a need to continue to improve the policies and laws and make them more conducive to environmental protection, to the equitable distribution of benefits from economic activities and the broad representation of stakeholders in the decision- making processes. On the other hand, the requirement for the broad participation of the citizenry is the presence of capable community mechanisms and organizations that can dialogue with government and other stakeholders on issues related to the management of Puerto Galera. CECAM for its part has provided and is continuously providing local concerned agencies the data and information necessary to implement these recommendations. The Marine Ecology Component of CECAM has been given the task to take charge of the science part of the prestigious 11th World Congress of the Club of the World’s Most Beautiful Bays in November 2015.

With the availability of scientific information, mechanisms for integrating scientific outputs to management should be developed and implemented. Enhancement of stakeholder participation, particularly with the scientific community is definitely a must considering the increasing number of coastal population. Development and/or improvement of the local government unit’s decision support system through research with proper management recognition should be exercised. A framework is therefore necessary for collecting and interpreting environmental information at a resolution,

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scope, and scale necessary for addressing economic and ecological considerations inherent to decision-making.

Proactive approach to environmental assessment should be exercised by enhancing the local government unit’s developmental and environment protection functions. Utilization of the authority’s decision support system should be a standard management procedure.

Comprehensive monitoring and data gathering should be ecosystem-designed and utilized for research and not only for regulation. The sustainability of the continuous and comprehensive monitoring system (CCMS) is important as possible shifts in ecosystem response can take a long time and there is a continuous need for validating management decisions through field measurements. Conduct of field surveys for specific ecosystem research purposes should be regularly considered. Enhancement of research collaboration with international and local academic and research institutions to compensate existing research capabilities should be pursued.

For the integrated water resources management approach to coastal resource management, there is a need to involve all stakeholders in decision-making to properly consider all concerns. Stakeholder consultation is vital for soliciting information, concerns, opinions and feedback for IDSS, and should therefore be regularly conducted.

Boracay, Malay, Aklan

Boracay Island is situated two kilometers off the northwest tip of Panay Island, in the Visayas region. It is comprised of three barangays (Yapak, Balabag and Manoc-manoc) and has a total area of 1,006.64 hectares. It is under the jurisdiction of Malay, a municipality in the province of Aklan. It has a population of 17,781 in 2010. Boracay Island is world-renowned for its four-kilometer beach with powdery white sands. It is one of the top tourist destinations in the Philippines. In 2012, it was named the best island in the world by the Travel + Leisure magazine. Figure 2 shows the increase in the number of tourist arrivals in the island from 1984 to 2013. Tourism in the island flourished in the 1970s when there were still no electricity and tourist facilities available. It became more popular in the 1980s to backpackers and foreign visitors who stayed in small structures made of light materials. Locals then began to cater to the needs of the increasing visitors. In the 90s, establishments started to improve the standards of the island’s facilities aiming to promote an urbanized tourist destination and this jeopardized the island’s pristine environment. At present, accommodation facilities range from houses-turned-into-rooms-for-rent to five-star luxury hotels.

The issues

Similar to Puerto Galera, the primary issues that CECAM addresses in Boracay Island, are largely an offshoot of unsustainable tourism, aggravated by the impacts of climate variability and global warming. Below is one side of a site-based CECAM poster giving the geographic location of the island, a brief description of this world-renown tourism destination, the seven key environmental and social issues and how the project is

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addressing them (Fig. 4.31). The issues are inter-dependent and include: coastal erosion, improper coastal infrastructure development, high rate of population increase, water quality degradation, ‘green tides’, loss of coastal habitats, and lack of knowledge to address the issues. CECAM is addressing these issues by providing land and benthic cover mapping and GIS analysis which are necessary to account for the degree of change in the status of the ecosystems and water quality in relation to the magnitude of impact of developmental activities. With the help of private resorts and government agencies, it installed five CCTVs to monitor water and sand movement, among others, data and information necessary to understand the dynamics of coastal change (e.g. beach erosion/accretion, sand quality, wave and water movements, related activities of tourists and residents). The data and information are synthesized into an Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) which is the direct link of the scientific knowledge generated with policy. CECAM held workshops, focused discussion, symposia and training courses to make sure that these benefits are understood and utilized in local effort to conserve and manage coastal resources.

. Fig. 4.31 One-side of the site-based brochure for Boracay produced by CECAM, giving a brief description of the site and the seven key issues which the project is addressing.

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CECAM Initiatives to address issues

1. Assessment of environmental changes in Boracay Island using geospatial technologies

Benthic Cover Analysis

Fig. 4.32 Benthic Cover in 1988 and 1993 (Landsat), 2008 (Quickbird), 2011(Worldview-2)

A decreasing coral cover is observed from 1988 to 2011. About 70.5% decrease in coral cover has occurred in 23 years. Generally, the coral covers either become rocks or sand and coral rubbles. The most significant decrease occurred from 2008 to 2011 when the number of tourist arrivals experienced a 38.4% increase. A dramatic increase in sand and coral rubbles happened from 2003 to 2006 when the number of tourists increased by 63.3%. Decrease in coral cover is most evident in the southwestern part of the island where the Coral Garden and Angol Point are located.

Table 4.4 Benthic Cover Difference in Percentage Image Difference (%) % Change in Sand and Year Deep Tourist Corals Rocks Seagrass Sand Coral Water Arrivals Rubbles 1988 to 1993 -1.227 10.094 3.514 8.821 53.181 -60.224 Incomplete data 1993 to - - -1.342 3.871 -5.732 124.225 Incomplete data 1996 3.574 27.538 - - 1996 to 2003 -36.600 5.182 65.322 2.827 107.3 21.852 17.715 - - 2003 to 2006 -4.730 -6.719 4.097 119.059 63.3 6.359 25.300 - - - 2006 to 2008 -15.921 -6.418 58.031 18.5 11.702 52.049 3.671 - - 2008 to 2011 80.498 7.447 8.022 1.976 38.4 29.719 4.065

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Built-up Land Cover Change

A significant built-up growth in the island has occurred between 1988 and 2012. Built- up cover in Barangay Balabag, where the famous White Beach is located, is continuously increasing since 1988 except for the year 2006. This can be attributed to the scan lines errors present on the image used. The sudden peak in the total built-up area in 1996 mostly took place in Barangay Yapak where a major portion of the Boracay Fairways and Bluewater, a resort with an 18-hole championship golf course, is located. The increase is due to the big area of bare land (classified as built-up) during the development and construction of the said resort which started in 1996.

Fig.4.33 PC2 Images (derived using Principal Component Analysis): lighter tones indicate built-up and bare areas.

Table 4.5 Built-up Land Cover Manoc-manoc Landsat Built-up Cover Yapak (Total Balabag (Total (Total Area: Image (Total % Change) Area: 377 has) Area: 326 has) 302 has) 1988 107.5 21.70 51.60 34.23 1993 201.95 72.85 56.26 72.84 1996 153.95 69.80 63.84 20.31 2003 157.47 54.62 70.10 32.75 2006 169.95 84.74 58.43 26.78 2009 170.68 55.30 72.74 42.64 2011 180.67 23.03 82.54 75.10 2012 192.29 36.62 86.26 69.41

2. Assessment of the role of coral reef ecosystem in Boracay Island

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The coral reef ecosystem in Boracay Island is a precious tourism resource and is utilized in marine leisure such as snorkeling and diving activities. On the other hand, it becomes clear through CECAM research that the coral reef ecosystem off the coast of White Beach also serves an important role in White Beach’s formation and maintenance. This is described in more detail below:

(i) Coral reef ecosystem as a supply source of White Beach sands

We conducted sediment analysis to identify the main components of White Beach sediments in the survey line which we investigated at the north part of White Beach (see Fig. 4.34). As shown in Fig. 4.35, most of the sediments are composed of dead bodies of reef organisms like coral fragments, Halimeda (which is a kind of algae), Foraminifera, and shells (see Fig. 4.36), whereas terrestrial rocks which can be seen in the general beach are in very low proportion at any point. Especially around the shoreline, coral fragments and Halimeda are the main components of beach sediments.

Fig. 4.34 Location of Fig. 4.35 Result of sediment survey line component analysis of samples taken along the survey line shown in Fig. 4.34

Fig. 4.36 Main sediment component in Boracay Island

(ii) Coral reef protects the White Beach from high waves

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Wave damping simulation and wave run-up calculation in the rough wave condition were performed to evaluate the wave dissipating function of corals at the same survey line of sediment analysis. Topographic data was extracted from a field survey conducted in September 2012. Two cases were examined corresponding to different topographic situations: Case1 (present condition) and Case2 (corals growing condition in the 1980’s). Fig. 4.37 shows the topographic profile and the cross-shore distributions of significant wave height of Case1 and Case2. In the rough wave condition (where the significant wave height offshore is 5.0m, compared to Case1, the run-up distance for Case2 is smaller by more than 8m because corals induce wave breaking and dissipate the wave energy at the reef edge.

Fig.4.37 Cross section and one dimension wave damping

From the example above, it can be said that properly conserving and restoring the coral reef ecosystem may significantly contribute to beach enhancement through sediment supply and wave damping functions of the reef ecosystem. However, the coral reef ecosystem in Boracay has been seriously degraded by various anthropogenic impacts mostly related to tourism development. Through interviews and questionnaire surveys with stakeholders including local government units and others, it was found out that there are many environmental load factors, such as water pollution by sewage effluent and marine activities, coral destruction by anchoring and leisure diver’s unintended contacts (which can be destructive), and construction of seawalls and other hard structures, which may accelerate beach erosion.

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3. CCMS CCTV monitoring

Quantitative monitoring of beach dynamics (ex. beach width, beach-use change, wave breaking, algal blooms, etc.) was not conducted in Boracay Island so far. Understanding beach dynamics is useful in order to take measures that can effectively address the beach erosion problem in the island. Moreover, CCTV camera monitoring can encourage local people to have a stronger interest in the coastal environment and its protection through the CCTV camera images.

Fig.4.38. Installation location of CCTV cameras

Installation location Fig. 4.38 shows the installation location of the CCTV cameras. In Boracay Island, four CCTV cameras* were installed and recording the video from June 2013. Table 4.6 shows the target view of each camera location.

Table 4.6 Installation location and target view of CCTV camera Location name Target view NAMI RESORT Whole area of Diniwid Beach Boracay Terraces Resort_Hilltop Whole area of White Beach Boracay Terraces Resort_Rooftop Northern part of White Beach Elizalde’s Resort Middle part of White Beach (near the Station1)

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Monitoring results

The followings are some of the monitoring result examples:

Short term beach dynamics

Not only seasonal and long-term beach dynamics change can be observed but also short-term dynamics like before and after episodic events such as typhoons and rough wave conditions. Fig. 4.39 shows the Diniwid Beach and White Beach in rough wave conditions against calm wave conditions in White Beach as shown in Fig. 4.40. It can be noticed that the wave run-up reached the backshore during rough wave conditions. Fig. 4.41 shows the extent covered by macroalgal blooms.

Fig. 4.39 Rough wave conditions captured by CCTV cameras: Diniwid Beach (Aug.16, 2013 6:00) (left image) and White Beach (Sep.15, 2013 6:00) (right image)

Fig.4.40 Calm wave condition captured by CCTV camera in White Beach (Apr.21, 2014 10:00)

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Fig.4.41. Algal bloom condition in White Beach (Mar. 22 2014 8:00)

Long term dynamics

Fig. 4.42 (left) shows the survey lines for beach width change monitoring ((i)-(iii)) and the results of beach width change in White Beach. Fig. 4.42(right) shows a seasonal beach dynamics change trend with beach width becoming narrow during the Dry season (Jan- June) and becoming wide during the rainy season (Jul-Dec). To further describe beach dynamics with more precision, continuous monitoring and collection of more data are needed.

No data

Fig.4.42 (left) Monitoring lines and (right) Result of beach width change in White Beach (Aug.4, 2013-Sep.8, 2014)

4. Socio-economic study on tourism and the environment

Socio-economic data gathering

Tourist Survey. The socio-economic survey was conducted from January 21 to 24, 2013. Tourists were randomly selected and interviewed during a regular season (Seasons based on Tourist Influx: Lean, Regular, Peak and Super Peak). In selecting the samples, no two interviewees came to Boracay from the same group. A total of 570 respondents, composed of 191 Filipinos and 379 foreigners, were surveyed.

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Household Survey. The island’s estimated population in 2012 is roughly 30,000 and the 2010 National Statistics Office (NSO) Census showed that the average household size in the province of Aklan is 4.6. Using these figures, it can be deduced that there are approximately 6,521 households in Boracay. But with the limited time and resources, a sample size of 600 was selected to characterize the entire population. In order to ensure that no element in the population will be excluded, a proportionate stratified sampling was used. The spatial strata used are the sitio boundaries. Since there is no available population data in each sitio, the computation of samples was based on building footprints digitized from a pan-sharpened 2010 Worldview-2 image and a 2008 digital orthophoto. The footprints were classified as residential and non- residential. In order to spatially distribute the samples and to avoid clustering, each sitio was subdivided into subzones.

Establishment Survey. According to the listings of the Department of Tourism (DOT) and the local government of Malay, there were already 1173 establishments (including small-scale e.g. sari-sari store) on the island in 2008. However, there is no available exact figure as to how many establishments are operating on the island at present. For this study, a total of 632 establishments were randomly selected in each sitio.

Geotagging. To facilitate spatial analysis of the demographic and socio-economic data, household and establishment samples were geo-tagged.

Socio-economic analysis and water quality assessment

Subsistence incidence of families in Boracay is 11% which corresponds to the households who answered “Not Enough Income for Daily Food Consumption”. On the other hand, the annual per capita poverty threshold for the province of Aklan is Php 16,907. There is no official ABCDE Socioeconomic Classification released by the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). The annual income classification used is shown in Table 4.7 Boracay has an average household size of 4.5 persons. A household with 4 members needs about Php 67,628 to spend for food and non-food basic needs while a household with 5 members needs Php 84,535. The poverty incidence of families in Boracay is 39%. This is still a conservative estimate since some of those in class E, which constitutes 48% of the households, may be living below the poverty threshold. Fig. 4.43 shows the spatial distribution of income classes.

Table 4.7 Annual Income Classification (Adapted from Tomas, Africa. 2011) Income Class Annual Income AB >1.8 M C >600 T – 1.8 M D >190 T – 600 T E >60 T – 190 T None of the above 60T and below

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Fig.4.43 Spatial distribution of income classes in Boracay Island

Fig.4.44 Awareness on wastewater fate in Boracay Island

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Fourteen percent (14%) of the households are without septic tanks. Most of the wastewater coming from these houses without septage systems go directly to the ground (Table 4.8). Most of the residents without septage system do not know where the wastewater that goes to the public drainage/canals actually ends up. Fig. 4.44 shows that most of the residents living in the western side of barangay Balabag (White Beach side) have no idea on the fate of wastewater that is discharged into public storm drainage as well as on its effects.

Table 4.8 Wastewater drainage for households without septic tanks Toilet Kitchen Shower Public Directly to Public Directly to Public Directly to drainage the drainage the drainage the ground ground ground 45% 55% 28% 72% 30% 70%

Forty-eight percent (48%) of the establishments that are not connected to the centralized sewerage treatment plant (STP) and 3% of the respondents have no septic system at all. Some big hotels that are not yet conneted to the centralized STP maintain their own small sewage treatment facility.

Fig. 4.45 shows plots of some of the water quality parameters overlaid on a building density map. NH4 and PO4 are highest in the eastern side of the island where three marine outfalls are located. The water discharges from these pipes are supposed to be rainwater,, however, the presence of infomal settlements in the area which discharge wastewater to the storm drainage network is causing a foul-smell and high levels of nutrients in the effluents.

Fig.4.45 A snapshot of some of the water quality parameters from November 2012

Socioeconomic Countermeasures against coastal resource deterioration

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The number of tourists visiting Boracay has increased rapidly since the 1990s, about 164 thousand tourist arrival in 1996 increased almost 1,360 thousand in 2013 (Fig. 4.46). This change led to (1) increased environmental burden by marine leisure activities and (2) increased discharge of wastewater to the coastal sea area from tourism facilities/establishments like hotels. These factors caused deterioration of coastal resources, especially the coral reefs. For example, overuse of scuba diving, in particular, repeated anchoring of scuba diving boats at diving points, or intended/unintended touching of corals by scuba divers can hasten the deterioration of coral reefs.

Fig.4.46 Yearly total number of tourists in Boracay (1996 to 2013)

Stakeholders are taking the kinds of countermeasures against each factor. They are as follows: (1) taking entrance tax to the island from the tourists, (2) regulating resource users through intermediary groups (e.g., BASS, to be hereinafter described) by their voluntary rule, (3) monitoring and controlling snorkeling activities in the MPAs, (4) constructing a sewage treatment plant (STP) by BIWC (to be hereinafter described) and establishing the municipal ordinance that ordains mandatory connection of wastewater discharge to any sewage system or construction of sewage treatment plant.

Regulating Resource Users through Intermediary Groups by Voluntary Rule

In Boracay Island, intermediary groups of coastal resource users were formed into, such groups often make self-imposed regulations and enforce them to their own members. Naturally-forming voluntary activities of coastal resource conservation by resource users are very important. Because resource users often know best about the condition of coastal resources (they can monitor resource in their daily use). And they can be

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monitoring other users’ activities each other in their daily resource use. So again, they get benefits from coastal resource, so they have an incentive to conserve it. But they also have an incentive to do free ride. So it requires them to create the organization for managing resources, the enforcement of regulations, and punishing violators. And it is desirable that (local) government gives a legal support/legitimacy to them and accommodates the relationship among such groups.

Fig.4.47 Management structure of diving activity For example, BASS (Boracay Association of Scuba-diving School), which established in 1993, is the association of diving shops in the Boracay Island. In 2013 they have 37 members. Estimated capacity of affiliated shop is 400-1000 divers/day. Their major missions related to coral reef conservation are (a) maintenance of anchor buoys at each diving point nearby coral reef, (b) enforcement of their voluntary rules, e.g., prohibition of anchoring at diving points, prohibition of spearing fish/any fishing activities, (c) giving punishment to violators; e.g., collecting fine, (d) supporting LGU and Environmental activities, e.g., coral planting and (e) issue of the certificate to each diving shop.

Especially, (e) is a very important point. By using this, BASS can ensure the effectiveness of their rule. That is, each diving shop need certificate from BASS, because LGU requires it to issue business permit. In Philippine, shops are legally-required to get a business permit. This mean BASS can put each shop under a certain control through issuing a certificate. Besides LGU can exercise influence on diving shops through these channels. In this case, it is construable that the organization makes use of the authority and the power of local government to discipline and control their members (Fig. 4.47). In the intermediary groups there is a relationship of mutual trust, an affinity and a sense of

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fellowship —a kind of social capital—, it is easier to cooperate with each other than to cooperate between government and individuals directly. This type of system is worthy of remark.

Monitoring and controlling snorkeling activities in the MPAs

In 2001 municipality Malay constituted the ordinance of establishing some MPAs as sanctuaries. But in 2002 this ordinance was reformed, then the sanctuaries became the snorkeling areas (now they called marine parks in the present ordinance establishing in 2009).

