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Uranium-Plutonium Breeder Systems

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Uranium-Plutonium Breeder Systems Uranium-plutonium breeder systems Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen Independent consultant member of the Nuclear Consulting Group October 2019 [email protected] Note In this document the references are coded by Q-numbers (e.g. Q6). Each reference has a unique number in this coding system, which is consistently used throughout all publications by the author. In the list at the back of the document the references are sorted by Q-number. The resulting sequence is not necessarily the same order in which the references appear in the text. m01breeders20190922 1 1 October 2019 Contents Introduction Burner reactors Breeder cycle Breeder reactor Reprocessing Fuel fabrication The breeding system Main parameters Plutonium recycling Difficulties Technical hurdles of the breeding system Breeder reactor Process losses Reprocessing Fuel fabrication Uranium recycling Feasibility of the U-Pu breeder system LMFBR as transmuter New names, no new concepts Logistic hurdles Plutonium availability Proliferation and terrorisk risks Safeguards Security issues of the breeder and P&T cycles Thorium fuel cycle Conclusions References TABLES Table 1 Desirable properties of the breeding cycle Table 2 Composition of plutonium generated in an LWR FIGURES Figure 1 Reactor types Figure 2 Distribution world power reactor types Figure 3 Outline of the breeder sytem Figure 4 Symplified outline of reprocessing Figure 5 Partitioning and transmutation (P&T) system m01breeders20190922 2 1 October 2019 Introduction The only fissile nuclide in nature is uranium-235, accounting for 0.7% of the atoms in natural uranium. The remaining 99.3% consists of uranium-238 atoms and traces of uranium-234 atoms, which are not fissile. Nuclear reactors generate energy through fission, the process by which a uranium-235 nucleus splits into two or three smaller nuclei. During fission energy is released as radiation and heat. The heat is used to raise steam, which drives a turbine coupled to an electricity generator. When a uranium nucleus fissiones it produces two or three free neutrons. A part of the new neutrons is ab- sorbed by fissile nuclei causing new fissions, thus maintaining a fission chain reaction. The other neutrons are captured by the nuclei of uranium-238, coolant and construction materials. If a neutron is captured by an atomic nucleus of the coolant or construction, a new nucleus with one neutron more emerges. Often the new nucleus is instable, and radioactive, hence the name ‘activation reaction’ of neutron capture reactions. In this way the materials of a nuclear reactor, its coolant and its surrounding appendages become radioactive, the more so the longer the reactor operates and the higher its power. If a neutron is captured by a uranium-238 nucleus, a uranium-239 atom is formed. By radioactive decay a uranium-239 nucleus transmutes into the nucleus of plutonium-239, which is fissile. Neutrons set free by a fissioning uramium-235 or plutonium-239 have high energy and are moving extremely fast. These fast neutrons do not efficiently cause fission. In thermal-neutron reactors the fast neutrons are slowed down by a moderator – light water, graphite or, in some cases, heavy water – to energies in thermal equilibrium with the atoms and molecules in the reactor, hence the name ‘thermal neutrons’. All power reac- tors currently operating (except one) are thermal-neutron reactors, 88% of them being light-water reactors (LWR). Little more than about 0.5% of the atoms in the natural uranium leaving the mine can be fissioned in ther- mal-neutron reactors, even the best currently operating reactors attain a uranium utilization of about 0.5%. This implies that 99.5% of the uranium atoms extracted from the earth’s crust are disposed of, unfissioned, in the nuclear waste. In an operating nuclear reactor the abundant and ‘fertile’ uranium-238 partially is converted by neutron cap- ture into plutonium-239, which is even better fissile than uranium-235. In a fast reactor the neutrons are not slowed down, by using non-moderating coolants, such as liquid sodium. Fast neutrons, though not as good at causing fission, are readily captured by uranium-238 atoms. Theoretically, in special designs of a fast reactor, more plutonium atoms could be formed from U-238 than are fissioned. Therefore these reactors are dubbed ‘breeders’ and often ‘fast breeders’, that does not mean the breeding process goes fast. Besides, not every fast reactor is a breeder. This concept theoretically would make possible to fission 30-60% of the atoms in natural uranium in a breeder reactor, via conversion into plutonium. That would mean 50 to 100 times the fissioned amount in conventional (thermal neutron) reactors. The high fissionable fraction of natural uranium theoretically attainable by the breeder is the source of the old nuclear promises from the 1950s: ‘all nuclear society’, ‘too cheap to meter’ and ‘burning the rocks’. Today these