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Home , Abundance (ecology), Aquarium of the Pacific, Ecosystem diversity, Ecosystem health, Large marine ecosystem, Marine ecosystem

MARINE AND

Balancing and the Socio-Economics of Fisheries

This Report Is Part Of The On The Edge Series Produced By The Aquarium Of The Pacific As Products Of Its National Conference—Ocean On The Edge: Top Ocean Issues, May 2009 2 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Ocean on the Edge: Top Ocean Issues Making Ocean Issues Come Alive for the Public

The conference brought together leading marine scientists and engineers, policy-makers, film-makers, exhibit designers, informal science educators, journalists and communicators to develop a portfolio of models for communicating major ocean issues to the public. This report is one of a series of reports from that conference. The reports include: Coastal Hazards, Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries, Pollution in the Ocean, and Critical Condition: Ocean and Human Health. There is also a series of briefer reports on film-making, kiosk messaging design, and communicating science to the public. All reports are available at www.aquariumofpacific.org

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 3 4 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Acknowledgements

Support for the “Ocean on the Edge Confer- and Robert Stickney, PhD. Participants fluctu- ence: Top Ocean Issues” was provided by ated during the various workshop sessions. NOAA, the National Science Foundation, Corinne Monroe and Alexi Holford were Southern Edison, SAVOR, the Long the rapporteurs. Contributors to this report Beach Convention Center, and the Aquarium who provided editorial comments were Mark of the Pacific. Helvey and Craig Heberer of NOAA and members of his staff. This report was facilitat- We are grateful to the Conference’s National ed by Corinne Monroe with assistance from Advisory Panel that provided valuable guid- Erica Noriega. ance in selecting participants and in review- ing sections of this report.

This report is very loosely based on the report, Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries. published by the National Academies in its Ocean Science Series which formed the start- ing point of discussion at the Aquarium of the Pacific’s Conference, “Ocean on the Edge: Top Ocean Issues” held in May 2009, at the Long Beach Convention Center. Co-facilita- tors of the Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries workshop session were: Robert Cowan, PhD

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 5 National Advisory Panel

D. James Baker

Tom Bowman

John Byrne

Michael Connor

James Cortina

Joseph Cortina

Robert Dalrymple

Lynn Dierking

William Eichbaum

John Falk

Alan Friedman

Martha Grabowski

Mary Nichol

William Patzert

Shirley Pomponi

William Reeburgh

Jonathan Sharp

6 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 9.

The dependence on and use of fisheries and continue to rapidly expand ...... 9 The ocean provides more than just food for human consumption ...... 10 Marine Ecosystems ...... 11.

Marine ecosystems are biologically diverse and more complicated than terrestrial ecosystems ...... 11 Marine ecosystems include a unique combination of animals, , and coastal and ocean ...... 12 Feeding relationships in an ecosystem are the of trophic levels and the ...... 13 There are large ecosystems in the coastal and ocean environment referred to as LMEs, (Large ) ...... 16 Connectivity of Marine Ecosystems: Their Fluid Boundaries ...... 18 The Human Effect ...... 19.

Humans are changing the ocean’s food web: the cascading effect of species ...... 19 We are over fishing the majority of our resources ...... 20 Fishing down aquatic food webs ...... 21 The Future ...... 23.

Sustainable Seafood: Ensuring a supply for the future ...... 23 A perspective on aquaculture ...... 24 Legacy of dwindling returns ...... 25 Managing Fisheries and Ecosystems ...... 27.

Who’s in charge of managing ’ fisheries? ...... 27 is a complex process ...... 28 Ecosystem-based management takes a big-picture approach ...... 29 The impact of fisheries on ecosystems...... 30 Conclusion ...... 33.

Appendices ...... 34.

Appendix A ...... 34 Recommended References and Resources ...... 34 Appendix B ...... 36 Conference Participants ...... 36

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 7 8 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Introduction

The dependence on and use of fisheries and aquaculture continue to rapidly expand .