For example, in the MPAs the ordinance in 2002 prohibits the activities as follows: (1) dropping of anchor, (2) dispensing motor oil or other pollutants of whatever nature, (3) belching, (4) fishing of whatever nature, (5) picking of corals or other marine products for whatever purpose, except for research purpose and (6) vandalism/scraping of corals. LGU organized Bantay Dagat, which means “sea guard” in Tagalog, and they implement monitoring, patrol and law enforcement activities in the MPAs. In the Boracay Island 280 boat owners do island hopping business (they established an intermediate group called Boracay Island Hopping Association (BIHA) in 1999 and this organization have also their own voluntary rule). They bring tourists to the island tour (in many cases, nearby coral reef) by leisure boats and make them do snorkeling and other leisure activities. In many cases they select above-mentioned snorkeling areas to make their customers do snorkeling.

Then LGU assigns sea rangers at important snorkeling areas for management. Their activities are as follows: 1) monitoring the leisure activities and checking whether tourists and island hopping boat are obeying the rules of the MPA, 2) tolling snorkeling fee of 20PhP per person, 3) maintenance of anchor buoys, 4) law enforcement and 5) rescue work. The salary of sea rangers was paid by the snorkeling fee collecting from tourists. This system is effective for protecting the snorkeling areas from anchoring and other destructive activities.

Sewage treatment system by both the hardware and the Municipal Ordinance

Boracay Island Water Company (BIWC) established in 2008 by a public - private partnership, i.e., Manila Water Company (private company) has invested 80%, and national government (TIEZA, Philippines Tourism Authority, Dept. of Tourism) has invested 20%. It constructed the sewage treatment plant (STP) in 2011. And municipality Malay established the ordinance that ordains mandatory connection of wastewater discharge to any sewage system or construction of their own sewage treatment plants by themselves. This ordinance requires to inflict penalties (fine, imprisonment or revocation of business permit) on the violators.

Currently, in 2013, STP of BIWC treats 40% of wastewater and the connection to the BIWC SPT is available in the 31% area of the whole island. But only 860 household and/or establishment are connected (Sept., 2013). The number of residential household is 3,523 (National Census in 2007 by NSO) and there are 1048 tourism establishment in the Boracay Island. Malay Municipal Health Office mentioned that almost all

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establishments have already connected the sewage system or set up their own septic tank. But according to the project member’s survey, 55% of residential households directly discharge to the ground from their toilet. There are some reasons: 1) poor households often can’t pay the initial cost of connection (just for reference, in Boracay, 9.1% of households live in the house without toilet facilities as shown in Table 4.9 below), 2) they cannot connect sewage pipeline by the property-right problem of land/road or the “elevation of land” problem. These problems need the initiative of the LGU, for example, subsidization to the poor people, and persuasion of landowners (and if necessary, LGU should pay minimal compensation money to them).

Table 4.9 Result of environmental health survey by directly visiting all households (HH) in the Boracay Island as of end of December 2013

Barangay Household Number HH w/ Toilet Facilities HH w/o Toilet Facilities Balabag 2146 2092 (97.5%) 54 (2.5%) Manoc-Manoc 2648 2339 (88.3%) 309 (11.7%) Yapak 1131 952 (84.2%) 179 (15.8%) Total 5925 5383 (90.9%) 542 (9.1%) Source: Malay Municipal Health Office

In addition, there is a problem of “Illegal Settlers.” Generally “Illegal Settlers” is the term given to the people who are living in an area/house without both property rights and lease. In many cases, they don’t register as a local citizen. (But they seem to be included in the values of Table 4.9). It is conjectured that almost all “Illegal Settlers” don’t connect sewage treatment system or don’t set up their own septic tank. It is desirable that local community receives illegal settlers as responsible local residents and encourages participation to a drainage countermeasure by using kinds of policy, e.g., subsidization policy.

5. Boracay IDSS

3D Geodatabase Development

A geodatabase was developed which contains (1) z-aware GIS layers derived from a digital aerial photo as well as those obtained from NAMRIA (2) tables storing socio- economic and water quality information, (3) output layers from GIS analyses and their (4) relationship classes. A data dictionary is also created for the future users of the database. This geodatabase will be linked to the models and will serve as one of the input.

Spatial Analysis

Areas with slope equal to 18% and above were mapped using a digital elevation model generated from contours and spot heights. Point density analysis was used to generate a map of the building density. Lastly, a 30-m buffer was created from the Buffer Wizard of ArcMap™ to identify the number of structures that intrudes the shoreline easement.

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Visualization of Land Use Scenarios for Boracay Island

On 2008, the Philippine’s Department of Tourism, one of the governing government agency in Boracay island, initiated a project on the formulation of a Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) for the island. The CLUP shall serve as basis for enactment of appropriate local ordinances, identification of relevant infrastructure and support needs, and framework for future development and conservation of resources. With the project conclusion’s, two of its output includes an existing land use and a proposed land use map.

Using these land use maps and other data sources, a realistic 3D representation of the island was created, complete with terrain, vegetation and structures (see Fig. 4.48). For the proposed land use, built - out analysis was used to compute, locate and visualized the amount of development in proposed commercial areas. Comparing the two 3D models highlights the drastic changes that the island will go through should the proposed land used be approved and implemented. These include conversion of forest lands to new commercial areas and narrowing of beach area. High density area in the island is also expected to expand when current development trends continues in the future.

Fig. 4.48 Visual Compar ison of the Existing and Propose d Land Use of Boracay Island

Built – Out Analysis

To determine the amount of development that will occur in the proposed land use, built –out analysis was performed. Built – out is a technique applied by planners to estimate the amount and location of development. To perform build-out analysis, an expected number of future structures per hectare, floor area ratio (FAR), or a combination of both are needed. Floor area ratio refers to the percentage of an area occupied by buildings or other structures. For example, an FAR of 0.15 means that a 100 square meter lot is occupied with buildings with a total area of 15 square meters. Looking at a worst case scenario, values used for this study were from the sitio with highest FAR i.e. Sitio Laguna with an FAR of 0.216 and 18.4 buildings per hectare.

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Fig. 4.49 Results for Numeric and Spatial Build-Out Analysis for Boracay Island.

A total of 7,025 new buildings and a total building area of 98.2 hectares were computed by the numeric build – out analysis. However, due to spatial constraints, only 7,020 buildings were placed on the ground by spatial build – out analysis. This lowers the total building area to 97.8 hectares only. Fig. 4.49 shows the location of these new buildings.

Recommendations

As emphasized in a number of reports, the coastal ecosystems of Boracay (e.g. coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, forests) are highly ‘endangered’, at risk of eminent loss if the business-as-usual scenario continues to prevail. This is despite the recent establishment of the Boracay Re-development Task Force, which, as the name implies, is mandated to introduce more environment friendly and effective ways to redevelop the

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‘gem of marine tourism in the country’. But for the task force to succeed in its mission, the following recommendations need to be seriously considered and implemented in order to reverse the trend of environmental degradation in the island:

1. Have a collective vision on the part of the stakeholders for a more sustainable tourism development in the island; 2. Make effort to acquire basic understanding on their part of the importance of protecting and sustainably using the natural resources vis-à-vis tourism, not too much focus on short-term economic gains at the expense of the long term environmental imperatives; 3. Develop the capacity (and the will) to use scientific and technological knowledge in addressing the issues; and 4. Improve the governance system at both the national and local levels in relation to tourism in Boracay. The present governance system in Boracay is not sufficiently capable of facing the challenges to provide for the island’s sustainable tourism development.

Specific recommendations

1. Monitoring of artificial reef interventions in Boracay

Deploying artificial interventions (i.e., reef buds, reef balls, reef domes, etc.), the Code Blue and other related initiatives aimed at ‘restoring’ or ‘rehabilitating’ the degraded reefs in Boracay are laudable in intent, but they are far from attaining the objectives they set out to accomplish. One major drawback is the absence of a truly effective monitoring system. Monitoring comprises repeated surveys or measurements of critical parameters in order to provide the stakeholders with the answers to questions needed to manage the intervention, the reef resources and its users. The fundamental questions to ask are:

a. Is the artificial intervention addressing directly the major cause of reef degradation? b. Is the artificial intervention working, i.e., achieving its objectives? c. How does it improve or enhance the health of the reef areas? d. How does it improve of enhance cooperation among the stakeholders? e. How does it improve or enhance tourism or other related livelihoods? f. How does it improve of enhance the governance system in the area?

Parameters to be monitored

Hence, certain factors, both ecological and social need to be monitored. In monitoring the techno-ecological parameters, the Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) and the CCTVs deployed by the CECAM Project should be considered in order to have more meaningful and reliable data useful for prediction of future conditions. In general terms, the parameters include:

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1. The threats: Are they persistently impacting (positively or negatively) the nearby populations and communities (fish, corals, invertebrates, seaweeds, seagrasses)? 2. The community structure: Is the structure (e.g. species composition, density, frequency, cover, biomass of target organisms) of these populations and communities improving in the area? 3. Success/Failure indicators: Are the intervening conservation or management actions a success/failure? 4. Local economies: Is tourism and other livelihood means of local communities maintained or improved? 5. Community awareness: Do the communities understand the monitoring process and the need to manage the area and want to help in the process?

The nature and frequency of critical specific parameters to monitor would depend on two very important considerations: specific objectives and capability. However, since it is obvious that the introduction of the artificial intervention is directly related to tourism and livelihood demands, it is important to consider that an integration of all objectives is necessary. Below is a matrix that may guide stakeholders:

Table 4.10 Matrix of objectives, specific monitoring parameters and frequency Objective Parameter to monitor Frequency Biodiversity enhancement Species composition Quarterly and fish biomass increase Density Quarterly (In reef buds, reef balls, Frequency Quarterly nearby reefs) Cover Quarterly Biomass Semi-annually Trophic levels Semi-annually Seaweed bloom Bimonthly Seagrass abundance Quarterly Erosion control Sediment erosion Quarterly (In reef buds, reef balls, Sediment accretion Quarterly nearby reefs, beach) Breakage Quarterly Disturbance Quarterly Sand cover Quarterly Sediment quality Grain size Annually Grain composition Annually Water quality Quarterly

Stakeholder cooperation Attendance in meetings Monthly in 1st yr. Participation in fieldwork Quarterly Material contribution Regularly Moral support Regularly Contributed ideas As required Advocacy As required Service improvement Regularly

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Governance enhancement LGU participation Regular New policies (no., quality) As required Action follow-up Immediate Material contribution As required Moral support Regular Advocacy As required Service improvement Regular Compliance to regulations Regular Tourism and livelihood Awareness/Understanding Semi-annually Visitor quality Quarterly Market price Quarterly Income Annually Service improvement Regularly Quality of life Annually Happiness index Annually

2. Administrative and socio-ecological recommendation on artificial reef interventions in Boracay

The CECAM Project is making these recommendations with the end in view of improving or enhancing current efforts to rehabilitate or restore degraded or destroyed reefs in Boracay Island (Philippines) in particular and in the other Coral Triangle Initiative countries, in general. They are consistent with the statements and formal declarations on the subject made by authorities in the field of coral reef science and coastal management both locally (e.g. National Coral Reef Program) and internationally (e.g. CTI, ICRI, ICRAN). These recommendations are direct products of almost two years of quarterly/semi-annual monitoring of the changes in the artificial structures (reef buds and reef balls) deployed about a kilometer directly fronting Diniwid Beach and immediate vicinity. The recommendations are categorized into Administrative and Social-Ecological:

Administrative

1. Establishment, development and monitoring of the artificial structures and immediate surroundings should be a collective effort of the major stakeholders (e.g. LGUs, business sector, NGOs, Dive Shops, resort owners, fishermen, boatmen, community). They should be undertaken regularly and sustained in order to come up with empirical data as basis for their evaluation and future planning; 2. On the part of funding institutions and agencies, as well as of the implementing organizations, transparency and close and effective collaboration in administrative, financial and physical matters need to be enhanced; 3. Evaluation and dissemination of the results of monitoring and evaluation of the artificial structures should be an integral part of the environmental and social mandate of the major stakeholders (e.g. LGU, business sector, NGOs, resort and hotel owners, affiliated academic institutions);

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Social-Ecological

1. Stakeholders should have a clear vision and objectives regarding the development and use of the artificial structures; 2. Baseline data especially on the oceanography, ecology and socioeconomic aspects of the specific locale should be the foundation of any activity planned to effect reef rehabilitation or restoration (see Parameters to be Monitored); 3. The baseline data should be analyzed to determine the desired objectives of the project, exact sites of deployment, number and positioning of the structures, parameters (biophysical, social, institutional) and design (monitoring, evaluation) to be monitored and specific aspects of the project to be evaluated; 4. Related programs and projects, both public and private, should be coordinated through an entity mandated to take the responsibility (e.g. Boracay Redevelopment Task Force?); 5. Outcomes, translated into an understandable and acceptable form, should be regularly disseminated to the public through the media and incorporated into the relevant sections of the school curricula and tourism guidelines and promotions. 6. In decision-making, stakeholders should seriously consider advice from ‘experts’ with unblemished track records and credentials cleared by peers.

3. Recommendation on additional socioeconomic countermeasures in Boracay

On the basis of these activities/social relationships, it would be possible to enhance measures: e.g., (1) rise in entrance tax (inhibiting the increment of the tourists and assigning to funds for environmental countermeasure), (2) tightening voluntary rule of intermediate groups (e.g., entrance quota and/or collecting entrance fee) and voluntary monitoring of coral reef like reef-check (it is useful for enhancing their motivation to know the outcome of their own activities), (3) the definition of scuba diving areas and rules by reforming the MPA ordinance and (4) investment to the sewage treatment system, improvement of connection rate by using some kinds of policy, e.g., subsidization policy, and voluntary monitoring water quality around the island by residents/resource users.

It would be necessary to share the scientific knowledge about coastal environment and to promote mutual understanding about the facts occurred on the Boracay Island, causal relationship and their consequence among the stakeholders including the LGU.

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Banate, Iloilo

The overall goal of CECAM is to achieve ecosystem resilience in the face of local and global environmental stresses. In the Banate-Barotac Bay area the specific objectives include (1) Investigation of the impacts of episodic events like heavy run-off resulting from periods of intense rainfall and wave action during the monsoons in general, and typhoons in particular, on tropical coastal ecosystems and their recovery processes; (2) examining changes in biodiversity and ecosystem services as these are affected by the stresses (3) establishment and implementation of a comprehensive system for continuous monitoring of multiple environmental stresses, and (4) assessment and prediction of ecosystem responses employing an Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS). The investigations were primarily focused on the impacts of heavy sediment load from the watershed on mangrove, tidal flat, seagrass and coral reef habitats as well as fisheries in the area.

Major environmental issues in Banate Bay 1. Deterioration of coastal habitats due to turbidity Water quality and habitats in Banate Bay have degraded in the past few decades due to intensified coastal development and resource consumption. Degradation of water quality in Banate Bay can be typically observed in highly turbid waters, which might be a trigger for the ecosystem degradation observed in seagrass, benthos and fish communities. Terrestrial sediment load, the major source of coastal turbidity, has increased due to human activities, such as intensified agriculture and forestry that alter the land surface status to be more prone to soil erosion, as well as climate change, which intensifies rainfall characteristics and episodic atmospheric events. Continued decline of mangrove forests in the 1980’s to early 1990’s diminished its sediment filtering functions in the buffer area between watersheds and coastal waters (K. Furukawa et al., 1997), which led to increased susceptibility of the coastal ecosystem to effects of terrestrial sediment loads. Conversion of mangrove forest into coastal aquaculture ponds further contributes to increased coastal turbidity as aquaculture ponds act as a source of organic matter and nutrients (Shpigel et al., 1993), which promote high phytoplankton biomass, another determinant of increased levels of turbidity.

2. Relationship between terrestrial sediment load and coastal turbidity Banate Bay has several watersheds within the bay. Alacaygan and Anilao River watersheds are the top two largest watersheds which are the major suppliers of terrestrial sediment. A large portion of the coastal area in the eastern bay is occupied by aquaculture pond that drains effluent with high nutrient and organic matter into the sea during tidal water exchanges. Terrestrial loads from these sources are the major contributor of coastal turbidity in Banate Bay. The terrestrial sediments that drained into the bay are transported by coastal current that is governed by prevailing seasonal winds and diurnal tides (Fig.4.50). During the rainy season when south-west wind prevails, terrestrial loads are transported outside the bay by the coastal current through the north-east boundary. During this period, the dominant contributors of turbidity are the sediment which originates from some distant watersheds in Panay Island, in addition to the sediment generated in adjacent watersheds facing the bay.

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Fig. 4.50 Simulation area in Guimaras Strait (a). Tidal residual current during (b) south-west monsoon (rainy season) and (c) north east monsoon (dry season).

The seasonal wind during south-west monsoon transports sea water from the Guimaras Strait at the southern boundary. The sea water from Guimaras Strait contains high sediment concentration as it is affected by terrestrial loads from some large watersheds in Panay Island such as Jalaur River and Jaro River. As a result, the coastal current plays a role as sediment carrier which brings sediment originated from distant watersheds into Banate Bay during the south-west monsoon.

Fig. 4.51 The extent of terrestrial sediment load from Jalaur River (a, c) and Alakaygan River (b, d). (a, b) for south-west monsoon and (c, d) for north-east monsoon Results of coastal turbidity simulation indicated that high turbidity in Banate Bay is affected by the sediment inputs not only from the adjacent watersheds but also from distant watersheds through the coastal current (Fig.4.51). The simulation analysis indicates that the bay water quality consists of superposed influences of several rivers in Banate Bay and Guimaras Strait.

3. Run-off (water chemistry) In the Banate Bay area, rainfall occurs all year round but is relatively higher in the months from July to November. Atmospheric deposition of nutrients by rainfall is generally very small (usually <5 µM for both NO3– and NH4+) and shows no seasonal trends. The oxygen isotope ratio (δ18O) of rain water shows a weak seasonal change

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with the highest and lowest values in February and August, respectively, and such a signal can be clearly detected also in river water.

Concentration of DIN (NO3–, NO2–, NH4+) in the upper reaches of the Jalaur and Iloilo Rivers is low (<5 µM for NO3–, <2 µM for NH4+) and similar to that in the precipitation. The concentration of NO3– gradually increases towards lower reaches (up to 25 µM) while NH4+, PO43–, and Si (OH)4 do not show remarkable longitudinal changes. The DIN/DIP ratio is usually lower than the Redfield ratio (16) and the DIN/DSi ratio is also low (<0.1; Fig. 4.52), indicating generally nitrogen-limiting conditions.

Fig. 4.52 Longitudinal changes in nutrient elemental ratios (N/P, N/Si) in river waters.

Concentrations of weathering products such as Ca2+, Na+, Si(OH)4, and PO43– in river water are generally lower in the higher-discharge period (September) than under the base-flow conditions (March), probably due to the dilution effect. In contrast, those of biogenic products such as NO3–, NH4+,DOC, respired CO2, and the ratios of DIN/DIP and DIN/DSi in river water were all higher in the same period, probably due to enhanced washout from the watershed. Therefore, the amounts as well as the composition of nutrients loaded by the rivers to coastal ecosystems would depend strongly on the river discharge (and eventually on the rainfall).

4. Declining catches in fisheries Banate and Barotac Bays cover a total area of 22,000ha, with shallow mudflats extending hundreds of meters from the shore. It is bordered by four (4) municipalities with a total coastline of about 20 km. Fisheries remains to be a major source of livelihood, with the blue swimming crab, Portunus pelagicus, and various molluscs (clams and snails) as among the major resources. Catches, however, have dwindled over the past four (4) decades. Based on focus group discussions, the average daily catch per fisher in 2008 ranged from 3-5 kgs, or roughly 1/6 of what they used to catch in the 1970s (Fig.4.53) (BBRMCI, 2008). Aside from getting less, the sizes of what they catch

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had also decreased substantially, as shown by the increase in number of fish per kilogram within the same period. These are tell-tale signs of overfishing at levels which may have already affected the productive potential of local stocks (= recruitment overfishing) (Pauly et al., 1998).