unproven figures still give rise to promises of untold quantities of cheap, clean nuclear energy for all mankind for the next centuries. However, there are serious obstacles on the road to the materialization of these technical dreams: • technical unfeasibility of the breeder system • slow rate of expansion of a plutonium economy due to limited availability of fissile material, and the long doubling time of the breeding cycle • uncontrollable and high risk of plutonium terrorism and the proliferation of nuclear technology. m01breeders20190922 3 1 October 2019 nuclear reactors thermal neutrons fast neutrons burners burners breeders moderator heavy water graphite light water none none coolant gas molten liquid gas, liquid gas, H2 O/D2 O H2 O H2 O He,CO2 salts metal other metal other CANDU RMBK AGR LWR LMFR LMFBR PHWR Magnox HTGR BWR PWR VVER once through Pu recycle © Storm Figure 1 Decision tree to define the reference nuclear reactor. Only that types of power reactors are mentioned at the bottom of the diagram that are actually operating or have been operating. The LMFBR is not operational. The LWR has been chosen as the reference reactor type in this study. The differences between the Boiling Water Reactor BWR, Pressurized Water Reactor PWR and the Russian VVER (also a PWR) with respect to the energy analysis are minor. Burner reactors All power reactors (except one) currently operating are burner reactors, based on fission with thermal (slow) neutrons. The three main classes are (see also Figure 1): • light-water reactors LWR: Pressurized Water Reactor PWR and Boiling Water Reactor BWR, • graphite-moderated reactors and gas-cooled reactors, e.g. Magnox and AGR • heavy-water moderated reactors, e.g. CANDU. At present 88% of the power reactors of the world are LWRs (see Figure 2). BWR 19.9% CANDU + PHWR 6.7% PWR AGR + GGR 2.1% 68.4% RMBK 2.7% LMFR + other 0.16% © Storm Figure 2 Distribution of the world nuclear power reactors in 2007, according to power output. The section PWR includes the Russian version (PWR-VVER). 88.4% of the world nuclear capacity is supplied by light-water reactors (LWR) and 11.6% by other types. Source: European Nuclear Society [www.euronuclear.org/info/ ]. The reference reactor of this study, which may serve as a model for the newest currently operating power reactors, achieves a lifetime uranium utilization of about 0.5%. This implies that 5 grams of each kilogram natural uranium as delivered by the mine, actually are fissioned. The remaining 995 grams leave the nuclear energy system as depleted uranium and highly radioactive spent fuel. m01breeders20190922 4 1 October 2019 Advanced reactors, such as the so-called Generation III reactors and the Pebble Bed Reactor PBMR, all are burner reactors and may reach a uranium utilization of somewhat higher than 0.6%, but still lower than than 0.7%. One of the first Generation-III reactors, an EPR (European Pressurized Reactor), is being built at Olkiluoto in Finland. As none of the advanced reactors are operating yet, no operational data are available. Breeder cycle What is called a ‘breeder’ is not just a reactor type or a stand-alone system. To exploit the promised potential of natural uranium, a complex breeder cycle is prerequisite. The cycle (see Figure 3) comprises three components: the breeder reactor, a reprocessing plant and a fuel fabrication plant. All three have to operate flawlessly and continuously and have to be finely tuned to each other. If one component fails, the whole breeding system fails. If the system losses are higher than the breeding gain, the system fails as breeder. Then you may run a fast reactor, but you do not have a breeder. The light-water reactor (LWR) system can be operated in an open ‘cycle’ (once-through mode) and has no such dependency. Breeder reactor The active core of the breeder reactor is surrounded by a blanket of uranium-238, the fertile material. In the core plutonium is fissioned, producing heat and neutrons to sustain the fission process and to ‘breed’. In the blanket U-238 atoms are converted into plutonium atoms by capture of neutrons from the core. In theory it is possible to breed more fissile material (plutonium) from the U-238 in the blanket than is fissioned in the core. So, the breeder can be taken as an indirect way of fissioning the non-fissile uranium-238. Most designs are based on the liquid-metal cooled fast-neutron reactor (LMFR), but other concepts of U-Pu breeder reactors have been conceived. The sodium-cooled fast-neutron reactor reached the prototype stage with the French Superphénix. This paper confines to the LMFBR (liquid metal fast breeder reactor), but the principal difficulties apply to all other types of breeders, e.g. Generation IV reactors. breeder electricity reactor fresh fuel spent fuel U + Pu discharges uranium fuel reprocessing surplus plutonium plutonium fabrication initial charge U + Pu © Storm fission products + activation products actinides discharges discharges U + Pu loss U + Pu loss Figure 3 General outline of the breeder system in steady state.
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