More than 47.5 million people around the world are directly, indirectly or occa- sionally involved in capture fisheries and aquaculture—a number that has more than tripled since 1970. The vast majority of these people are working in developing countries where fishing and aquaculture constitute the economic backbone of most coastal areas. Over half a billion people depend on the sector when factoring in employment in processing, marketing, and service industries, including the families of all people employed directly or indirectly from fisheries and aqua- culture. Fig 1A. World fish production and seafood consumption, 1976-2030 from the FAO’s Fish provide more than 2.9 billion people The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. with at least 15 percent of their average per capita animal protein intake. Fish contribute at least 50 percent of total animal protein intake in many small island developing states as well as in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Equa- torial Guinea, French Guiana, the Gambia, Ghana, Indonesia and Sierra Leone.

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 9 The ocean provides more than just food for human consumption .

The ocean provides more than just fish. It multibillion dollar industries it supports is contains a dazzling diversity of life and a increasingly threatened. seemingly endless bounty of marine resourc- es. Diving on coral reefs and swimming with As scientists have come to better understand and rays (some of which are replacing marine ecosystems, they have developed new artisanal fishing operations) draw tourists to approaches to ocean management that seek support growing industries. Medi- to balance the human uses of coastal and cines and other highly valuable commodities ocean environments while maintaining the are harvested from the . Fish, crustaceans, integrity of the marine ecosystem. Scientific and mollusks are caught for food, fertilizer, research on how marine ecosystems function and many other products. and react to change has helped inform policy decisions that promote the sustainable use Despite the vastness of the ocean, it is not of marine resources. Continued investments limitless. Ocean resources are under intense in research and strategic, long-term planning pressure to satisfy expanding demands can help to ensure that future generations caused by growth and globaliza- will have an opportunity to experience and tion. Many valuable fisheries around the enjoy the ocean and its many resources. world have collapsed; have disrupted marine food webs; and an increas- ing number of species are in danger of extinc- tion as a result of human activities. Changes such as loss and environmental deg- radation pose significant threats to , while has the potential to modify entire marine ecosystems. The ocean’s ability to continue to sustain the

10 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Marine Ecosystems

Marine ecosystems are biologically diverse and more complicated than terrestrial ecosystems .

It has been said that something lives in is the variation in the num- almost every cubic inch of the ocean’s 326 ber and frequency of species in a biological million cubic miles (1,358,827,275.1 cubic assemblage or . Species diversity kilometers) of water with wildlife ranging in is the most commonly used synonym for size from bacteria and viruses to microscopic , where (number to the blue whale and the whale of species in a given habitat) is the main . All are connected by feeding strate- index used for its measurement. The working gies. Everything feeds on something else with estimate of the total number of species on every ocean dweller, even the apex predators, is 12.5 million, exclusive of microbes. vulnerable to by another animal at The discovery of enormous concentrations of sometime in its life. microbial in the ocean sediments down to several hundred feet have led to the Biodiversity is composed of three main theory that as much as 50% of the categories: (1) , (2) species on earth resides in the deep sediments. There diversity and (3) . These is a plethora of information on whales, dol- different components show how biodiversity phins, porpoises and fish, while only recently encompasses a number of different scales are scientists beginning to understand the ranging from the gene to the ecosystem. extreme diversity present in such as bacteria and (i.e. the Genetic diversity is the variation in the plants of the sea). amount of genetic information within and among individuals of a population, a species, an assemblage, or a community. It is reflected by the level of similarity or differences in the genetic makeup of individuals, populations and species.

Formal use of the word “biodiversity” started in 1986. Since that time it has become the most commonly used word of scientists, conservationists, educators, and policy makers to describe a scientific discipline and approach as well as a critical—indeed life-threatening—issue. We know that because we are losing biodiversity at an alarming rate. (Ellis, 2003)

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 11 Ecosystem/habitat diversity is the variation and species diversity. Biotic structure de- in the collection of assemblages, communi- scribes the way interact within an ties, and habitats within a region. Currently, ecosystem. The opposite of biotic is abiotic, there is no universal classification or unique which includes the physical and chemical definition of ecosystems at a global scale. factors present in the environment. Every However, this area of research is evolving species has a limit of tolerance, zone of stress, rapidly. Inherent in ecosystem diversity are and optimum range for the abiotic factors both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) present in its environment. components, which differs from both genetic

Marine ecosystems include a unique combination of animals, plants, microorganisms and coastal and ocean habitats .