5. Coastal habitat degradation from other factors Local fishers attribute the declining catches to several factors. Aside from there being too many fishers, much of the decline is due to the alteration of habitats considered critical to the early life stages of many coastal fish and invertebrate species. These include the conversion of mangroves to fishponds in previous decades. While reliable figures are not available, estimates of the original area covered by mangrove forests can be gleaned from the total hectarage of brackish water fishponds existing along the Fig. 4.53 Decadal changes in borders of the Bays. Aside from the loss in daily catch rates (bars) and potential production brought about by mangrove number of fish per kg (line) outwelling and the loss of important nursery from 1970-2008 (BBRMCI, habitats, the removal of mangroves along the coast 2008). allows much of the sediment load from run-off to settle over a wider portion of the coast, potentially smothering grassbeds and coral reefs, and removes potential physical protection of the shoreline from strong wave action. There are on-going efforts to adopt a policy of re-establishing mangrove stands in abandoned fishpond areas in the region. Other activities that diminish the quality of local coastal habitats include the physical destruction of seagrass beds from trawl and modified Danish seine operations. Unfortunately, there are no estimates of the spatial extent of seagrass beds that has been impacted by such activities, but this is a common accusation of subsistence fishers in the area. The recent nationwide ban on the use of modified Danish seines may allow some recovery of local grassbeds, although operations of small trawlers in the area continues. It is likely that the factors mentioned above in combination with increased sediment load from run-off as well as natural exposure to wind and waves contribute to the decreasing productive capacity of the bays.

6. Links with watershed Water quality degradation is characterized by turbidity increase in Banate Bay. Turbidity condition directly affects the coastal marine ecosystem by deterioration of underwater light condition. Light availability is critical for autotrophic organisms whose growth is dependent on photosynthetic energy. Light requirements are key determinants of the distribution and abundance for some benthic organisms including seagrasses (Erftemeijer and Stapel, 1999) and corals. Since these benthic habitats are essential nursery ground as well as shelter for marine organisms, deterioration of these benthic habitats causes potential degradation of the coastal marine ecosystem.

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Fig. 4.54 Results of simulation. (a) Average turbidity and (b) underwater light intensity during the rainy season. The area where seagrass can obtain enough light to survive is limited in Banate Bay. The area shown in blue in (b) is the area where underwater light intensity is lower than the light level that is necessary for survival of Halophila ovalis.

Highly turbid water in Banate Bay is significantly contributed by sediment load from multiple watersheds along Banate Bay and Guimaras Strait. The results from coastal turbidity simulation, which takes into account the sediment loads from the multiple watersheds, calculated the underwater light intensity based on the turbidity in the bay (Fig. 4.54). The simulated light intensity during the rainy season indicated that in most parts of the bay, light condition is lower than lower limit of light level which is necessary for survival of Halophila ovalis, a seagrass which can be found in Banate Bay. This result is an indication of terrestrial influence on coastal habitat degradation in terms of sediment load. A scenario analysis on the reduction of terrestrial sediment load by implementing a soil erosion prevention practice in agricultural fields in the watersheds resulted to the improvement of turbidity and underwater light intensity in Banate Bay as shown in Fig. 4.55. It is important to note that significant improvement is accomplished only when the soil erosion practice is simultaneously implemented in multiple watersheds in Panay Island, including Jalaur River watershed and Jaro River watershed. On the contrary, the improvement is rather limited when the soil erosion practice is implemented only in adjacent watersheds in Banate Bay such as Alacaygan River, Anilao River and Tinorian River watersheds. The difference in the scenarios is attributed to the amount of sediment load provided by each watershed. Jalaur and Jaro watersheds produce far larger amounts of sediment load due to their large basin area compared to those provided by the watersheds facing Banate Bay. The sediment load from those distant watersheds is transported to Banate Bay by coastal current. This result, therefore, highlights the importance of a simultaneous management among the watersheds in Panay Island for improvement of the coastal turbidity.

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Fig. 4.55 Results of scenario analysis. (a) average turbidity and (c) underwater light intensity during a rainy season simulated with implementation of soil erosion practice only in adjacent watersheds in Banate Bay. (b) and (d) are same as that of (a) and (c) but with the additional practice implementation in Jalaur River watershed.

Guidelines to developing the CECAM Approach in Banate

Development of Atmosphere-Land-Coastal-Ocean coupling model To conduct turbidity simulation in Banate Bay, the Atmosphere-Land-Coastal-Ocean coupling model was developed. This model consists of three state-of-art models for atmosphere, watershed, and coastal ocean simulation. The coupling model can be run in “simulation module” in the IDSS Banate with Graphical User Interface. Weather Research and Forecast model is applied in the Western Visayas region to simulate various atmospheric parameters such as precipitation, wind, humidity and solar radiation. The results from the atmospheric model are inputs for the watershed model called the Soil and Water Assessment Tool, which will simulate watershed hydrology such as river discharge and sediment load. Turbidity simulation is then conducted by the coastal ocean model which is based on hydrodynamic (ocean current) simulation model called the Princeton Ocean Model and has additional module for sediment advection and diffusion computation. The outputs from the watershed and the atmospheric models are utilized in the coastal ocean model as inputs for turbidity

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simulation. Fig. 4.56 shows the overall framework of the Atmosphere-Land-Coastal- Ocean coupling model with relationship among each model. More detailed description on each model can be found in the IDSS guideline.

Fig. 4.56 Concept of the “Atmosphere-Land-Coastal-Ocean” coupling model

The development of the Atmosphere-Land-Coastal-Ocean coupling model originates out of the need to simulate the complex feature of turbidity in Banate Bay. As mentioned earlier, turbidity is characterized not only by sediment load from adjacent watersheds in Banate Bay but also by multiple distant watersheds in Panay Island. This creates the need to simulate the hydrology of multiple watersheds and atmospheric dynamics. The watershed model is forced by atmospheric inputs such as precipitation, wind, air temperature, and air humidity. A challenge typically arises when the number of target watershed increased while preparing the atmospheric inputs over the watersheds. Simulation of atmospheric parameters is a solution to overcome this limitation. Another advantage of the coupling model is the scenario analysis. The coupling model enables to evaluate the effect of watershed management on coastal environments and thus provides a powerful tool to assess coastal environmental status through scenario analysis.

Data collection Hydrography

Hydrography components have been monitored at the Comprehensive Continuous Monitoring System (CCMS) in three stations in Banate Bay since September 2012. At each station, several parameters including ocean current, tide, waves, as well as water temperature, salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and light quantum are continuously measured by self-recording sensors. A detailed description of the CCMS can be found in the “CCMS chapter”.

Fig. 4.57 shows ocean current data at CCMS. Basic current pattern shows reciprocating flow along the coast of Banate Bay which is induced by diurnal tides. Tidal residual

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currents shown in Fig. 4.58 indicate seasonal flow patterns in rainy and dry season. During the rainy season, a counter-clockwise circulation dominates while in dry season clockwise circulation prevails. This flow pattern is induced by seasonal wind whichprevails southwest in the rainy season and northeast in the dry season. This basic feature of ocean current induced by tides and wind plays an important role on material transport in Banate Bay. During the rainy season, the ocean current transports seawater which contains terrestrial material into the bay from the southern boundary, as explained in section 2.2.

Fig. 4.57 (a) Horizontal ocean current observed at CCMS between September 2012 and September 2013. Tidal averaged flow patterns in (b) rainy season and (c) dry season.

Fig.4.58 Tidal residual current at a) CCMS1 and b) CCMS3.

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Water quality

In CECAM project, a strait-scale synoptic monitoring of seawater chemistry across Guimaras Strait has been conducted both in the high-discharge period (September) and the low-discharge period (March). At the Banate Bay, high-resolution spatial (grid survey) and temporal (24-h survey) investigation of seawater chemistry has also been carried out at the both periods.

The water quality at the strait scale was not significantly different between the high- and low-discharge periods. Nutrient concentrations in surface water were generally low (<1 µM DIN, <0.02 µM DIP, <10 µM DSi). However, moderately high concentrations of nutrients (up to 10 µM NO3–, 0.8 µM PO43–) were accumulated in deeper waters of the strait, indicating active nutrient regeneration in the bottom water or from the sediment. The DIN/DIP ratio was almost always lower than the Redfield ratio and also the DIN/DSi ratio was usually very low (<0.1), which indicates a strong nitrogen-limited condition for phytoplankton growth in this strait. These ratios were particularly low during the low-discharge period. This is consistent with the fact that the discharged river water was depleted in DIN compared to DIP and DSi under base-flow conditions, and suggests that nutrient loading from the rivers controls the nutrient balance in this strait.

Fig. 4.59 DIN concentration and DIN/DIP and DIN/DSi ratios in seawater of Banate Bay.

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The high-resolution survey at the Banate Bay also confirmed that the water chemistry of the bay was under relatively oligotrophic conditions (< 1 µM DIN) and characterized by apparently nitrogen-limiting conditions (Fig. 4.59). The DIN/DIP and DIN/DSi ratios in seawater was particularly low in the nearshore regions of the bay, suggesting that the relatively high inputs of DIP and DSi by river discharge forced the nutrient balance in this bay to strongly N-limited status.

Major environmental problem at Banate Bay is high turbidity due to suspended matter. In fact, particulate organic carbon (POC) and Chlorophyll a concentrations in Banate Bay were significantly higher in the high-discharge period. Thus, it has been supposed that the suspended matter was principally introduced from the land to the bay by river discharge. However, the carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) of POC in the Bay (–23 to –19‰) was always significantly higher than the typical range of terrestrial organic matter (–30 to –26‰). This fact suggests that the organic component of turbid materials transported to the bay was not necessarily of terrestrial origin in strict sense, but rather consisted mainly of potamoplankton and/or brackish algae that were proliferated artificially in river-side fish ponds.

Ecology

High sediment load, particularly during periods of high run-off and strong winds/waves, is a major factor Old benth stn with a negative impact in the bay. Its CCMS stn/ old benth stn potential effect on the benthos New prop stn includes smothering of assemblages when the sediment load settles and disruption when loose particles on the substrate are stirred up during events of strong wind and waves. Because the benthos are the major link between organic matter in the substrate (detritus) and higher trophic level consumers, any negative impact on them will have similar effects on their consumers, many of which are Fig. 4.60 Map showing the distribution of major fisheries resources in the Bay. mean suspended sediment concentration Community structure (red=highest, blue=lowest), and the location (composition, abundance and of stations, transects and CCMS set-ups in distribution) of benthic Banate Bay. infaunal assemblages in Banate Bay was examined to determine how they are affected by runoff and physical exposure to wind and waves.

By design, the schedule of surveys was opportunistic, rather than regular. Surveys were timed with either target conditions or events that would most typify those with strongest effects on the benthos, namely episodes or events characterizing drastic

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changes in salinity and or turbidity (suspended sediment load) due to rain and subsequent run-off from land, and events characterizing intense disturbance to the substrate like those due to typhoon conditions.

Sampling of the benthos in Banate Bay was undertaken five (5) times since implementation began in March 2014. Two (2) surveys were done during the calm relatively dry Summer (Mar and April 2014), once right after a 3-5 day period of heavy rain (July 2014), the fourth in mid-September 2014, several weeks into the SW monsoon, and the fifth from 13-14 October 2014, 1 day after Typhoon Ompong exited the PAR towards the northwest. On each occasion, samples were collected with the use of a 15cm dia stainless steel corer (macrofauna) and a 2.5cm dia PVC core (meiofauna), pushed 10-15cm and 5cm respectively into the sediment. One set of core samples was taken in each of 23 stations located on four (4) transects extending from close to the shoreline to about 2-3km seaward (Fig. 4.60), and at the 3 existing CCMS sites in the study area. In stations deeper than 1-2m, core samples were taken using SCUBA.

Macrofauna samples were sieved using a 500ųm mesh and all organisms retained were be preserved in 10% seawater-formalin solution, stained with Rose Bengal and brought back to the lab for further sorting and identification. Meiofauna samples were also fixed in formalin-seawater and stored for later analysis. Macro-organisms were fine sorted and identified under a dissecting microscope to the lowest taxonomic level possible using references by Fauvel (1953), Day (1967a and b), Fauchald (1977), Smith (1977), Appy et al. (1980) and Higgins and Thiel (1988).

Additional parallel core samples were taken for sediment particle size analysis and total organic matter content (%) determination. The standard analytical procedure for sediment preparation and grain size analysis as described by Buchanan (1984, in Holme and McIntyre, 1984) was used to determine median phi () and sorting index (SI). Sediment samples were wet-sieved through a decreasing series of mesh screens (2200, 1125, 500, 250, 125, and 63 ųm). The residue in each mesh screen and the fraction that passed through the 63 ųm sieve were filtered through separate pre-weighed filter papers and oven-dried for 24 hours at 70 °C to get sediment dry weight for each size (mesh) category. Total organic matter content (%) was determined after the dried sediment was incinerated in a muffle furnace at 500 °C for 5 hours.

Average daily measures of rainfall (mm), salinity (o/oo) and turbidity (NTU) from continuous comprehensive monitoring systems (CCMS) deployed in Banate Bay from 01 January to mid-September 2014 are shown in Fig. 4.61.

The amount of rainfall from sensors in coastal waters of Anilao and inland (river) along the Jalaur show consistent patterns, with relatively little rain until about mid-May and relatively continuous rain beginning in mid-June 2014. The inland station (lower graph) showed rainfall events during the Summer that were not detected by the coastal station in Anilao. Drops in surface salinity were recorded at this station also in mid- June, perhaps within 2-3 days of the start of continuous rains. Salinity close the bottom (6-7m deep) in the Anilao (CCMS2) station changed little but decreased continuously from mid-June (Fig. 4.61). In Barotac Nuevo further south, surface salinity also showed

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a gradual decrease from mid-June with little day-to-day fluctuations, in spite of relatively continuous rain during this period.

For turbidity, inland suspended sediment load in Anilao showed few events in January to February 2014, which became more regular from also from mid-June onwards. Turbidity levels, however, were rather low (< 200 NTU). Three kms from the shore, surface turbidity at station CCMS2 showed 2 rather isolated events before the SW monsoon months: one in mid-February and the other (between 5-600 NTU) in late April. Measurements in succeeding weeks up to mid-September showed few events and low

Fig. 4.61 Mean daily measurements of rainfall (mm), salinity (ppt and turbidity (NTU) at inland river (Anilao and Jalaur) and coastal (CCMS) stations based on continuous records of the comprehensive continuous monitoring sensor systems deployed in Banate Bay and vicinity (from 01 January to 04 September 2014)

(<50 NTU) concentrations. Bottom turbidity showed more frequent but low concentration events beginning in late June, although the events early in the year were consistent with readings at the surface. We do not know what caused the latter events, but readings further south in the Jalaur river station show very high (> 500 NTU) turbidity values around the same time, particularly in April (>1000 NTU) (Fig. 4.61). In contrast to turbidity patterns in the inlad station in Anilao, the recorded levels from

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mid-June were generally lower (mostly < 250 NTU; only episodes up to 500 NTU). Records in the coastal water station (CCMS3) showed much lower readings (almost undetectable) close to the bottom (3m deep) from January to May 2014. The sensor malfunctioned after this period. The surface turbidity sensor at CCMS3 was not operable since the start of this study.

The surveys were thus timed during the calmest months of the year (surveys in March and April 2014), at the beginning of the rainy season (July 2014) as salinity in the Bay started decreasing, in the middle of the SW monsoon (September 2014), well into the rainy season with lower salinity and higher average turbidity within the Bay. The latest survey in mid-October was immediately after the typhoon when not only precipitation and suspended sediment load would have been higher than previous weeks, but physical turbulence from the wind and waves would have also been high.

Sediment particle size distributions for the first 2 surveys are shown in Fig. 4.62. Almost no changes can be seen in the spatial distribution of large particles (GC) from one month to the other, while only subtle changes can be seen for the smaller particles. The most visible changes are for the clay/silt fraction, where a decrease in relative amounts was recorded in some stations from March to April.

There seems to be more extensive spatial and temporal variability in organic matter content, with the largest changes recorded from April to July 2014 in all transects (Fig. 4.63). Organic matter content in the Bay is much higher than normal natural levels. In all 5 surveys, the overall mean organic matter content bay-wide was 27.6%, which is up to 3X higher than typical (5-10%) levels in soft bottom sandy-silty substrate along the coast. Except for transect 1, which is closest to the NE margin of the Bay, mean organic matter content showed a slowly increasing trend from March to October 2014 (Fig. 4.64). This is consistent with increasing accumulation of organic matter along with suspended sediment in run-off during this period.

Fig. 4.62 Sediment particle distribution (%) in Banate Bay in March and April 2014. Note: GC = gravel – coarse sand; FS = fine sand; SC = silt/clay

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Fig. 4.63 Sediment organic matter content (%) in Banate Bay in March, April and July 2014.

Macrobenthic density by transect is shown in Fig. 4.65. Samples for the other 3 surveys are still being processed so that recognizing any trends would be premature. What is clear is that overall densities are low, ranging from 0 – 4,699.1 ind./m2 and a mean of 895.0 ind/m2. While this figure represents only the Fig. 4.64 Mean sediment organic matter content (%) by first 2 surveys and transect in Banate Bay from March to October 2014. may thus not representative of the entire year densities for other months (e.g., December 2012) available from another study show a similarly low density (mean = 418.1 ind/m2; Cadenas, 2013). These values are much lower than densities typical of various substrate types in the Philippines (Table 4.11) and other tropical areas. Species richness, however, shows an interesting picture (Fig. 4.66.). The mean number of taxa per core sample is consistently low (bars) in all transects, including the CCMS stations, although the total number of taxa recorded in each transect (lines) is rather high. This indicates that there are many species but with very patchy distributions. Hence, diversity per sample may be very low, and this is perhaps a consequence of very low abundances, but on the whole diversity is high within the Bay. The rather extreme number of taxa in the April 2014 sample in station CCMS2 is consistent with patchy distributions. Overall, a total of 101 and 102 taxa were recorded in March and April, respectively.

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Fig. 4.65 Mean density of macrobenthos (ind/m2) by transect in Banate Bay in March and April 2014. Note: Error bars show 1 sd.

Table 4.11 Range of densities of macrobenthos reported in the Philippines. Location Reported density Reference (ind/m2) Bais Bay 4,973* Oñate et al. (1994) Villoso and Palpal- latoc San Pedro Bay 607.4- 48,725 (1996) Negros 7,673.4* Pepino et al. 2011 Occidental Southern Narida-Nacionales and 14,043- 27,024 Guimaras Campos (2004) Palompon, 5,998 – 103,667 Pepino et al., 2013 Leyte Banate Bay, 0 – 4699.1 This study Iloilo *mean value

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Fig. 4.66 Mean number of taxa per core (bars) and total number of taxa by transect (lines) in the different transects surveyed in Banate Bay in March and April 2014. Typically, areas with very low abundances usually show low species richness (diversity) as well. This is so since the factors causing depleted abundance will likely cause degraded habitat conditions as well, limiting the continued survival of more species in the area. Hence, if high sediment load resulting in turbid water and unstable substrate are the major causes for reduced macrobenthic abundance in Banate Bay, as hypothesized by the study, the initial results of the study suggest that their intensity and frequency might still be within moderate levels, allowing the maintenance of relatively high diversity in the Bay. This is consistent with the intermediate disturbance hypothesis of Connell (1966). While turbidity and unstable substrate negatively affect macrobenthic abundance, the overall conditions within the Bay are still capable of supporting high diversity and thus might similarly support higher abundance, unless there are other factors with more direct impact on faunal abundance. Capture fishing activities would have such an effect.

T Fig. 4.67 Distribution of macrobenthos density in Banate Bay in March and April 2014

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These initial results suggest that sound fisheries management alone may already lead to improved resource availability in the Bay. This will be further examined as data from the remaining surveys are processed and analyzed. The distributions of macroinfaunal densities in March and April 2014 are shown in Fig. 4.67. Densities in transect 1 were consistently low in both surveys, while those in the other stations were more variable. The taxonomic composition of the macrobenthos are shown in Fig. 4.68. The polychaetes dominated the benthic assemblages in both surveys, making up on average over 64% of all organisms recorded in the samples. The other groups which were common in both surveys include Gammarids, Sipunculids and Nemerteans, which together with polychaetes represented 80-90% of all taxa recorded in the 2 surveys.

Fig. 4.68 Taxonomic composition of macrobenthos in Banate Bay in March and April 2014.

Recommendations for future actions

Turbidity caused by heavy sediment runoff from upland, degrades bottom habitats and disrupts the food web which supports fisheries in the bays. Its negative impact can be reduced by improved upland farming practices not only in the four municipalities bordering the bays, but along the entire Jalaur watershed which is the main source of suspended sediment in the area. Joint efforts of adjacent municipalities are necessary to achieve this. At present, an integrated watershed management council headed by the provincial government of Iloilo coordinates all development and management activities along the Jalaur watershed. The CECAM project has already taken the initiative to inform the council of the project’s simulation modelling and to directly involve the relevant province and regional level offices in the training on use of and access to the IDSS developed by the project. It is strongly recommended that future efforts to complete and fine tune the model and data support systems continue to involve the province LGU even after the completion of the CECAM project in early 2015.

Because mangroves are currently limited to the immediate vicinity of the mouths of tributaries to the Bays, there is little, if any, settlement of suspended sediment in these areas. Most of the suspended load is carried well onto coastal waters where settlement smothers bottom habitats and benthic organisms as well. Planting mangroves along the

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shore, particularly in abandoned fishponds, will reduce suspended sediment load within the Bays and also protect the shore from strong wave action, particularly during the SW monsoon.

Fisheries catches have dwindled, although there are no monitoring efforts to determine what and how much is presently being caught in the Bays. Catch and effort data are needed to formulate measures to properly manage local fisheries so that setting up a bay-wide systematic monitoring system is recommended.

Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental

Laguindingan is among the 23 municipalities of Misamis Oriental in Northern Mindanao. It is a fourth class municipality and is considered the gateway to the major cities of Cagayan de Oro and Iligan. On June 15, 2013, the Laguindingan airport officially started its operation, opening up economic expansion and infrastructure development in this town. The coastline of Laguindingan extends to about 11.4 km covering three coastal barangays. It is characterized by generally pristine coral reefs which are popular dive sites. The extensive seagrass beds and mangroves of Barangay Tubajon provide habitat for a wide diversity of flora and fauna, providing an excellent field laboratory for many schools in the region. A 22-ha fish sanctuary or marine protected area (MPA) was established in 2002 covering three contiguous ecosystems: coral reef, seagrass beds and mangrove area.

Laguindingan was selected as one of the study sites of CECAM project because of its relatively pristine condition, the presence of the three important ecosystems (coral reef, seagrass, and mangroves) occurring in a zonal pattern, and the active management of the marine protected area (Fig. 4.69). Seagrass ecosystem and MPA monitoring and evaluation started during the last quarter of 2010. A more comprehensive ecological profiling was recently conducted to map its resources and determine community structures of the different coastal ecosystems relating to different research conducted on marine habitat connectivity for conservation strategies in the area.

Fig. 4.69 Map of Laguindingan showing location of the sanctuary and the different habitats surveyed for the CECAM project.

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Environmental issues Laguindingan is generally pristine relative to the other sites of the CECAM project; however, several threats were also presented and perceived by the local community. Among these are the declining fish catch which threatens food security and coastal livelihoods; the opening of the airport and consequent expansion of tourism in the area and coastal development endanger the coastal integrity; and the increasing coastal population primarily due to migration which intensifies pressure on coastal resources.

Status of Coastal Ecosystems

Seagrass beds

The seagrass beds are the dominant ecosystem in Laguindingan with an estimated area of 117 ha (Fig. 4.70). A quarterly assessment were conducted in the seagrass beds from 2010 until 2012 to determine changes in community structure across habitats and seasons, following the SeagrassNet protocol. A total of eight species of seagrasses were identified. The dugong grass, Thalassia hemprichii, is the dominant species, followed by the tropical eelgrass, Enhalus acoroies. Other species found in the area are Cymodocea rotundata (round- tip seagrass), Cymodocea serrulata (toothed seagrass), Halodule pinifolia (fiber-strand grass), Halodule uninervis (fiber-strand grass), Halophila ovalis (spoon grass) and Syringodium isoetifolium (syringe grass).

Fig. 4.70 Benthic cover map showing the extent of seagrass vegetation and mangroves of Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental.

The species richness of seagrass has an average range of 2 to 4 spp/0.25m2 (

Fig. 4.71A). Despite the small range, analysis showed that there was a significant interaction between habitat and period for seagrass species richness. The average seagrass cover ranged from 31% to 70% (

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Fig. 4.71B). Coverage increased from seagrass-mangroves towards seagrass and then dropped towards seagrass-corals while seasonal variation was not evident. The canopy height of seagrasses ranges from 6.3 - 24.9 cm (

Fig. 4.71C), which is taller in the seagrass-mangroves and generally shorter in the seagrass-corals habitat. The seagrass shoot density ranges from 316 shoots/m2 in the seagrass-mangrove to 1,265 shoots/m2 in the seagrass beds (

Fig. 4.71D). Finally, the species assemblage of seagrass significantly varied with the interaction of habitat and period, indicating that species composition of seagrass across the three habitats depends on monsoon seasons. Overall, the seagrass structures in Laguindingan, except for seagrass cover, showed variation at different periods of the year.

The reproductive dynamics and genetic structure of three dominant seagrasses (Cymodocea rotundata, Enhalus acoroides, and Thalassia hemprichii) in Laguindingan were investigated. The results showed that the populations of E. acoroides and T. hemprichii were established by sexual reproduction while 43% of C. rotundata covering the area was extended by clonal reproduction. The largest clone of C. rotundata spread a distance of ~45 m. Seed and/or pollen dispersals of three species were limited and the individuals growing within the range of 700 m had positive kinship, indicating that threshold of 700 meters diameter would be an optimum distance for designing the MPA in Laguindingan.

A C

B D

Fig. 4.71 Average quarterly data on seagrass species richness (A), cover (B), canopy height (C) and shoot density (D) in the three habitats (seagrass-mangrove, seagrass bed, seagrass-corals) of Laguindingan from 2010 to 2012. Among the seagrass structures, only the seagrass cover did not show significant interaction between habitat and period. See text for details on the variation patterns.

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Seagrass-associated benthic macrofauna

We also collected sediment faunal core samples in seagrass beds to evaluate the diversity of associated benthic fauna. The objective of the collection was to determine whether different species of seagrass, E. acoroides and T. hemprichii, from outside and inside sanctuary vary in abundance, in species diversity (richness) and in species composition of benthic macrofauna. A total of 31 species of benthic macrofauna and 140 individuals (N=20 cores, 0.03 m2 per core at depth of 10 cm) were recorded, comprising of seven invertebrate benthic phyla that was dominated my mollusks (Mollusca) and polychaetes (Annelida). Results showed that (1) abundance of benthic macrofauna (Fig. 4.72) did not significantly vary across seagrass species (E. acoroides and T. hemprichii) and location (outside vs inside sanctuary). Further analysis revealed that even the species diversity (richness) of benthic macrofauna (Fig. 4.72) did not differ across seagrass species and location. This snapshot study supports the main findings of Leopardas et al (2014) conducted in Lopez Jaena, Misamis Occidental, on the non-significant role of seagrass specific identity in predicting either macrofaunal abundance or diversity patterns.

Fig. 4.72 Average abundance (A) and species richness (B) of seagrass- associated benthic macrofauna. Both the abundance and species richness did not vary across seagrass species and location.

Mangroves

The 31 hectares of mangroves along the shoreline is composed of two species; namely Rhizopora apiculata and R. mucronata. These mangroves were planted in the formerly seagrass beds along the shoreline as part of the national mangroves reforestation program since 1992, and had developed into a thick forest that provided protection from strong winds and typhoon for local fishing communities living along the shoreline. The

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mangroves produced an average litters of 35.25 ton.ha-1yr-1, with leaf litter accounting for 68.67% of total litter production, followed by propagules (11.32%) (Fig. 4.73). The forest structure and carbon sequestration capacity of the planted mangroves in Barangay Tubajon was recently conducted by Sharma et al. (unpublished). Results showed that planted mangrove forest in Tubajon had a stand density of 5190±7.2 (SE) stems ha¯¹; with a mean height and stem diameter of 5.6±0.04 (range; 4.43-7.05 m) and 5.5±0.004 cm (range; 3.5-6.7cm), respectively. The gross primary productivity is at 35.2 t C ha¯¹ yr¯¹ with a total standing biomass of 127.1 ±0.24 t ha¯¹. The 21-year-old Rhizopora plantation in the area had an accumulated carbon to biomass at 55.4±0.11 C ha¯¹, and a carbon sequestration rate of 2.64 t C ha¯¹ yr¯¹. The mentioned estimates served an indication of how carbon is stored in mangrove ecosystem, and provides additional and current information to locals with regards to the condition of mangrove in the area and its capacity to mitigate climate change.

Fig. 4.73 Litter production of the planted mangroves along Barangay Tubajon, Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental (Yap, 2014).

Coral reefs

Coral reefs are considered as the most beautiful and most diverse marine habitat. But with threats caused by anthropogenic activities, the coral reef condition deteriorates over time. A wide-area survey using manta tow was conducted to assess general conditions of the reef area while a more detailed survey was conducted using photo- transect inside and outside the marine protected area. Survey results showed that coral reef in Tubajon, Laguindingan are still in “good condition” with a mean live percent cover of 53.48% ±5.90. Sampling points inside the Marine Protected Area (MPA) showed the higher percent cover of live corals as compared to those found outside in the MPA. In all, there are eight coral lifeforms represented by; Acropora branching, Fungia, Millepora, non-Acropora branching, Encrusting corals, Porites massive, other massive corals, and soft corals. The area is dominated by the non-Acropora branching and encrusting corals with a percent cover of 29.54% and 17.04% respectively (Fig. 4.74). This means that the areas have high potential for diving tourist, but are more fragile to any kinds of threats. Furthermore, existing literature showed problems in predation and diseases among

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corals. Thus, there should be increased awareness and management strategy for better protection of the reef in the area.

Fig. 4.74 Benthic lifeforms between inside and outside MPA (note: abiotic includes rubble, sand, silt, and carbonate rocks) of BarangayTubajon, Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental.

A survey on the disease prevalence of hard corals particularly in the coast of Barangay Tubajon showed relatively higher growth abnormalities inside the MPA with a percent prevalence of 77% as compared to 58% on the outside. Bleaching was also reported but relatively more prevalent on the outside at 24% as compared to 19% on the inside of MPA. Those heavily affected were the branching coral lifeforms (Panuncial, 2013)

Fish Community

Daytime fish visual census done in quarterly basis, gave a total of 10,285 individuals identified belonging to 255 species and 38 families. The coral reef stations have the most number of species identified compared to other stations, while the intersection between the seagrass beds and coral reef have greater number of fish family. Fish abundance in the coral reef is more than 6,000 ind/100m2, which is categorically classified as high. Results also show that some fish, such as the snappers, Lutjanus monostigma, and the goatfish, Parupeneus barberinus, shift their major habitats from mangroves and/or seagrass habitats to coral reefs as they grow. Moreover, over 20% of commercial fish species use multiple habitats (Fig. 4.76).

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Fig. 4.75 Average number of fish families and species in the different habitats.

To determine movement of fish across habitats and further assess if the size of the sanctuary is large enough to protect mobile commercial fish species, we employed acoustic telemetry experiments to large fish. The transmitter is embedded in the fish, and the fish behavior is monitored by receivers deployed strategically inside and outside MPA (Fig. 4.77). The results of the acoustic telemetry studies also showed that some fish moves frequently between inside and outside the MPA, both horizontally and vertically. This may suggest that the size of current MPA is not large enough. Including the drop-off area of the coral reef to MPA may be especially important to conserve some large-sized fish which move vertically from shallow to deep environment. In addition, the acoustic telemetry studies revealed that most commercially important fish migrate daily between mangrove/seagrass and coral reef habitats. These findings highlight the importance of including all three habitat types (mangrove, seagrass beds, and coral reefs) within marine protected areas to achieve efficient and effective resource management.

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Fig. 4.76 Size distribution of major fish species among the three coastal habitats in Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental. (Honda et al 2013)

Fig. 4.77 Acoustic telemetry experiment to determine fish movement across habitats (Honda et al. unpublished)

Water Chemistry

Laguindingan coral reef and the surrounding outer ocean are generally in very oligotrophic state with <1 µM nitrate (NO3–), <0.1 µM phosphate (PO43–) and <10 µM dissolved silicate (Si(OH)4). However, the mangrove plantation along the shoreline makes a significant alteration of water quality in the shore side half of reef area ( Fig. 4.78). The mangrove and associated seagrass meadows apparently function as a significant source of nitrate, silicate, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to the reef area. In contrast, phosphate seems to be removed by the mangrove-seagrass community. As a result, the ratio of dissolved inorganic nitrogen to phosphorus (DIN/DIP), defined as ([NO3–] + [NO2–] + [NH4+])/[PO43–], dramatically increases from the reef area to the

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nearshore area. The DIN/DIP ratio higher than 16 (Redfield ratio) is often regarded as an indication of phosphorus-limited conditions for primary producers. In this regards, most part of the Laguindingan reef is now in the P-limited state, presumably owing to the influence of the mangrove-seagrass community. At present, this influence does not seem to be harmful to most coral species in the reef area because the advection of oceanic water can rapidly dilute the influence of the mangrove-seagrass community in the reef area. However, continuous monitoring of the water quality and the benthic coverage of corals and seagrasses are desired focusing on biogeochemical interactions between the nearshore mangrove-seagrass community and the offshore coral community.

8.64 – – NO (µM) 3– PO 3– (µM) Si(OH)4 (µM) NO3 3 PO4 4 Si(OH)4 10 0.16 40 Outer ocean Outer ocean Outer ocean

8

) 0.12 30 N

˚ Reef edge Reef edge Reef edge ( 8.63

6

e d

u 0.08 20

t

i t

a 4 L 0.04 10 2

8.62 0 0.00 0 Mangrove plantation Mangrove plantation Mangrove plantation 124.46 124.47 124.48 124.46 124.47 124.48 124.46 124.47 124.48 8.64 Longitude (˚E) DOC DOC (µM) DIN/DIP DIN/DIP 200 Outer ocean 128 Outer ocean

Reef edge 96 ) 160

N Reef edge Spatial distribution of nutrients and DOC over ˚

( 8.63

e the Laguindingan Reef in March 2013 shows: d

u 64

t i t 120

a Mangrove plantation and surrounding seagrass meadows are L 32 – Source of nitrate, silicate, and dissolved organic carbon, but 80 – Sink of phosphate 8.62 to the reef site. 0 Mangrove plantation Mangrove plantation 124.46 124.47 124.48 124.46 124.47 124.48 Lo ngitude (˚E) Longitude (˚E)

Fig. 4.78 Nutrient profiles of nitrate (NO3), phosphate (PO4), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ratio of dissolved organic nitrogen (DIN) and dissolved inorganic phosphorous (DIP) of Laguindingan (Miyajima et al, unpublished)

A continuous and comprehensive monitoring systems (CCMS) was recently installed beside the sanctuary to monitor water and local weather conditions. Dissolved oxygen generally fluctuates from less than 1mg O2/L to 20mg O2/L. Average values taken from 3 months indicated very low dissolved oxygen during midnight to dawn and peak during noontime (Fig. 4.79).

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Fig. 4.79 Dissolved oxygen measurement at the CCMS platform (A) recorded daily at 20 mins interval from 3 March 2013 to 14 June 2013 and (B) average values per hour at Laguindingan. Error bars are standard error of n= 89 days.

Hydrodynamics

To obtain hydrodynamic circulation data for the Laguindingan reef complex, various sensors were deployed within and slightly offshore of the reef from March 4 to 18, 2013. These included sensors for measuring current velocity, wave height, chlorophyll, turbidity, temperature, and salinity. Bathymetric data were also collected using GPS- sonar systems. Based on the velocity sensor data, currents were generally stronger in the outer fringes of the reef complex compared to the inner areas. Currents were especially slow at the lagoon between the beach and mangrove with massive jellyfish infestation, indicating poor flushing. In terms of dominant trends in circulation, velocity sensors showed relatively complex trends that had no clear relation with the tide level. Sudden pulses of stronger than normal flow could also be observed, which likely highlights the influence of winds on the local circulation. During the deployment period, wind strengths were quite sporadic, at times being very strong and causing rough sea conditions, while very calm during other periods, as can be expected for a period in transition from the northeast monsoon to the inter-monsoon.

To give an indication of turbidity trends, water sampling for total suspended solids (TSS) was conducted both within the reef and offshore of the reef (Fig. 4.80). With some exceptions, areas inside the reef had generally lower values of TSS concentration (<4.0 mg L-1) compared to deeper areas (>4.0 mg L-1), especially in the surface waters. The highest value (15.458 mg L-1) was measured for a point on the southeast corner of the

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reef complex. It is possible that sediment discharge from nearby rivers such as the Alubijid River contributed to the observed TSS trends, in particular for the deeper areas. Data from turbidity sensors deployed within the reef displayed sporadic spikes in turbidity, which occurred mainly during low tide conditions (Fig. 4.81). Visual inspection of the mangrove areas show a relatively sandy rather than muddy substrate, which may be less likely to contribute to turbid conditions. Hence, the observed trends may likely be due to terrestrial sediment sources or washed into the reef area from offshore waters.

The lagoon, locally known as aló, merits particular mention due to the striking number of jellyfish observed, making it an unpleasant sight and potential hazard to humans. In this area, water current flow was observed to be very low, and measured DO values were of relatively low concentration. The turbidity sensor deployed in the area was found to be defective, but water sampling showed that TSS concentration was relatively low (Fig. 4.80). Salinity fluctuated with the tides, from an oceanic value of ~34 ppt to just above 32 ppt, indicating the presence of freshwater input. The pattern of rise and fall in the tides was similar for most areas around the reef, but the lagoon exhibited a slightly extended low tide period (Fig. 4.82). The origin and cause of this phenomenon remain unclear, but environmental parameters measured by the sensors might be of use for future investigations.

Selected Velocity Sensor Locations

Fig. 4.80 Velocity components at selected stations. RED=north-south velocity component; BLUE=east-west velocity component; DOTTED=tide level at the central part of the reef. (Bernardo et al, unpublished)

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Turbidity Sensor Locations

Fig. 4.81 Turbidity time series plot. (Bernardo et al. unpublished)

Fig. 4.82 Data comparisons between jellyfish infested area (R1) and other locations. The graph on the left shows a salinity time series comparison; the graph on the right shows trends in the tide level (Bernardo et al. unpublished).