The definition of an ecosystem is a group the ocean floor. Some examples of important of living organisms existing in a network of coastal marine ecosystems are and interactions with each other and their envi- , coral reefs and other tropical ronment. Marine ecosystems are a part of the communities ( ), coastal ar- largest aquatic system on the planet, cover- eas such as , kelp and sea grass beds, ing over 70 pervent of Earth’s surface. The and intertidal systems (rocky, sandy, and habitats that make up this vast system range muddy shores). from the productive nearshore regions to

12 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Feeding relationships in an ecosystem are the food chain of trophic levels and the food web .

Non-feeding relationships can be defined as symbiotic or competitive. A food chain is different from a food web. A chain illustrates only one energy and nutrient path in an ecosystem. Each platform is a with one that begins with one pri- mary producer and ends with a secondary or tertiary . Figure 1 is an example of a typical food chain. It illustrates the position of the northern sea in the food chain. Figure 2 shows relationships in an Arctic food web. Food webs are more intricate than food chains and illustrate the feeding relationships among a number of organisms at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. They also Fig. 1 An illustration of the position of a northern sea otter in an Arctic show the diversification of prey by predator. food chainA food chain illustrating the position of the northern sea otter, (Source Sea Grant Alaska: http://seagrant.uaf.edu/marine-ed/curriculum/ grade-4/investigation-1/marine-mammals.html)

Fig. 2. Arctic pelagic food web. The marine animal food web is very complex and multilayered.. This is a quick reference to represent the complete food pelagic food web in Arctic waters.(Source: UNEP/GRID- Arendal): http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/arctic-pelagic-food-web)

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 13 Fig, 3, This four level trophic pyramid illustrates humans as the top predators

The primary producers capture energy through . At each level of the energy pyramid there is a loss of biomass in the movement between the levels caused by the relatively inefficient transfer of only 10 percent of the energy produced. There is a loss of an average of 90 percent of the biomass, each level become smaller and smaller resulting from the reduction in food at each level, of the pyramid. The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is called the . (Source: OFCP: http://www.spc.int/oceanfish/html/teb/Env&Mod/OFCCP.htm)

14 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES A marine tropic pyramid is made up of a propagate through marine ecosystems number of levels that refer to an organ- much more rapidly than on land. This has ism’s position in the food chain. The first significant implications for the study and level, the base, is occupied by the primary management of ocean ecosystems. producers of energy, phytoplankton, (sea grasses and algae). The second level, the Another distinction of marine ecosystems start of the predator-prey relationship, is the complexity of their food webs. contains the primary consumers or her- Many marine animals consume food at bivores that consume the producers. The different trophic levels at different stages third level consists of secondary consum- of life. Also, many marine animals are ers or that eat the generalists—eating a broad range of foods with the next level occupied by tertiary depending on what is available. On land, consumers that feed on lower level car- herbivores, such as deer, consume foliage nivores. There are carnivores at these throughout their entire life and carnivores levels, the , that consume both feed on other animals from birth. In the herbivores and other carnivores. Carni- ocean, a fish species may start life as an vores at the top of the pyramid, usually but become a or the fifth level, are the apex predators—in as it matures. Some species of some pyramids, a marine animal, in oth- marine animals eat for their ers, humans. entire lives; in contrast, marine mammals gain their early energy from nursing. Traditional land-based trophic models are not directly applicable to marine ecosys- Sometimes, one species is both predator tems. One reason is that most ocean food and prey of another species. For example, webs are based predominantly on short- while adult squid are predators of lar- lived, microscopic plants called phyto- val bluefish, they are also prey for adult plankton, or algae. These tiny photosyn- bluefish. Such predator-prey relationships thetic organisms use the radiant energy in the food web dynamically determine of the sun to capture carbon dioxide and the distribution and of marine turn it into sugar, filling the same role in populations. the as land plants. Be- cause phytoplankton have short life spans (measured in days) compared to land plants (measured in years), the standing stock of biomass in the ocean is a thousandth that on land, even though the global of the ocean is com- parable to land. This assessment ignores, however, the contributions made by high- er plants in the marine environment – sea grasses, salt grasses, , etc. The small size and rapid turnover of the base of the ocean’s food chain make marine ecosystems particularly dynamic and variable; disturbances to the food web

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 15 There are large ecosystems in the coastal and ocean environment referred to as LMEs, (Large Marine Ecosystems) .