Recommendations

The CECAM project provided comprehensive database on the status of the coastal resources of Laguindingan and its neighboring waters. This is essential for the formulation of policies and strategies for the wise use of the resources.

The CCMS provided a continuous monitoring system for water quality in the area, hence long-term ecological monitoring in the coastal habitats should also be sustained in collaboration with the academes, together with the local government units, and the coastal villagers.

Alternative livelihood for coastal villagers can be promoted integrating coastal conservation efforts. An example is the recently implemented sea ranch project in which the local government provided a 5-ha area for the culture of the sea cucumber, commonly known as sandfish. To propagate sea cucumbers, feeding is no longer required since natural foods are available within the seagrass beds. Thus the searanch project provided

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venue for villagers to earn money, at the same time protect the seagrass ecosystem which is critical for the survival of the sea cucumbers. The sea ranch project in Laguindingan was implemented in partnership with the Mindanao State University at Naawan.

The project ends when the grant ends and in most cases is not sustained, thus leaving the community with practically nothing but reports placed in the shelves. We need to strengthen capacity of the local community, empowering them so they become steward of the environment. The local community needs continuing technical assistance or support, particularly from the academe. To institutionalize partnership, a memorandum of understanding between the LGU and the academe should be formalized.

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Chapter 5 Conclusion and General Recommendations

Conclusion and Lessons Learned

All users of the coastal ecosystems and resources have often been the victims of their own individual self-interests. Many of their actions defy natural laws in general, and contrary to the local community's best interests, in particular. The outcome, oftentimes catastrophic and long lasting, can best be described by the statement of experts, describing the Philippine coastal zone as “an endangered environment”, which impinges negatively on livelihood, health and social status of coastal dwellers. This is the scenario that emerged, despite the evolution of the local ICZM, which started under open access conditions when demand did not exceed the supply (1980s and 1990s) to a co- management regime when ICZM was devolved to the local governments as a basic service to communities (1990s to the present). Unfortunately, there is yet much to be done before such service can truly make these communities resilient to environmental uncertainties.

The above is the prevailing conditions when CECAM project came into the picture and share its expertise with local stakeholders. At each of six study sites, CECAM approached this issue in 4 dimensions: status, pressures, resilience, and future trend. The coastal resources were first evaluated in terms of the condition of its structure and functional roles and how these characteristics respond to changes in physical and chemical parameters. The forcing factors are then identified, quantified (where feasible), and analyzed - spatially and temporally- in terms of their degree of influence on the ecosystem services. The results are synthesized in an integrated decision support system (IDSS) which provides future scenarios as bases for options for stakeholders to take in order to come up with the courses of action best suited to their paramount needs. This synthetic ‘CECAM Approach’ now provides newer perspectives and effective practices that enhance and innovate current programs and policies that guide the development of MPA and ICZM frameworks in the Philippines. Hence, it has a greater likelihood of success in addressing persistent issues since it has a solid scientific base, it is transdisciplinary, addresses well- defined issues, directs research at questions of direct relevance to resources conservation and management, involves those affected by management decisions and it promotes sharing of experience among stakeholders. Briefly, in addressing the persistent issues of the coastal zone, CECAM presented a model of success in transforming the ‘tragedy’ into ‘benefits’ of the commons.

From the CECAM project, some lessons or best practices on coastal resource conservation and management in the context of ICZM in the Philippines could be learned. These are complimented by those acquired from previous initiatives (see Aliño et al. 2004):

1. At the early phase of project conceptualization and implementation, it is important to define clearly and agree by consensus the meaning of seminal terms and concepts (e.g. conservation, adaptive management, integration, MPA, ICZM) to reflect the true conditions at the project sites; 2. It is vital for all stakeholders to understand the important role of the process as

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well as their participation and contribution in planning and actual development and implementation of project activities; 3. Coastal conservation and management should be adaptive, taking into serious consideration the prevailing conditions in terms of finances, natural forcing factors, socioeconomic situation and scientific and technological inadequacies; 4. There are cases wherein formal laws and regulations are not always as useful and efficient and effective as informal agreements among top executives; 5. It is important to incorporate the role of partners, donors and civil society actors within the local and national context; 6. Some conservation programs and projects in the Philippines are meeting their objectives but many are failing because of the absence of a solid scientific base, lack of standardization in performance monitoring and evaluation, and inadequate consideration of the social dimension; 7. Project co-financing is becoming more creative; local governments are playing a larger role through their own budget allocation; 8. Probability of success of conservation programs and projects is greater when placed in the context of integrated coastal management initiatives due to the added support system they offer.

General recommendations

In the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries, the most effective cases of ICZM implementation could exist where there is a concrete commitment to ICZM, in other words, where that commitment is institutionalized. In the process, key stakeholders should participate selflessly in the formulation of the policy or legislation, in its infusion into the social norm, and its incorporation into management practices. The CECAM approach made sure that flexibility in the ICZM framework should be the rule in order to deal with its implementation on a number of levels, from the local level to the national, even regional, level (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998). This involves balancing ‘top down’ approaches with ‘bottom up’ approaches. In other words, to be effective, national support and guidance for ICZM is executed by a management body, but influenced greatly by the needs and capacities (intellectual and financial) of stakeholders, and the cooperation of decision makers and scientists at the local planning level. In relation to the latter point, both should realize that both knowledge and power are essential in creating social change and solving environmental problems. Scientists have knowledge, but typically limited authority to change behavior. Decision-makers have power, but may lack in-depth knowledge of particular problems. Linking these two groups brings knowledge together with power to make informed decisions that can drive social change.

References

Aliño, P.M., C. Nanola, W. Campos and V. Hilomen. 2004. Philippine coral reef fisheries: diversity in adversity. In: DA-BFAR In turbulent seas: the status of Philippine marine fisheries. Coastal Resource Management Project of DENR, Cebu City, Philippines, 65-69.

Cicin-Sain, B. and R.W. Knecht. 1998. Integrated coastal and ocean management: concepts and practices. Island Press, Washington, DC, 4

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Annexes

I. Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) Guideline

CECAM Site Selection and Plan of Action

Key coastal and marine ecosystems in the Philippines are targeted for a comprehensive, integrated and multi-disciplinary research with the primary objective of developing new conservation and sustainable development management schemes for the local communities. Collaborative research efforts mainly focus on the assessment of the environmental conditions of different coastal environments where various forms of coastal developments are occurring.

Site location identification was based on ecosystem dynamics representation, local community recommendation, security and local government participation and maintenance capability.

Fig. A1.1 Multiple stresses contribute to degradation of water quality and ecosystem causing massive losses

As the basis for properly conserving the biodiversity and achieving sustainable development of the coastal area, we need to evaluate both the environmental stresses and impacts in the aquatic system.

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Fig. A1.2 Six key coastal areas of interest for the CECAM Project for research

The CECAM project has identified six key coastal areas with varying coastal issues for study. Intensive joint field works were implemented among key universities in the Philippines through University of the Philippines campuses in Diliman and Iloilo, and Mindanao State University-Naawan together with Japanese universities including Tokyo Institute of University, University of Tokyo, Hokkaido University, among others.

Continuous Monitoring Network

Concept and Implementation

The main objective of the CCMS implementation is to improve understanding of the hydrodynamic and bio-chemical processes in coastal environments valuable for generating scientific information towards conservation and resource-use management.

Specifically, it aims to install monitoring platforms for the monitoring of coastal waters where various data-logging sensors will be installed to measure hydrodynamic and

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water quality variables such as velocities, waves, depths, salinity, temperature, chlorophyll-a, turbidity and dissolved oxygen, among others.

The primary benefits of CCMS can be experienced with real time and continuous data collection of relevant parameters in order to better understand the coastal dynamics of these communities. Moreover, data can easily be filtered from short-term to long-term ranges due to the flexibility of data availability. A diagnosis using before and after disturbance scenarios can also be analyzed. This platform becomes the shelter for other relevant scientifically-designed research endeavors in the future.

Numerical simulations can be implemented by regenerating actual hydrographic and biochemical conditions, linking piecewise physical, biochemical and ecological information, and broader spatial and temporal scientific investigations. This becomes an effective resource-use management tool which can aid in legislative decisions pertaining to coastal management in local government units.

CECAM Site Networking and Linkage

The current network of CCMS database can be further connected through the Integrated Decision Support System platform for easier data and knowledge-sharing from the academe to the local government unit counterparts.

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Fig. A1.3 Geographical locations of the CCMS sites for the CECAM project CCMS General Procedures

CCMS is an important milestone in the field of scientific data collection in the key coastal environments in the Philippines as continuous hydrodynamic, water quality and meteorological monitoring have not been implemented at such scale. However, this undertaking requires great logistical effort among researchers, scientists, engineers, implementers and other stakeholders. The following is the general procedure in systematic implementation of the CCMS.

Construction Procedure

A collaborative meeting between the CECAM Project and the local government unit (LGU) is facilitated to discuss the benefits of implementing the CCMS in their community as well as the responsibilities needed from their end to effectively implement the project.

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Identification of CCMS site location is based on ecosystem dynamics representation, local community recommendation, security, and LGU participation and maintenance capability.

The usual JICA procedure requires bidding for the selection of the CCMS monitoring platform designer and constructor that is based on the conceptual design provided by project members. In the case of strong LGU participation and construction capacity solicited however, CCMS monitoring platform design and construction can readily be awarded to the local government for implementation. Proper justification to JICA is necessary for this scenario nevertheless.

The LGU is required to officially recommend prospective contractors for putting-up the monitoring platform. JICA will have to approve first of the design and cost estimation of the contractor before proceeding with the awarding of construction.

The following work will be executed by the designer/constructor in coordination with designated project members: (a) timeline of activities for construction methodology; (b) design drawings and documentation; (c) material and labor cost estimate; (d) construction management.

Information, education and communication

Proper information, education and communication will need to be done regarding the CECAM project and CCMS to the local communities with the support from the local government unit. Conduct periodic visits to the platforms to increase security, thereby minimize the possibility of instrument loss.

Security Provision

Considering the monitoring platform will house various data-logging sensors, a caretaker will need to be hired for providing the needed security from possible theft and/or intrusion. The LGU is expected to shoulder the required caretaker compensation.

Sensor Cleaning

In order to maintain the integrity of measurement of the data-logging sensors, regular sensor cleaning operation will need to be conducted to prevent sensor bio-fouling. Proper instruction will have to be given for properly cleaning the sensors. Caretaker can also be the sensor cleaner.

Sensor Maintenance

For the periodic maintenance of the deployed data-logging sensors (data download, battery changing and re-set-up, which is to be carried-out by the Project and/or UP MSI), coordination and assistance is expected from the local government.

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Emergency Operational Guideline

An emergency operational guideline will have to be drafted and implemented (between the project and the LGU) in the event of extreme weather disturbances.

Agreement

For properly designating responsibilities, the collaborative monitoring through CCMS will have to be formalized through a written agreement between the CECAM Project and the LGU.

CCMS as Intervention to Coastal Environment Monitoring and Management

The myriad of problems confronting these coastal communities require scientific observation and monitoring in order to provide sound analysis and recommendations. The Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System (CCMS) aims to provide a method in coastal environment monitoring using state-of-the-science equipment that can probe or detect different hydrodynamic, water quality and meteorological parameters.

Bolinao, Pangasinan

Bolinao is a municipality of the province of Pangasinan (population 72,208, distributed in 13 barangays). Past and present conservation efforts are giving positive results, but constraints and opportunities afforded by current economic realities are putting the integrity of its fragile coastal, marine and terrestrial ecosystems at great risk of being lost. It is imperative that these resources be protected and managed. This is the compelling reason for CECAM’s involvement in Bolinao, taking the challenge as an opportunity to help improve the conditions.

CECAM addresses four key issues in Bolinao, including: (1) declining fisheries due to degradation of seagrass, coral reefs and mangroves; (2) eutrophication from fish cage/pen cultures, the cause of fish kills and poor water quality; (3) external threats from unsustainable from neighboring towns and villages

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Fig. A1.4 CECAM approach to the coastal issues of Bolinao, Pangasinan

Laguna Lake

Laguna Lake is the largest lake in the Philippines and an important freshwater system in Metro Manila and nearby provinces. It has a surface area of 950 sq. km., average depth of 2.8 m. It is fed by 21 major tributaries and drains to the Manila Bay through the Pasig River. It is a multi-purpose resource and supports various anthropogenic activities including aquaculture and fisheries, navigation, energy, agriculture, reservoir, flood control, among others. This action is taking its toll on the lake environment.

CECAM addresses five key issues in the Laguna Lake system, including (1) unsustainable land and lake use practices and management; (2) unregulated reclamation posing risk to long-term shoreland flooding; (3) eutrophication from fish cage/ pens causing poor water quality conditions; (4) watershed and wastewater discharges from major tributaries, point and non-point sources; and polluted waters from Pasig river seasonally encroaching into the lake system.

CECAM looks at this challenge as an opportunity to help improve the conditions.

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Fig. A1.5 CECAM approach to the coastal issues of Laguna Lake system

Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro

Puerto Galera is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and Puerto Galera Bay is a member of the Most Beautiful Bays in the World. As such, it should be protected and managed well at all cost. Constraints and opportunities afforded by current economic realities, however, now rely heavily on activities that are extractive of the natural resource base (e.g. tourism), without due regard to global uncertainties (e.g. climate change). This action is taking its toll on Puerto Galera’s environment.

CECAM addresses four issues in Puerto Galera, including: (1) decreasing coastal productivity, putting livelihood at risk of being lost in the future; (2) congestion in resort areas causing poor water quality condition; (3) unsustainable tourism practices; and (4) coastal erosion due to climate change and other issues.

As in Laguna Lake, CECAM looks at this challenge as an opportunity to help improve the conditions.

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Fig. A1.6 CECAM approach to the coastal issues of Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro

Boracay

Boracay is a world-renowned tourism destination, famous for its fine, powdery white sand. However, intensive development threatens to redefine its coastline which would inevitably affect the economic activity of the island. CECAM would like to investigate the carrying capacity of Boracay and how it’s affecting the water quality of its surrounding coastal waters.

Banate Bay, Iloilo

The coastlines of Banate and Barotac Bays extend some 27 km covering four municipalities of Iloilo. Fishing is still a main livelihood, despite the fact that the bays are no longer as productive as before. Mangroves are now only limited along tributaries and seagrasses have become sparse. In extensive tidal flats which used to support shellfish and other valuable fishery resources, catches have declined considerably over the years for various reasons. Among these is turbidity caused by heavy sediment runoff from upland, degrading bottom habitats and disrupting food webs which support fisheries in the bays.

CECAM addresses the following issues in the Banate Bay, including (1) 5-10 fold decreases in catch rates and fish sizes over the past forty years; (2) high turbidity caused by terrestrial loading from inland; and (3) unsound upland practices alter natural runoff along the coasts.

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Fig. A1.7 CECAM approach to the coastal issues Banate Bay in Iloilo

Laguindingan

Laguindingan is among the 26 municipalities in the second district of Misamis Oriental in Northern Mindanao. It is a fourth class municipality and is considered the gateway to the major cities of Cagayan de Oro and Iligan. On June 15, 2013, the International Airport officially started its operation, opening up economic expansion and infrastructure development in this town. The coastline of Laguindingan extends to about 12.7 km covering three coastal barangays, characterized by generally pristine coral reefs which are popular dive sites. The extensive seagrass beds and mangroves of Barangay Tubajon provide habitat for a wide diversity of flora and fauna, providing an excellent field laboratory for many schools in the region. This site serves as the control point for all other CECAM study sites with prevailing coastal issues.

CECAM addresses the following key issues in Laguindingan Bay, including: (1) declining fish catch threatening food security and coastal livelihoods; (2) tourism expansion due to international airport operations; and (3) increasing coastal population can intensify pressure on coastal resources.

With support from its local and international partners, CECAM is leading the effort towards a more sustainable future for the population of these coastal environments.

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Fig. A1.8 CECAM approach to the coastal issues of Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental

TOMAS for Watershed Monitoring and Modeling as Supplementary to CCMS operations

The CCMS, being a comprehensive system, includes as sub-system for monitoring watersheds, including surface water and groundwater. This called TOMAS or the Terrestrial Output Monitoring and Assessment System. While the CCMS sensors for coastal marine areas monitor hydrodynamic and water quality parameters, the TOMAS continuously measures variables for hydrologic modeling such as rain fall and water level in the river. In addition, water quality (primarily turbidity) is monitored using data-logging sensors measuring turbidity and Chl-a. This is TOMAS for surface water studies. In addition to river monitoring, TOMAS also consists of sensors (e.g., water level loggers, conductivity sensors) for collecting data necessary for salinity intrusion and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) assessment and modeling. Field surveys are also conducted using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) instrument to investigate groundwater-saline water interaction dynamics for SGD and salinity intrusion assessment. This is TOMAS for groundwater investigations.

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Fig. A1.9 Rain gauges installed in Bani and Sual in Pangasinan, and Mayantoc, Tarlac as part of the TOMAS monitoring

The field-based monitoring data obtained by these sensors are then used to calibrate and validate watershed and groundwater models. Under the CECAM project, watershed models have been developed for the Bani and Alaminos watersheds in Pangasinan Province and for watersheds draining to Banate Bay in Panay Island. Groundwater model for salinity intrusion assessment in Guimaras Province has also been developed. These models are then used to assess impacts of changing land cover, land use, meteorological conditions, sea level rise, and other phenomena related to climate change.

Periodical monitoring with biological and geochemical sampling

To complement with point platform-based long-term monitoring, spatial field surveys with biological and geochemical sampling were periodically conducted for understanding spatial variations of environmental parameters occurring over extended areas.

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Fig. A1.10 Change in species richness and shoot density of seagrasses before and fish culture introduction

Fig. A1.11 Application of metapopulation model to explain occurrence of patterns of two anemone fishes around a sheltered bay of Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro

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Fig. A1.12 Monitoring and analysis of terrestrial environmental loads

Fig. A1.13 Material cycle dynamics in land-ocean integrated zone

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Other Supplemental Monitoring Activities

Boracay CCTV Monitoring System of White Beach

The purpose of CCTV camera installation is to: (1) to understand the characteristics of beach dynamics in Boracay Island (ex. beach width, beach-use change, wave breaking, algal blooms, etc.) in order to take measures to address the beach erosion problem, and (2) to encourage local people to have a stronger interest in the coastal environment and its protection through the CCTV camera images

There are many monitoring method of beach dynamics such as aerial photograph analysis and leveling, and each monitoring methods have specific strength and weakness points. The advantages of CCTV camera monitoring are the following:

Continuous observation is possible without field surveys. We can even observe not only seasonal and long-term beach dynamics change but also short-term dynamics like before and after episodic events such as typhoons and rough wave conditions. Therefore, we can identify beach erosion and accumulation dynamics of episodic events. Video images are open to the public. Everybody can browse the real time observation images through the internet

Fig A1.14 Installation locations of CCTV camera in Boracay Island. Four CCTV cameras were installed and recording the video from June 2013.

Table A1.1 Locations of the CCTV Cameras and their corresponding target views Location name Target view NAMI RESORT Whole area of Diniwid Beach Boracay Terraces Resort_Hilltop Whole area of White Beach Boracay Terraces Resort_Rooftop Northern part of White Beach Middle part of White Beach (near the Elizalde’s Resort Station1)

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Video images are recorded and processed in the server established at the UP Diliman campus through Kalibo Cable and can be viewed through the internet.

Participatory Water Transparency Monitoring in Boracay

In order to continue monitoring activities even after the end of CECAM Project, it is important for local people to become interested and join the coastal environment monitoring activities. Monitoring using sensors are quite expensive and due to the limited number of sensors, only selected local areas can be monitored. With participatory monitoring, qualitative data for various places can be available periodically. Participatory monitoring also promotes stewardship of the environment and greater understanding of environmental processes.

Transparency is a simple parameter to indicate turbidity. Turbidity is one of the representative parameters on the water quality conditions. Importantly, turbidity expresses optical condition which governs the growth of corals, seagrass, etc. Therefore, measuring transparency is one of the simplest ways to monitor the water quality conditions.

Fig. A1.15 Example of transparency monitoring method done in Ishigaki and implemented in Boracay Island. (Photo: Courtesy of Mr. Akira Naito)

This monitoring method is low cost and very simple. Fig A1.15 shows the example of installation of this monitoring method to the elementary school students in Ishigaki Island, Japan. Fig. A1.15 illustrates also the method of this monitoring.

The method can be done by at least two participants. One holds the white board and the other is the observer who records the visible distance as he goes farther away and perpendicular to the shore. The recorded data can be integrated into the Google Earth map. Results from other sites can be used to have a spatial visualization of the state of water quality along the coasts. Possible associated inland surveys may give ideas to help improve the water quality.

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Puerto Galera socio-economic survey

Tourist locations were mapped from field surveys, interviews with the local stakeholders and crowd-sourced data. Tourist activity and environmental perception based on different criteria were gathered from socio-economic data, and linked to the digitized tourist locations to produce point density maps. From these point density maps, visualization and spatial analysis were done to locate areas of tourist activity and provide spatial representation of their perceptions on the different environmental conditions of the areas they visited. The relationship between the intensity of tourists’ activities and their perception was also explored.

Mapping of the tourist activity from the tourist survey yields the heatmap which reveals the top areas visited by tourists. Out of 130 tourists interviewed, 18 or 13% can be found in one or more of the areas indicated in the map (Fig A1.16).

The high tourist activity seen in Sabang Port, Muelle and White Beach may be attributed to the fact that these are entry points to the municipality.

Fig A1.16 Tourism map of Puerto Galera

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Fig A1.17 Tourism satisfaction ratings in Puerto Galera tourism spots

Tourist satisfaction map

The tourist satisfaction map displays the mean satisfaction rating in each area, wherein 5 corresponds to 'Very Satisfied ' and 1 to 'Very Dissatisfied'. Overall, a majority of tourists are generally satisfied with their visit to Puerto Galera. However, mapping the satisfaction ratings reveals a variation in the tourist perception in several areas such as the White Beach Area, Sabang, Muelle, Tabinay Area and Behiya Beach.

The resulting maps provided an overall perception of the tourists who visited the destinations within Puerto Galera. Critical areas where there is correlation between tourist activity and perception were also identified. The use of social data coupled with GIS technology facilitated in the evaluation of existing tourist condition in Puerto Galera.

From the results, the potential for environmental and tourism management actions can be discussed. Also, further work incorporating the social data with measured environmental conditions can be recommended.

Parameter selection and sensor setup

The CCMS sensors were grouped depending on their specific functions and the parameters to be measured. This will also determine where these groups of sensors are strategically placed in order to accurately measure the parameters. Hydrodynamic Parameters Understanding fluid dynamics is key concept to analyze the flow and transport of contaminants in coastal environments. The solution to a hydrodynamics problem involves defining the properties of the fluid such as velocity, pressure, density and temperature, as functions of space and time.

In CCMS, hydrodynamic sensors that measure wave velocities and height, water and ambient pressures to derive water depths were deployed.

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A specific platform can use any of the following combination in measuring the hydrodynamic conditions of the area – using the RDI ADCP or Infinity EM-WH combination. Using ADCP requires a special fixture, as shown in Fig. A1.18, in the CCMS platform due to its size, weight, operation complexity. This is located in the center of the platform, hinged to a ladder that is movable vertically. This vertical ladder makes it more convenient for later maintenance of the sensor.

On the other hand, when the EM and Wave height sensors are used, the setup is immersed to the sea bottom. The EM is fixed vertically to ensure more stable and accurate measurement of water velocity in two-dimensional axes; while the wave height is laid next to the EM setup.

ADCP

EM

Wave

Height Fig. A1.18 Hydrodynamic sensor group setup including horizontal and vertical wave velocity, wave height and water level loggers

Water Quality Parameters

Water quality measures the chemical, biological and physical characteristics of water. This is an important parameter as it signifies the overall health of the coastal waters being studied.

Among the parameters included in the CCMS operations include dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll-a, turbidity, salinity and conductivity, light penetration and temperature.

Dissolved oxygen refers to the amount of oxygen present in water. It is indicative of the total oxygen available for use by any aquatic species present in the water. Oxygen in the water comes from air, and is replenished by the action of mixing through waves and even through the simple fast flowing action of the water in rivers and streams. Altitude and temperature also affects the amount of oxygen dissolved in water.

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Salinity measures the dissolved salt content of a body of water. It is an important factor in determining many aspects of chemistry of natural waters and biological processes within it and it has a thermodynamic aspect to it.

The temperature of the water is measured on-site using the pH meter which is equipped with a special electrode capable of getting the temperature of the sample. Any slight change in temperature, particularly on the higher side, may cause stress on aquatic life and may cause small fishes to die. Biological activity and metabolic reaction rate also increases with increasing temperature. The specific species present in the water may be an indication of the water temperature since some species such as the stonefly nymphs thrive well in cooler waters while species such as carp and other larger fishes prefer warmer waters (EMB-DENR, 2008).

In deploying the water quality sensors, they are grouped according to dependence to exposure to natural light.

WQ-G: Water Quality (General)

The next group measures general water quality parameters, which is fixed in a single line using a heavy duty rope. This is moored at the corner of the platform inside, as seen in Fig. A1.19.

CT DO

Fig. A1.19 General Water Quality sensor group including salinity, dissolved oxygen and temperature parameters

To incorporate the varying fluctuations along the water depth, surface and bottom DO and CT sensors were set-up. Three water temperature sensors are also placed at 3m apart to check thermal gradients.

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WQ-L: Water Quality (Light-dependent sensors)

Another set of water quality sensors are dependent on the influence of natural light to measure the parameters. These are moored outside the platform and buoyed at the surface.

The parameters measured are chlorophyll-a, turbidity and light attenuation.

Chlorophyll- a

Light attenuation

Fig. A1.20 Light-dependent Water Quality sensor group are located outside the platform where natural light is available

Meteorological Parameters

Meteorological forcings have significant influence in the movement of water, thereby, affecting the transport of contaminants in coastal waters.

The main features of the meteorological sensors include rainfall, wind speed and direction, solar radiation, humidity and air temperature.

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Fig. A1.21 Meteorological sensor group measures weather condition that may influence the hydrodynamic movement of the coastal waters

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Table A1.2 List of sensors deployed in key coastal environments in the Philippines. Bolinao Puerto Galera Laguna Laguin- CCMS Sensor Parameter Giant Banate Reef Aq’culture Lake Muelle dingan Clam HYDRODYNAMIC Vertical 2D Infinity-EM X X X Velocity Infinity-WH Wave Height X X X

Vertical 2D RDI ADCP X X X X Velocity HOBO WLL Water Level X

WATER QUALITY Dissolved Compact/Infinity DO X X X X X X X Oxygen Light Compact LW X X X X X X X Penetration Chlorophyll-a, Infinity CLW X X X X X X X Turbidity Conductivity, Infinity CT X X X X X X X Salinity HOBO Water Temp Water X X X X X X X Pro Temperature METEOROLOGICAL Rainfall, Wind speed and direction, Solar Weather Station X X X X X X Radiation, Humidity, Air Temp

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CECAM Project

Mean sea level depth = 13.0 m

Sensor / Instrument Parameter Hydrodynamic ADCP Vertical 2D velocity Water Level Logger Water depth Water quality Compact-DO Dissolved oxygen (2) Infinity CLW Chlorophyll-a, Turbidity Infinity-CT Salinity, Conductivity (2) Infinity-LW Light penetration Water Temp Pros Water temperature (3)

Fig. A1.22 Bolinao Aquaculture-side Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

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CECAM Project

Average water depth = 1.5 m

Sensor / Instrument Parameter Hydrodynamic Infinity-EM 2D velocity Infinity-WH Water depth, Wave Water quality Compact-DO Dissolved oxygen Infinity-CLW Chlorophyll-a, Turbidity Infinity-CT Salinity, Conductivity (2) Water Temp Pros Water temperature (2) Meteorological Weather station Rainfall Wind speed and direction Solar radiation Humidity Air temperature

Fig. A1.23 Bolinao Reef-side Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

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CECAM Project

Mean sea level depth = 15.0 m

Sensor / Instrument Parameter Hydrodynamic ADCP Vertical 2D velocity Water Level Logger Water depth Water quality Compact-DO Dissolved oxygen (2) Infinity CLW Chlorophyll-a, Turbidity Infinity-CT Salinity, Conductivity (2) Infinity-LW Light penetration Water Temp Pros Water temperature (3) Meteorological Weather station Rainfall Wind speed and direction Solar radiation Humidity Air temperature

Fig. A1.24 Puerto Galera Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

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HOBO

HOBO

HOBO

Sensor / Instrument Parameter Hydrodynamic ADCP Vertical 2D velocity Water Level Logger Water depth Water quality Compact-DO Dissolved oxygen (2) Infinity CLW Chlorophyll-a, Turbidity Infinity-CT Salinity, Conductivity (2) Infinity-LW Light penetration Water Temp Pros Water temperature (3) Meteorological Weather station Rainfall Wind speed and direction Solar radiation Humidity Air temperature

Fig. A1.25 Banate Bay Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System

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CECAM Project

Average water depth = 2 m

Sensor / Instrument Parameter Hydrodynamic Compact-EM 1D velocity Water Level Logger Water depth Water quality Compact-DO Dissolved oxygen (1) Infinity CLW Chlorophyll-a, Turbidity Infinity-CT Salinity, Conductivity (1) Infinity-LW Light penetration Water Temp Pros Water temperature (3) Meteorological Weather station Rainfall Wind speed and direction Solar radiation Humidity Air temperature

Fig. A1.26 Laguindingan Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System CCMS Sensor Maintenance and Operations

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A. Standard Protocol for Maintenance and Operations

Table A1.3 Standard Checklist for the maintenance and operations of the CCMS

Activity Photos Checklist

Conduct Site Record monitor readings, time and inspection conditions Check with an independent field meter and time near the sensors Conduct regular weekly spot checks to know conditions of CCMS platform, sensors, etc.

Remove the Do initial spot check or inventory of sensors from sensors, making sure nothing is monitoring missing. location There are four strategic groupings of the sensors. (See Chapter C-1) Make sure they are correctly located.

Clean the sensors Perform initial cleaning by removing grimes or dirt. Secondary cleaning can be done in the laboratory by removing barnacles and other calcareous materials. See B.1

Download and Usually batteries are changed before process data the downloading process is commenced. Prepare the cables, laptop and software. When downloading, make sure to stop the sensors from recording. Usually, the software will prompt the user to stop recording when

downloading is started. Archive the raw files properly for easier file conversion, retrieval and post-processing later.

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During data processing, make sure to remove unnecessary records (e.g. before and after deployment data).

Sensor inspection When download is done, do initial and check for spot check for erroneous data. calibration Compare sensor data with independent field meter for validation. Re-calibrate instrument if necessary.

Launch sensors Check and follow CCMS Sensor Set- for re-deployment up sheet for sensor launch set-up details. Make sure they launch as scheduled. This will be marked when the LED lights and the wipers are enabled during launch time. Wrap sensors with colored marking tapes and label accordingly.

Return sensors to Make sure that the strategic the monitoring groupings of sensors are location implemented. Make sure the sensors are effectively tied to the moored rope using cable ties and stainless steel wires.

B. Emergency Operations and Protocol

The Monitoring and Surveillance flowchart is procedure in the maintenance and security of the CCMS platform and its sensors. It shows an improved and collaborative effort among the stakeholders in ensuring the security of the sensors in times of distress including theft or missing sensors, and extreme weather conditions. The flowchart shows and example for this process implemented in the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA). The same procedure can be implemented in other CECAM sites.

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Fig. A1.27 CCMS emergency protocol and special cases of missing sensors and damaged platform

For missing sensors, the CCMS caretaker should perform initial assessment of the platform or around the perimeter. Possibilities for the loss may include cutting or removal, accidental or otherwise, of the moored line containing the sensors. Check the bottom of the sea by trawling or diving. The sensors may have settled under. Otherwise, the other possibility is that the sensors may have been stolen or taken away. The caretaker should immediately call UP Diliman and/ or LLDA to report the incident. Fig. A1.28 shows the flowchart or process when this happens.

Fig. A1.28 Special protocol for lost or missing sensors

During typhoons, there are also possibilities that the sensors may be lost or platform may be damaged depending on the severity of the weather condition. However, careful judgment must also be made as important data may be captured during this period. As such, the flowchart in Fig A1.29 recommends sensor retrieval during Signal #2, and sensor retrieval and platform docking during Signal #3.

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Fig. A1.29 Special protocol for missing sensors due to typhoon

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II. IDSS Guideline

1. General description of IDSS

1.1. What is IDSS?

The Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) is a set of tools developed by the CECAM Project aimed to assist the local stakeholders in science-based decision making. With a desktop computer as a physical manifestation of the IDSS at each of the project sites, it gives users access to the data collected and models developed by the project through its five-year run. In addition, software needed to view, process and analyze these data are also installed in the IDSS desktop computers. These desktops computer are also connected to a central server housed in UP Diliman that serves as data repository and back-up and performs data processing and simulations using computational models not available in the desktop IDSS computers. It should be emphasized that more than the hardware and software, the IDSS also incorporates procedures and protocols for measurement, monitoring, data processing, and interpretation of simulation results. It also hinges on the collaborative relationship between the local government units, non- profit organizations, and the academe in addressing environmental issues.

1.2. Purpose of IDSS

The IDSS shall help the decision makers in coming up with solutions that address coastal environment conservation and resource management. It can also keep the local technical personnel be equipped with the basic knowledge and be adept in current technologies used in observing and monitoring the environment and natural resources. Lastly, it shall serve as repository of data not only from the CECAM project but for relevant data that the LGUs and other future related projects may collect.

1.3. Characteristics of CECAM IDSS

The following characterizes and distinguishes the CECAM IDSS. These can serve as guidelines in establishing IDSS for other sites not covered by CECAM.

1. The IDSS is site-specific and addresses specific issues at each site. As such, each IDSS is unique in terms of the parameters, data collection protocols, and models used to generate and evaluate scenarios. This approach that the issues are adequately described to provide valid solution alternatives. See “CECAM IDSS for Various Sites” section for details.

2. The IDSS utilizes primary and secondary data to describe bio-physical, ecological, and socio economic processes. The use of primary data collected using remote sensing, CCMS, water quality surveys and socio-economic surveys ensure that processes at work at each site are identified and properly characterized and modeled. Workflows have been developed to extract thematic layers from remotely sensed data.

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3. Data are organized using spatial databases or geodatabases and are analyzed and visualized considering spatial location using Geographic Information Systems. Location (geometry, coordinates system) matters and is utilized to tie together various data sets. The CECAM Integrated Database is composed of MS Access data tables and geodatabase (ArcGIS and QGIS). GIS base layers act as the unifying theme to which data tables linkable.

4. The IDSS recognizes the linked systems in the coastal environment. It should be able to address the connectivity of these systems or aspects in the coastal environment through the linkages of various models as shown in Fig. A2.1. Models describing the processes in the coastal watersheds and coastal main environments included in the IDSS are watershed models, hydrodynamic model, water quality model, ecological model, spatial model, and socio-economic model. Note that these models are linked to each other, i.e., model outputs serve as inputs to other models. Spatial models refer to geospatial models of spatial relationships such as proximity and adjacency. Spatial models can be used for spatio-temporal assessment using various data sets on the coastal environment. Spatial models describe the spatial relationship between stressors and ecosystem response. Examples of spatial models are regression models and damage potential assessment model. These spatial models are implemented using GIS.

Fig. A2.1 Representation of the coastal environment in IDSS as a linked system of models

5. The IDSS can be used to generate and examine scenarios at various levels (spatial and temporal scales) with the aim of identifying solution alternatives. It is emphasized that decisions are to be made by the decision makers considering inputs from the stakeholders. The IDSS only facilitates the identification and evaluation of solution alternatives. They may be other factors not considered by the IDSS and these are expected to be taken into account by the decision makers. Decision making involves trade-off (e.g., choosing the 2nd best solution instead of the best solution) but the IDSS can help in assessing the consequence of such trade-off. Fig. A2. 2 shows the process flow in IDSS as applied to the fish kill problem.

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Fig. A2. 2 Sample IDSS process flow for the case of fish kill problem.

6. The IDSS comes in two modes: the Desktop IDSS and the Network IDSS (see section on “Modes of IDSS” for details). The provision of these two modes recognizes the range of complexities associated with the issues or question addressed by IDSS (Fig. A2.3). Some questions are relatively simpler and can be addressed by simpler spatial models while others are fairly complex that simulations using numerical models are warranted (Fig. A2.4). This makes the IDSS scalable.

Fig. A2.3 Comparison between Desktop IDSS and Network IDSS: questions and operations

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Fig. A2.4 Comparison between Desktop IDSS and Network IDSS: models and tools

7. More than just a computerized information system for supporting decision making, the IDSS is an active network of organization (LGUs, universities, etc.) and people (stakeholders, researchers, etc.) working together to address environmental issues. This is crucial in ensure the sustainability of the IDSS. 1.4. Target users

The IDSS was aimed to be accessible by all interested and familiar with the tools. Priority was given by the project to the local government units’ selected implementing department as well as non-government organizations, who participated during trainings. Users are assumed to have the prior knowledge and know-how needed in using the system which was shared by the project proponents during the capacity building phase of the project.

1.5. Outline of IDSS

The IDSS is composed of two systems – desktop IDSS and network IDSS. Desktop IDSS refers to the individual desktop computer distributed at each site. On the other hand, network IDSS refers to each desktop IDSS being connected to the central server through the internet. At each desktop IDSS, data stored within the computer disk space are accessible and operations using software (e.g., QGIS) installed in the computer can be performed. Meanwhile, network IDSS gives access to data in the central server not readily available in the desktop version. Similarly, other data processing methods can be performed through the network IDSS (Fig.A2.5).

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Fig. A2.5 CECAM Desktop and Network IDSS

Desktop IDSS

The components and process flow in the Desktop IDSS is shown in Fig. A2.6. Desktop IDSS is designed to be used by stakeholders with minimal assistance from the academe or none at all. The Desktop IDSS is GIS-based, thereby making use of data layers organized in local database. GIS spatial analysis is applied to these data to generate information to be presented through geovisualization products and deliberated upon by stakeholders and decision-makers. As the content of the local database should be kept updated, a linkage with the geoserver is made for the accessing other data and updating the database at both ends. This geoserver hosts measurement and monitoring data obtained from CCMS, field surveys, and from other data sources.

Network IDSS

Fig. A2.7 shows the components and process flow in the Network IDSS, which is designed as an online system. Database, simulation model and other contents of IDSS are stored in the geoserver, managed and maintained in the university. With Desktop IDSS deployed in several locations, users can prepare or extract required the data and run the scenario analysis using model in the Network IDSS. The data and models in the Network IDSS are dynamic considering the update of the database and further development of models are undertaken. More than just a network of hardware and

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software systems, the Network IDSS is supported by a collaborative arrangement between and among government units, stakeholders, and universities.