The concept of large marine ecosystems (LME) was pioneered in the mid-1980s when it was recognized that large areas of the , regions around the margins of the global ocean, function as ecosystems, and that pollution from air, land, and water and of living resources, along with natural factors, influence the productiv- ity of these ecosystems. LMEs produce 95 per- Fig 4. There are 64 LME worldwide. With 11 identified cent of the world’s fish catch, making them that are in or partially in US waters: East , Gulf the focal point of global efforts for sustained of Alaska, , , Southeast and predictable productivity. U.S. , Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf, , , West Bering Sea, and Insular There are five characteristics applied to LME Pacific Hawaiian. (Source: NOAA: http://www.lme.noaa.gov/ modeling—biological productivity, fish and LMEWeb/downloads/us_lme.pdf) fisheries, pollution and health, socioeconom- ics, and governance—accompany each of the world’s 64 LME’s. They help scientists and managers understand and integrate the ele- ments of monitoring, assessing, and manag- ing LMEs.

• Productivity indicators measure the of an ecosystem for supporting living marine resources. The productivity module describes the availability of nutrients and primary productivity.

• Fish and Fisheries module (commer- Fig. 5. The LME is an example of the cial and sport) conducts assessments of and complexity of interacting components in an LME. dominant species within fish commu- Ecologists and managers attempt to understand nities; and considers effects of natu- the various interactions and consider them in resource rally occurring environmental shifts in use and management decisions. (Source NOAA: http:// climate regime and excessive fishing celebrating200years.noaa.gov/breakthroughs/ecosystems/ effort causing shifts in species compo- gulf_of_alaska_lme_650.html) sition and abundance.

• Pollution and module help assess changes in coastal waters, estuaries and , and highlight eutrophic conditions. It de- fines the types and degree of pressure from pollutants such as sediments and excessive nutrients.

16 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES • Socioeconomics module examines Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning (CMSP) how a sustainable marine resource is important in the management of LMEs. base can meet the nutritional, social, In addition to commercial and recreational economic and developmental needs of fishing, the United States coasts and ocean humans living in LME border coun- support a growing number of often compet- tries. It specifies the size and scope ing uses and activities, some of which are of activities by surrounding human non-consumptive, recreational, cultural, populations and the various ways energy, scientific, conservation, and home- that humans exploit or manage the land and national security activities. CMSP resources is an important approach to managing LMEs to meet the rapidly expanding demands on • Governance module engages multiple the coast and ocean while at the same time scales of national, regional and local balancing the impacts on marine ecosystems. jurisdictional frameworks needed to select and support ecosystem-based management practices leading to sustainable use of resources. It analyzes the laws and regulations, as well as the various entities responsible for manag- ing the resources and enforcing laws. These modules offer a conceptual way to integrate science and management at the ecosystem scale.

The LME approach is a way forward for promoting ecosystem-based management of coastal and marine resources within a frame- work of . While ecologists have long studied and taught the concept of ecosystems, the concept of LMEs is a breakthrough in understanding how best to manage large ocean areas for sustained biological productivity. Previous management approaches had failed to look beyond individual sectors (such as pollution discharge, mineral extraction, transportation, or fisheries ) and political boundar- ies. Those with regulatory authority over one sector made decisions on each of these uses in isolation from decisions on the others. Fish harvest decisions were made on a single- species basis, without recognizing interac- tions among species, such as predator-prey or competitive relationships. Another innova- tion in the LME concept is allowing resource managers to characterize and develop man- agement approaches at an ecosystem scale, typically vast ocean areas crossing one or more national boundaries, providing a basis for cooperation among the countries that share them.

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 17 Connectivity of marine ecosystems: Their fluid boundaries

There are few true boundaries in the marine vorite feeding ground or place to . For ecosystems of the global ocean. The hunters example, Pacific salmon are born and spend and grazers of the ocean often swim great a few months to four years in freshwater and distances in pursuit of food and sheltering estuaries, then migrate to the open ocean habitats. Many marine species move to new where they live for two to six years, returning locations with each new stage of life, re- to the freshwater rivers and streams where productive cycle, season, or change in food they spawn and die. Such long-range mobil- supply. Night-feeding dwellers of the deep ity of marine animals, some of which utilize swim toward the surface to feed, and return a variety of ecosystems, creates challenges for to the darkness below at dawn. Some marine scientists determined to observe and monitor creatures travel great lengths to return to a fa- these populations.