Fig. A2.6 The components and process flow in a Desktop IDSS

Fig. A2.7 The components and process flow in a Network IDSS. Note that the Desktop IDSS is embedded within the framework of Network IDSS.

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How to make good use of IDSS in decision making

IDSS is composed of three modules, namely the Scenario Analysis Module, GIS Module, and Environmental Database Module.

Where should we browse?

 When you want to examine the effectiveness of possible countermeasures against environmental problems prior to decision making

Users can browse the Scenario analysis module. The Scenario analysis module has models to simulate the environmental conditions and assess the impact of multiple human stresses (e.g. excess aquaculture, farming, deforestation) on coastal environment and ecosystem. By setting up the several scenarios of the possible countermeasures against environmental concerns in your area and run the scenarios, users can examine the most appropriate way of management and its effectiveness for your concerns.

 When you want to know the present conditions and historical changes of the coastal and land conditions.

Users can browse the GIS module. The GIS module has various kind of multi-temporal data of coastal and land conditions. Through this module, users can browse land use map, coastal habitat map (and aquaculture structures map in Bolinao) and know how the coastal and land have been changed. These data provide users the information on environmental concerns in the area and information on target areas where countermeasures should be taken. The data also can be referred for generating scenarios for Scenario analysis module. The GIS module also holds layers showing the result of simulations and scenarios. Basic spatial analysis can be implemented using QGIS to examine the spatial and temporal distribution of various parameters as estimated or predicted by the models.

 When you want to know the historical and recent conditions and characteristics of water quality, terrestrial loads, etc.

Users can browse the Environmental database module. The Environmental database module has CCMS platform data and periodical monitoring data. CCMS platform data includes various kind of continuous hydrodynamic (ocean current), water quality (turbidity, salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen etc.), and meteorological (rainfall, humidity etc.) data. Periodical monitoring data includes conditions of coastal ecosystem (seagrass habitat, benthic communities etc.) and nutrient concentrations of river and coastal waters. Users can browse the actual current environmental conditions. And since the data is measured continuously, users also can observe the effects of management taken against the environmental concerns in the area.

Fig. A2.8 describes examples of how to use of each module for the effective use of IDSS to aid decision making.

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Fig. A2.8 Usage of each module for the effective use of IDSS

1.6. Components and Functions of IDSS

1.6.1. GIS

What is GIS: Geographic Information System? Geographic Information System or GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures designed to support the acquisition, management, manipulation, analysis, modelling and display of spatially-referenced data for solving complex planning and

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management problem. GIS can provide geographic or locational insight on activities and researches. Spatial queries, modelling and data integration are also possible in GIS. Lastly, results of GIS-based projects can be displayed or visualized in various forms such as maps, model and other methods of visualization (e.g., 3D virtual representation).

Merit of introduction For the CECAM Project, GIS was used for sampling design, data gathering, management, processing, analysis and output generation. Most of the data gathered have spatial data attributes, thus can be stored in GIS format. Similarly, observations or phenomena can be analyzed if they are correlated spatially, e.g. observed values tend to form a trend within an area. Lastly, GIS can be used in presenting results of various CECAM researches using GIS through maps, animations, or visual models.

GIS Data List

The following is an example of GIS data set for Boracay (Fig. A2.9). 1. Administrative Boundaries (Boracay Island, Barangay, Sitios) 2. Features (Roads, Coastline, Buildings) 3. Land Cover (Vegetation and Built-Up/Bare Soil) 4. Benthic Cover 5. Land Use 6. Elevation and Slope 7. Aerial Photo and Satellite Images 8. Observation Stations (Wells, Beaches and Wetlands) 9. Water Quality Data 10. Marine Activity Data 11. Bathymetric Data 12. Socio – Economic Data 13. Nitrate Load Modelling layers

Fig. A2.9 Sample GIS Data for Boracay Island a) Sitio Boundary, b) Vegetation Cover and c) Benthic Cover (overlaid on a satellite image)

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1.6.2 Scenario analysis

The Scenario Analysis Module is a tool to examine the potential effectiveness of possible countermeasures against site specific environmental issues prior to decision making. The coastal water and other conditions are simulated using various models in a server computer. The models can be used to predict future scenarios of local environmental issues such as seagrass degradation and massive fishkill. This information on future scenarios provides users effective strategies to realize sustainable coastal ecosystem and human activities (e.g. fisheries, tourism, mariculture).

1.6.2.1 Scenario analysis for Bolinao

What can be obtained? Scenario analysis module in IDSS Bolinao includes a function for simulating water quality of coastal waters in Bolinao and its surrounding areas. Fig. A2.10 shows the computational grid for the water quality simulation. The water quality simulation takes into account the long-term effect of intensive aquaculture activities to the coastal environment of Bolinao. The simulated water quality is then utilized by the other modules to predict the fishkill risk and seagrass distribution. The main output of the scenario analysis module is the spatial fishkill risk which is calculated by the fishkill risk assessment function. Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration is a key determinant of the massive fishkill occurrences. Another main output is predicted seagrass distribution map generated by seagrass distribution prediction function. The seagrass distribution is predicted based on the simulated water quality. Underwater light intensity is a key determinant of the distribution of seagrass. The users can make use of this module to examine effectiveness of various aquaculture management practices (different feeding amount, different area for the different feeding application) on the water quality and the resultant fishkill risk and ecosystem.

As a part of scenario analysis module for Bolinao, users are capable to access the watershed module. Watershed module simulates hydrology in Bani and Alaminos Watersheds (Fig. A2.11). The typical outputs from this module are river discharge and sediment loads. Thorough several scenario analysis, users can examine the impact of different land use and land management on coastal waters.

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Fig. A2.10 Computational grid for the Water Quality Simulation, Fishkill Risk Assessment, and Seagrass Distribution Prediction functions

Fig. A2.11 Bani and Alaminos watersheds and its land use

Example of usage

IDSS Bolinao is primarily designed to assess impact of various aquaculture management practices on coastal water quality. The aquaculture managements which can be examined by IDSS Bolinao are different feeding amounts and target areas for different feeding application. User can change parameters related to the feeding amounts for each aquaculture structures area. Detail operating instructions can be found in the IDSS user’s manual.

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Aquaculture management scenario analysis

User can examine effect of aquaculture management practices on sustainable aquaculture and ecosystem. Fig. A2.12 shows flowchart to conduct an aquaculture management practice scenario analysis. The fishkill risk and seagrass distribution are predicted from the simulated water quality. The connection between water quality simulation and fishkill risk assessment / seagrass distribution prediction is automatically done by the system. The predicted fishkill risk map and seagrass habitat map are stored in IDSS database and users can extract these outputs.

Fig. A2.12 Usage of Water quality, Fishkill risk assessment. Seagrass distribution prediction functions

The typical example of results derived by farming practice scenario analysis can be seen in “Case study of Bolinao/ CECAM initiatives to address issues/ 2. IDSS”.

1.6.2.2 Scenario analysis for Banate What can be obtained? Scenario analysis module in IDSS Banate includes a module for simulating turbidity of coastal waters in Banate Bay and Guimaras Strait (Fig. A2.13). The turbidity module takes into account effects of terrestrial sediment loads which are transported by coastal currents forced by tides and wind and re-suspension by waves. The main output of the module is turbidity concentration in term of Total Suspended Solid (TSS) which is one of the major determinants of turbidity in the coastal waters. Another main output is underwater light intensity. The light intensity is calculated based on the turbidity concentration using a light attenuation model which describes attenuation of light by

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water as a function of turbidity. Light requirements are a key determinant of the distribution and abundance of benthic organisms such as seagrass (Erftemeijer and Stapel, 1999). Thus light intensity describes if the underwater environment is inhabitable for the benthic organisms which requires light for their growth. Finally an “inhabitable map” is generated which indicates extent of inhabitable area for the benthic species.

Fig. A2.13 Simulation area for the turbidity module. Left: Guimaras Strait, Right: Banate Bay. The contour indicates water depth in meter. Users can make use of this module to examine effectiveness of various countermeasures which are considered to improve coastal environment as typified by turbidity. Users can further examine how the improvement of turbidity condition leads to possible recovery of ecosystem such as benthic organisms. The countermeasures that can be examined in IDSS currently include terrestrial managements such as implementation of a soil erosion prevention practice in farmland, and forestry management such as deforestation and reforestation. The users can easily examine which countermeasure is really effective for proper coastal environment management and how intensively the action is needed to be implemented before it is taken place as a practical matter.

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Fig. A2.14 Simulation area for weather module (left) and target watersheds for watershed module (right)

As a sub-function of turbidity module, users are capable to access weather and watershed module. These modules are part of the turbidity module to provide atmospheric and hydrological information to the turbidity module. Users are able to utilize these modules separately from the turbidity module simply to obtain atmospheric and hydrological information. The weather module calculates various atmospheric parameters including wind, temperature, air pressure, air humidity and precipitation. The weather module adopts a state-of-the-art numerical weather prediction system called the “Weather Research and Forecasting” model which is also utilized by Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). The module provides near-real time weather forecast in Western Visayas as needed basis (Fig. A2.14). The watershed module simulates hydrology in watersheds. The watershed module consists of a physical-based river basin scale model called “Soil and Water Assessment Tool” which is designed to predict the impact of land management practices on water, sediment and agricultural chemical yields in large complex watersheds with varying soils, land use and management conditions over long periods of time. The typical outputs from this module are river discharge and sediment loads. Users can obtain the hydrological parameters under different land use and land management scenarios to examine how the hydrology is affected by the activities. The watershed module in IDSS Banate covers major watersheds facing to Guimaras Strait in both Panay and Negros Island (Fig. A2.14). Brief description of each module is summarized in Table A2.1.

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Table A2.1 Summary of each module Module Area Main outputs Base model Turbidity Guimaras Strait Turbidity (Total Princeton Ocean Banate Bay Suspended Solid) Model with Underwater light intensity turbidity Seagrass habitable map subroutine Weather Western Visayas Wind Weather Research Surface air temperature and Forecasting Surface air pressure Model Precipitation Watershed Panay and Negros River discharge Soil and Water Is. Sediment loads Assessment Tool

Example of usage

IDSS Banate is primarily designed to assess impact of various terrestrial management practices on coastal turbidity. The terrestrial managements which can be examined by IDSS Banate are implementation of farming practice in agricultural field, and land cover change by reforestation/deforestation in upland. User can change parameters related to the terrestrial management to examine its effects. Detail operating instructions can be found in the IDSS user’s manual.

Fig. A2.15 Flowchart for farming practice scenario analysis. Color indicates operation in each turbidity module.

Farming practice scenario analysis

User can examine effect of agricultural farming practice on sediment loads from watershed and coastal turbidity. Fig. A2.15 shows flowchart to conduct a farming

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practice scenario analysis. The terrestrial sediment loads to be utilized in coastal turbidity simulation can be either provided by extracting data from IDSS database or executing the Watershed module. IDSS database provides terrestrial sediment loads simulated for different cases of farming practices in different implementing area. Users can simply apply these data for conducting the analysis. Optionally users can apply their own scenario by changing land cover and/or management practice in watershed module to generate the corresponding terrestrial sediment loads. This is especially required when user want to examine a unique scenario which is not provided by IDSS database. Fig. A2.16 is a typical example of results derived by farming practice scenario analysis. The result indicates effect of farming management on coastal by comparing turbidity status of before and after implementation of the terrestrial management. Likewise user can utilize IDSS to examine effectiveness of environmental program and to support decision making.

Fig. A2.16 Results of farming practice scenario analysis under three cases. The upper figures show average turbidity concentration of Banate Bay during rainy season for current status(left) and after implementing mulching farming management in sugarcane field in four watersheds in Banate Bay(middle) and in Jalaur River(right). Lower figures show inhabitable map for seagrass map in terms of light condition for each case.

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1.6.2. Environmental database

Comprehensive monitoring database

1.6.2.1. CCMS platform The CCMS is a monitoring system designed to continuous monitor hydrodynamic and water quality parameter at selected sites. The data serves as continuous record of these parameters and provides the opportunity to examine temporal variations potentially leading to greater understanding of environmental process. Details are given in the CCMS guidelines.

1.6.2.2. CCTV Camera Monitoring System

Purpose of the monitoring system

The purpose of CCTV camera installation is following; ・To understand the characteristics of beach dynamics in Boracay Island (ex. beach width, beach- use change, wave breaking, algal blooms, etc.) in order to take measures to address the beach erosion problem. ・To encourage local people to have a stronger interest in the coastal environment and its protection through the CCTV camera images

Merit of CCTV Camera Monitoring

There are many monitoring method of beach dynamics such as aerial photograph analysis and leveling, and each monitoring methods have specific strength and weakness points.

The merits of CCTV camera monitoring are following;

・Continuous observation is possible without field surveys We can even observe not only seasonal and losng-term beach dynamics change but also short-term dynamics like before and after episodic events such as typhoons and rough wave conditions. Therefore, we can identify beach erosion and accumulation dynamics of episodic events.

・Video images are open to the public Everybody can browse the real time observation images through the internet

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Fig. A2.17 Installation location of CCTV camera (left) and CCTV camera network system (right)

- Installation locations Fig. A2.17 and Table A2.1A2.2 indicate the installation location of CCTV camera. In Boracay Island, four CCTV cameras were installed and recording the video from June 2013.

Table A2.2 Installation location and target view of CCTV camera Location name Target view NAMI RESORT Whole area of Diniwid Beach Boracay Terraces Resort_Hilltop Whole area of White Beach Boracay Terraces Resort_Rooftop Northern part of White Beach Elizalde’s Resort Middle part of White Beach (near the Station1)

4. CCTV Camera Monitoring Management System

Fig. A2.17 shows the image of CCTV camera operation system. Video images are recorded and processed in the server established at the UP Diliman campus through Kalibo Cable and can be viewed through the internet.

1.6.2.3. Participatory Monitoring

In addition to the monitoring by CECAM project, participatory monitoring of water quality using transparency was introduced in Boracay Island.

Why is participatory monitoring important?

In order to continue monitoring activities even after the end of CECAM Project, it is important for local people to become interested and join the coastal environment monitoring activities. Monitoring using sensors are quite expensive and due to the limited number of sensors, only selected local areas can be monitored. With participatory monitoring, qualitative data for various places can be available periodically. Participatory monitoring also promotes stewardship of the environment and greater understanding of environmental processes.

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Example of participatory monitoring: Transparency Monitoring

Why transparency monitoring?

Transparency is a simple parameter to indicate turbidity. Turbidity is one of the representative parameters on the water quality conditions. Importantly, turbidity expresses optical condition which governs the growth of corals, seagrass, etc. Therefore, measuring transparency is one of the simplest ways to monitor the water quality conditions.

Merits of transparency monitoring

The merits of transparency monitoring are following; ・Monitoring methods are low cost and very simple. Fig. A2.18 shows the example of installation of this monitoring method to the elementary school students in Ishigaki Island, Japan. Fig. A2.19 shows the method of this monitoring. Simply check and record the distance at which the white board is getting visible by approaching from one end. ・Buddy system can ensure safety. ・Results can easily be checked on site. ・After the general investigation, monitoring results are unified and can be outputted to the Google Earth through the IDSS top-page ( Fig. A2.20). ・Comparison of the results from various sites elucidates spatial distribution of water quality ・Possible associated inland surveys may give ideas to help improve the water quality.

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Fig. A2.18 Example of transparency monitoring in Ishigaki Island (Photo: Courtesy of Mr. Akira Naito)

Fig. A2.19 Method of transparency monitoring

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Fig. A2.20 Example of visualization results

1.7 Support system IDSS for each site will be supported by the University of the Philippines Diliman (UPD), University of Philippines Visayas (UPV), and Mindanao State University – Naawan (MSU- Naawan) and collaborating Japanese universities led by the Tokyo Institute of Technology. IDSS top-page manual contains descriptions and instructions for most cases. But when an IDSS user have a question about the manual, behavior of the software, and interpreting the data and results for decision-making, the user can get technical support from these universities through email. Moreover, satellite image analysis results, CCMS data, and so on will be continuously updated so that users can get the latest information using IDSS top-page.

References

Paul L.A. Erftemeijer, Johan Stapel (1999): Primary production of deep-water Halophila ovalis meadows, Aquatic Botany, 65, 71-82 Koji Suzuki (2007): Long Term Observation of Nearshore Topography and Longshore Current in Sumiyoshi Beach using Video Camera, Report of the Port and Airport Research Institute, Vol.46, No.3 Cesar Villanoy, Laura David, Olivia Cabrera, Michael Atrigenio, Fernando Siringan, Porfirio Ali o, and Maya Villaluz (2012): Coral reef ecosystems protect shore from high-energy wave under climate change scenarios, Climate Change, Vol.112, pp.493-505

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III. MPA Guideline

Establishment of effective MPA network for conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem functions of coastal zones

Establishing MPAs (Marine Protected Areas) is one of the key management methods for conservation of coastal biodiversity and resources. The number of MPA is increasing rapidly around the world (Edgar et al. 2014). MPAs are effective for conservation from the two points of views; Firstly, they provide insurance against decline of species by decreasing anthropogenic impacts within MPAs. Secondly, they enhance the biodiversity and productivity of organisms outside MPAs through spillover via export of pelagic larvae and adult movement to the outside (Sale et al. 2005). Careful designing of the location of MPAs is thus needed to make them most effective. However, site selection for MPAs and their spatial arrangement are often determined arbitrarily without consideration of reef connectivity. This is also true for the case of MPAs in the Philippines where more than 1,000 MPAs have been established since 1967 (Weeks et al. 2009) although most of them are set by each LGU without enough scientific knowledge on its effectiveness in terms of the size, locations and interrelationship with other MPAs in surrounding area.

To plan and establish effective MPAs for adaptive conservation and management, ecology and modelling sections of CECAM project conducted a series of studies to understand connectivity of reef habitats (including mangrove and seagrass beds within reefs) and of organisms inhabiting reef habitats. Our approach is an integration of different discipline of marine sciences, including field census of marine organisms, genetic analyses of relatedness of key organisms using molecular markers, acoustic telemetry survey of highly-mobile fish which is the major fishery resource, and hydrodynamic modelling of the water movements and larval dispersal (Fig. A3.1). Based on the obtained results, we propose a new scheme for planning and designing MPA networks at various spatial scales for different sectors of stakeholders. The research was conducted by hierarchical design focusing on three different spatial scales accounting for decision making at different sectors/stakeholders; (1) Country-wide scale analyses for decision making at the governmental level, (2) The strait- wide (meso) scale analyses for provincial, or inter-LGU decision making, and (3) local scale analyses for supporting decision making at LGU level (Fig. A3.2).

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Fig. A3.1. Integrated approach adopted in MPA study of CECAM.

Fig.A3.2 A schematic presentation of hierarchical approach for effective MPA design by CECAM

To carry out genetic analyses, we developed some new molecular markers (microsatellite, or SSR markers) for key marine species like seagrasses, echinoderms and reef fishes (Table A3.1). It should be noted, however, molecular genetic analyses, as well as hydrodynamic modelling and acoustic telemetry surveys are not always available for local stakeholders due to lack of sufficient lab facilities, specialists, money and time. To overcome this problem, the guideline should be established by two-fold. First, by utilizing existing knowledge on biodiversity patterns and factors affecting them, and secondly, applying new technologies for target organisms and ecosystems if they are available. In both cases, tight

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collaboration of stakeholders and research institutions are advisable for the adaptive management of MPA based on sound scientific knowledge (Fig. A3.3).

Table A3.1 List of microsatellite markers developed by CECAM projects ------Species Number of References markers ------Seagrass Enhalus acoroides 12 Nakajima et al. (2012) Cycodocea rotundata 3 Arriesgado et al. (2014) Cycodocea serrulata 16 Arriesgado et al. (2014) Thalassia hemprichii 9 Matsuki et al. (2012) Syringodium isoetifolium 23 Matsuki et al. (2013), Kurokouchi et al. (in prep)

Echinoderm Protoreaster nodosus 19 Nakajima et al. (2013)

Anemonefish Amphiprion frenatus 12a Sato et al. (2014) Amphiprion perideraion 13a Sato et al. (2014) ------a10 markers are cross-species amplified markers.

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Fig.A3.3 A schematic flow of decision-making processes for setting effective MPAs

1. Guidelines for MPA plan at the whole-coast scale of the Philippines (decision making at the governmental level)

Most of the key marine species in the Philippines, such as mangrove, seagrass and coral species and commercially-important fish species, have wide distributional range within/over Coral Triangle Area. However, they are not homogeneous with respect to genetic components, i.e., different populations of the same species have different genetic structures under different evolutionary background. The conservation of such genetic diversity is considered as of equal importance as that of species. Therefore, understanding broad-scale patterns of genetic structure is important for the grand design of MPA network systems in the Philippines.

Using seagrass as model organisms, we analyzed the broad-scale genetic structure of 5 major species across the whole Philippine coast. First, we compared FST which is a measure for the degree of genetic separation among populations (Table A1.1). The values are higher than 0.3 for all the species, indicating high degree of among-population separation; i.e., gene exchange among population is very infrequent. Furthermore, genetic distance, expressed as FST /(1- FST), was negatively correlated with geographic distance (Fig. A3.4). High genetic separation is ascribed to limited ability of dispersal by seeds and fruits for these seagrass species, resulting in the preservation of specific sets of genes in each population. Under this

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situation, it is advised that the conservation of these seagrasses should be undertaken at the level of each population, but not at the level of species.

Table A3.2 Average FST values of 5 seagrass species across the Philippine coast ------Species FST References ------E. acoroides 0.32 Nakajima et al. (2014) C. rotundata 0.39 Arriesgado et al. (submitted) C. serrulata 0.39 Arriesgado et al. (submitted) T. hemprichii 0.43 Matsuki et al. (in prep.) S. isoetifolium 0.38 Kurokochi et al. (submitted) ------

Fig. A3.4 Relationship between geographical distance and genetic separation measured by Fst for Thalassia hemprichii

Secondly, we analyzed the genetic structures of populations in the Philippine coasts using multivariate analyses on polymorphism of SSR markers. Genetic structure maps show similar patterns among different seagrass species, with some differences in the number of distinct groups and their locations (Fig. A3.5). For example, the number of groups was divided into 4 for Enhalus acoroides, with different groups dominated in (1) western Luzon, (2) eastern Luzon, (3) from Visayas to Mindanao, and (4) from Visayas to Palawan Islands. For Cymodocea rotundata, it was divided into 3 groups as (1) northwest Luzon, (2) from east Luzon, middle Visayas to Mindanao, and (3) from middle Visayas to Palawan.

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Using a consensus analysis accounting for the results of 5 seagrass species, 4 different bioregions can be classified for seagrass community in the Philippines, which are (1) northern Luzon, (2) eastern Luzon, (3) from Visayas to Mindanao, and (4) from Visayas to Palawan. This grouping is well explained by the ocean current patterns. The two major current systems, Kuroshio and Mindanao Current inhibit frequent transportation of propagules among the regions, influencing the division of groups with different genetic structures. Based on this result, it is advised that the plans for establishing MPA networks for the effective conservation of seagrass species and their associated biota should be made for each of the 4 bioregions.

Fig. A3.5 Classification of bioregions based on the results of genetic structure analyses for 4 major seagrass species

It should be noted that different group of marine organisms, such as mangrove and coral species, may have different genetic variation among regions, reflecting differences in evolutionary history or life history characteristics. The classification of bioregions should be revised and upgraded if genetic data are available for the key marine species in other habitat types. If not, classification should be made based on species presence/absence data.

2. Guidelines for MPA plan at the strait-wide (meso) scale (for decision making at provincial level, or inter-LGUs)

Major marine organisms, especially animals with pelagic larval period, can migrate quite a long distance. For such species, conservation plans considering conditions only at local sites are insufficient for effective conservation. Broader-scale analyses elucidating reef connectivity by propagule and larval dispersal over 10-100 km distance are worthwhile to achieve good design of MPA networks. In CECAM, we approached this problem by integrated analyses using field census of abundance, molecular genetic analysis, and hydrodynamic modeling of larval dispersal.

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An example shown here used two anemone fish species (Amphiprion frenatus and A. perideraion) inhabiting Puerto Galera in Verdi Island Passage. Anemone fish are suitable organisms for larval connectivity study because their adult habitat is clearly determined by spatial distribution of host anemone species. Field survey of spatial distribution patterns within Puerto Galera showed that their abundance is not related to the spatial arrangement of host (Sato et al. 2014). Parentage analysis based on molecular genetic data of the whole populations revealed very low self-recruitment rate within Puerto Galera (less than 6%), indicating that most juvenile fish come from outside of the area, and that most of the larvae produced in the area migrate out (Fig. A3.6).

Fig. A3.6 Evaluation of self-recruitment of the two anemone fish in Puerto Galera, suggesting the need for broader-scale management of MPA networks.

A simulation model incorporating hydrodynamic conditions of the Verdi Island Passage and larval behavior of anemone fish showed high dispersal ability of the two species, supporting the results of molecular genetic analysis (Fig. A3.7a). Based on the results of the integrated analyses, it is advised that establishing and managing several (or more) MPAs along Verdi Island Passage are important to conserve fish with moderate larval periods (1-2 weeks) like the anemone fish, not only at Puerto Galera, but also at the scale of whole Verdi Island Passage. The number and areas of MPAs at the moment are not sufficient to conserve reef- associated fish assemblages in Verdi Island Passage (Fig. A3.7b).

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Fig. A3.7 Simulation results of larval dispersal process of an anemone fish Amphiprion frenatus derived from Puerto Galera (a) compared with current location of MPAs in Verdi Island Passage (b). The comparison indicated that current MPA number and location are not sufficient to conserve marine organisms with moderate dispersal stage.

In conclusion, it is advised to set more MPAs with greater area than the current situation for more effective conservation of reef fish communities with moderate larval dispersal ability like the anemone fish. Cooperation of multiple LGUs along Verdi Island Passage is important to plan such MPA networks. If the number and area of MPA is limited and difficult to increase due to some reasons, the second best solutions may be to set in the core protected areas (e.g., no-take zones) at each of the existing MPA, while setting buffer zones (with limited fisheries and recreational activities) around the core areas using an existing information of reef connectivity in the area (Fig.A3. 8).

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Fig. A3.8 A hypothetical design of MPA networks along Verdi Island Passage taking into account reef connectivity and core/buffer zone management strategy.

3. The local scale (for decision making at LGU level)

To make each MPA most effective, a careful determination of its location, size and spatial arrangement are required by each LGU. We investigate this problem using field census, molecular genetic analyses and acoustic telemetry survey.

Firstly, gradient of genetic diversity was assessed by genetic markers for three dominant seagrass species. For example, clonal diversity of Cymodocea rotundata showed great within/among-site variation (Figs. A3.9 and A3.10). Furthermore, human-induced disturbance negatively affects local genetic diversity of seagrasses. It is advised that MPA should be set at sites with less human disturbances and with high species and genetic diversity of key organisms.

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Fig. A3.9 Small-scale distribution map of clonal structure of Cymodocea rotundata in Bolinao and Laguindingan

Fig. A3.10 Comparisons of clonal diversity of Cymodocea rotundata within/among locations of Bolinao and Laguindingan

It is recently recognized that local reef connectivity among mangrove, seagrass beds and coral reefs play an important role for enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem functions of coastal areas, especially for higher level consumers such as fish. Field census of major fish revealed that major commercially-important species in reef systems such as Lethrinus harak shift their habitats from mangrove, seagrass beds to coral reefs as they grow (Fig.

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A3.11, Honda et al. 2013). In addition, the acoustic telemetry survey conducted in Laguindingan showed that adult fish individuals regularly migrate between seagrass beds and the coral reefs, and between inside and outside of the MPA (Figs. A3.12 and A3.13). The results indicated that each MPA should include multiple habitats in conjugation for conservation of higher-level consumers such as fish. Furthermore, it was shown that current MPA size in Laguindingan is not large enough for effective conservation of these fish. As the size of MPA here is about the average of typical MPA in the Philippines, the conclusion here likely applies to other MPAs.

Fig. A3.11 Local connectivity of commercially-important fish among coral reef, seagrass beds and mangrove reef in Puerto Galera analyzed by visual census.

Fig. A3.12 Outline of acoustic telemetry survey and its design at Laguindingan

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Fig. A3.13 Results of acoustic telemetry survey recoding the movements of target fish in Laguindingan.

References

Arriesgado, D.M., Nakajima, Y., Matsuki, Y., Lian, C., Nagai, S., Yasuike, M., Nakamura, Y., Fortes, M.D., Uy, W.H., Campos, W.L., Nakaoka, M. and Nadaoka, K. (2014): Development of novel microsatellite markers for Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenberg (Cymodoceaceae), a pioneer seagrass species widely distributed in the Indo- Pacific. Conservation Genetics Resources, 6:135–138. Edgar, G. J., R. D. Stuart-Smith, T. J. Willis, S. Kininmonth, S. C. Baker, S. Banks, N. S. Barrett, M. A. Becerro, A. T. F. Bernard, J. Berkhout, C. D. Buxton, S. J. Campbell, A. T. Cooper, M. Davey, S. C. Edgar, G. Försterra, D. E. Galván, A. J. Irigoyen, D. J. Kushner, R. Moura, P. E. Parnell, N. T. Shears, G. Soler, E. M. A. Strain, and R. J. Thomson. (2014) Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature 506:216–20. Honda, K., Nakamura, Y., Nakaoka, M., Uy, W.H., Fortes, M.D. (2013) Habitat use by fishes in coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove habitats in the Philippines. PLoS ONE 8: e65735. Matsuki Y., Nakajima Y., Lian C.L., Fortes M., Uy W., Campos W., Nakaoka M., and Nadaoka K. (2012):Development of microsatellite markers for Thalassia hemprichii (Hydrocharitaceae), a widely distributed seagrass in the Indo-Pacific. Conservation Genetics Resources, 4: 1007-1010 Matsuki Y., Takahashi A., Nakajima Y., Lian C.L., Fortes M., Uy W., Campos W., Nakaoka M., and Nadaoka K. (2013):Development of microsatellite markers in a tropical seagrass Syringodium isoetifolium (Cymodoceaceae).Conservation Genetics Resources, 5: 715-717. DOI 10.1007/s12686-013-9889-5

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Nakajima Y., Matsuki Y., Lian C.L., Fortes M., Uy W., Campos W., Nakaoka M., and Nadaoka K. (2012) Development of novel microsatellite markers in a tropical seagrass, Enhalus acoroides. Conservation Genetics Resources, 4:515-517, DOI:10.1007/s12686-012-9614 Nakajima ,Y., Yasuda, N., Matsuki, Y., Arriesgado, D.M.,Lian, C., Fortes, M., Uy, W., Campos, W., Nakaoka, M., Taquet, C., Nagai, S., Nadaoka, K. (2013): Development of 10 novel polymorphic microsatellite markers for the Indo-Pacific horned starfish, Protoreaster nodosus Nakajima, Y., Matsuki, Y., Lian, C., Fortes, M.D., Uy, W.H., Campos, W.L., Nakaoka, M. and Nadaoka K. (in press) The Kuroshio Current influences genetic diversity and population genetic structure of a tropical seagrass, Enhalus acoroides. Molecular Ecology 23: 6029–6044 Sale, P. F., R. K. Cowen, B. S. Danilowicz, G. P. Jones, J. P. Kritzer, K. C. Lindeman, S. Planes, N. V. C. Polunin, G. R. Russ, Y. J. Sadovy, and R. S. Steneck. 2005. Critical science gaps impede use of no-take fishery reserves. Trends in Ecology andEvolution 20:74–80. Sato M, Honda K, Bolisay KO, Nakamura Y, Fortes MD, Nakaoka M (2014) Factors affecting the local abundance of two anemonefishes (Amphiprion frenatus and A. perideraion) around a semi-closed bay in Puerto Galera, the Philippines. Hydrobiologia 733: 63–69. Sato, M., Kurokochi, H., Tan, E., Asakawa, S., Honda, K., Bolisay, K,O., Nakamura, Y., Lian, C., Fortes, M.D. and Nakaoka, M. (2014)Fifteen novel microsatellite markers for two Amphiprion species (Amphiprion frenatus and Amphiprion perideraion) and cross-species amplification. Conservation Genetics Resources. 6:685-688 Weeks R, Russ GR, Alcala AC, White AT (2009) Effectiveness of marine protected areas in the Philippines for biodiversity conservation. Conserv Biol 24: 531–540.

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Acronyms

ADB Asian Development Bank BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Agriculture CCTV Closed Circuit Television CECAM Integrated Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management under Local and Global Impacts in the Philippines CCMS Continuous and Comprehensive Monitoring System DA Department of Agriculture DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources GIS Geographic Information Systems ICRAN International Coral Reef Action Network ICRI International Coral Reef Initiative ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IDSS Integrated Decision Support System IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JST Japan Science and Technology Agency LGU Local Government Unit MPA Marine Protected Area MSN MPA Support Network NAMRIA National Mapping and Resources Information Administration (DENR) NGO Non-Governmental Organization OHI Ocean Health Index PO People’s Organization SATREPS Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development TOMAS Terrestrial Output Monitoring and Assessment System UNEP United Nations Environment Programme USAID United States Agency for International Development WB World Bank

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Glossary of Key Terms

Adaptation In biology, adaptation is a trait with a current functional role in the life history of an organism that is maintained and evolved by means of natural selection. In coastal management, it refers to the dynamic process that leads to the fitness and survival at all levels of biological organization, including human societies. It is a kind of biological insurance or resilience to varying environments.

Adaptive management An integrated, multidisciplinary approach to decision making in the face of uncertainty in natural resources issues, with an aim to reducing uncertainty over time. It is adaptive because it acknowledges that managed resources will always change as a result of human intervention, that surprises are inevitable, and that new uncertainties will emerge (Holling 1978, Walters 1997).

Algal Bloom /Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) Sudden increase in the amount of marine algae (seaweed) often caused by high levels of phosphates, nitrates, and other nutrients in the area. If the bloom causes death and illness to people, it is referred to as Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)

Alien Species (Also called introduced, exotic, or non-indigenous species) - A species that has been transported by human activity, intentionally or accidentally, into a region where it does not occur naturally.

Anoxic Refers to an environment that contains little or no dissolved oxygen and hence little or no benthic marine life. These conditions often arise in deep water locations where physical circulation of seawater is limited.

Assessment A process (which may or may not be systematic) of gathering information, analyzing it, and then making a judgment on the basis of that information.

Biological diversity (Biodiversity) The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems, as well as genetic diversity.

CECAM Approach Approach adopted and promoted by the CECAM Project wherein the primary objective is community resilience through the provision of a solid social- scientific base for coastal ecosystem conservation and adaptive management policy

Coastal zone The interface where the land meets the ocean, encompassing river deltas, coastal plains, wetlands, beaches, dunes, seagrass beds, reefs, mangrove forests, lagoons and other coastal features. It is a special area, endowed with special characteristics, whose boundaries are often determined by the specific problems to be tackled or by the limits of the capacity of local governments to manage the resource.

Conservation Act of guarding, or protecting or wise use, as of biodiversity, environment, and natural resources, including protection and management

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Drivers or driving forces The social, demographic and economic developments in societies and the corresponding changes in life styles, overall levels of consumption and production patterns.

Driving forces-Pressures-States-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR) The causal framework for describing the interactions between society and the environment adopted by the European Environment Agency.

Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Ecosystem approach The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. It is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization that encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems (UN Convention on Biological Diversity 2010)

Ecosystem Based Management (EBM) A strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. It is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems (UN Convention on Biological Diversity 2010)

Effects Intended or unintended changes resulting directly or indirectly from a development intervention.

Environmental indicators Environmental indicators reflect trends in the state of the physical environment, help the identification of priority policy needs and the formulation of policy measures, and monitor the progress made by policy measures in achieving environmental goals.

Evaluation A systematic (and as objective as possible) examination of a planned, ongoing or completed project. It aims to answer specific management questions and to judge the overall value of an endeavor and provides lessons to improve future actions, planning and decision-making. Evaluations commonly seek to determine the efficiency, effectiveness, impact, sustainability and the relevance of the project or organization’s objectives. An evaluation should provide information that is credible and useful, offering concrete lessons learned to help partners and funding agencies make decisions.

Endogenous Coming from inside the system, or emanating from the activities of members within the system Exogenous Coming from outside the system, or the system or its members have no control of the event

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Governance The process by which policies, laws, institutions and decision-makers address the issues of concern to a society. Governance questions the fundamental goals and the institutional processes and structures that are the basis of planning and decision-making.

Impacts Intended or unintended changes in environmental, social and economic conditions as a result of management actions or external pressures.

Indicator A parameter or a value derived from parameters, which provides information about a phenomenon. Input The financial, human and material resources necessary to produce the intended outputs of a project.

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) A dynamic, multidisciplinary, iterative and participatory process to promote sustainable management of coastal areas balancing environmental, economic, social, cultural and recreational objectives over the long-term. ICZM entails the integration of all relevant policy areas, sectors, and levels of administration. It means integration of the terrestrial and marine components of the target territory, in both time and space.

IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List), founded in 1964, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species.

Management Process by which human and material resources are organized to achieve a known goal within a known institutional structure or governance. Management typically refers to organizing the routine work of a unit of a company or a governmental agency.

Monitoring An active process of regularly gathering data or information in order to detect any changes in a system which may occur over time, using a monitor or measuring device.

OHI A new system developed to continually monitor the health of the world’s oceans. OHI indicators describe ocean health according to how people benefit from and affect the marine ecosystems

Outcome The results achieved at the level of “purpose” in the objective hierarchy. Outcomes of the ICM governance process can be broken down into intermediate and final, and measured at different geographic scales: local, regional, and national.

Output The tangible (easily measurable, practical), immediate and intended results to be produced through sound management of the agreed inputs. Examples of outputs include goods, services or infrastructure produced by a project and meant to help realize its purpose. These may also include changes, resulting from the intervention, which are needed to achieve the outcomes at the purpose level. Performance The degree to which a development intervention or a development partner operates according to specific criteria/standards/guidelines or achieves results in accordance with stated goals or plans.

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Pressure The pressures exerted by human activities on the environment in terms of release of pollutants, physical and biological agents, use of resources and land.

Response Refers to responses by groups (and individuals) in society, as well as government attempts to prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in the state of the environment.

Seagrass bed A discrete community dominated by flowering plants with roots and rhizomes (underground stems), thriving in slightly reducing sediments and normally exhibiting maximum biomass under conditions of complete submergence

Sustainable development "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Report 1987)

Sustainability The positive effects of a project (such as assets, skills, facilities or improved services) will persist for an extended period after the external assistance ends.

Transdisciplinarity The highest level of integration where both the scientists and the stakeholders strive to understand the complexities of the whole project, rather one part of it.

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