Blacktip reef sharks

Blacktip reef sharks are an example of a species that crosses boundaries. They are commonly found in shallow waters on and near coral reefs and occasionally in brackish waters. Juveniles are typi- cally found in extremely shallow water (5.9in–3.3ft [15–100cm]) inside lagoons, often swimming along the shoreline; adults typically occur on shallow parts of the forereef, often moving over the reef crest and onto the reef flat at tide. Individual adults inhabit a relatively small home range of 1.6mi2 (2.5 km2) and appear to reside close to their home reef but occasionally cross deepwater channels between adjacent reefs.

18 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES The Human Effect

“When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe.” —John Muir, American naturalist

Humans are changing the ocean’s food webs: the cascading effect of species extinction .

With the continued depletion of many spe- . This does not necessarily mean that cies, extinction becomes a distinct possibility. these species have disappeared, but it does Due to the complexity of marine ecosystem indicate a large drop in yield (and thus, ease food webs, the long term consequences of of capture) necessary to support an industry, removing a single species are unknown. Ma- with the corollary that highly reduced popu- rine ecosystems are exceptionally dynamic lations are now much more extinction-prone and there is a possibility that a if they fall below their minimum viable such as an extinction, could proliferate quite . The corollary is that many dramatically and rapidly. marine species not considered suitable for human consumption, or even pet animals, Seafood is an important source of protein 50 years ago are now considered top-quality globally. More than 3.5 million vessels cur- market delicacies. An example—many species rently fish the ocean waters worldwide, and of sharks that are now being overfished. NOAA (the National Oceanic and Atmo- spheric Administration) projects that the The classic Tragedy of the Commons is ap- global seafood demand will more than triple plicable to fisheries. People tend to react in by 2025. support of rescuing charismatic animals such as polar bears, dolphin, and whales but the Fishing on a massive and global commercial reduction in fish worldwide, a biodiversity scale has decreased the populations of some crisis in progress that impacts their food sup- species to the point where it is no longer plies and perhaps their health, does not get economically viable to sustain a targeted the same attention.

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 19 We are over fishing the majority of our resources .

In the past, many fisheries managers thought ined. The escalating demand in this decade that fishing had a built-in safety . As for the luxury seafood in the forms of sushi stocks of fish declined, it would be harder and sashimi has driven up the price and put and more expensive to capture the remain- more pressure on the dwindled population. ing fish; thus, fishermen would simply switch to harvesting more abundant species. But In 2007, the breeding population of bluefin seafood demand, new technologies, and tuna, which includes fish over four years old expansion of fishing fleets have made it and weighing over 77 pounds (35 kg), was at economical to fish even depleted stocks, lead- 25% of levels in the mid-1900s, and the aver- ing to the decline of such major commercial age size of mature tunas dropped to less than populations as cod and bluefin tuna. In 2006, half the size since the 1990s. An electronic the Food and Organization of the tagging program on western bluefin tuna United Nations reported that 20–30 percent revealed that the stock migrates freely across of the world’s fish species are overexploited the international stock boundary into the or depleted. The bluefin tuna is an example. eastern Atlantic, where they are vulnerable to European fisheries; and known spawn- Bluefin tuna, an Example of a ing grounds. Management of this highly Critically Endangered Species migratory species that crosses international The western north Atlantic bluefin tuna boundaries is problematic and extinction stock is now at just three percent of its 1960s may indeed be reached before the govern- abundance. The dramatic decline in bluefin ments involved act to save the stocks. populations is attributed to and fishing methods including post-harvesting As this example shows improved fisher- loss, and longlines all of which contribute ies management around the globe, which to removing massive amounts of fish from involves a variety of stakeholders and many the ocean at one time. Spotter planes locate governments, will be essential to ensur- schooling and spawning fish. Juvenile fish ing that these resources will be sustain- are being harvested before they have a able, and available to future generations. chance to become sexually mature and repro- It may already be too late for the Atlantic duce. Bluefin tuna are now being caught at bluefin tuna. every stage of their life cycle, killing them off more quickly than anyone could have imag-

20 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Fishing down aquatic food webs .

Industrial fishing over the past half-century by large sharks. has noticeably depleted the topmost links in The prey for aquatic food chains. On average, fish taken in cownose rays recent years are positioned lower on the food is mollusks, chain than those captured decades ago. This including bay change probably reflects a fundamental shift scallops, oys- that has taken place in marine ecosystems as ters, and clams. people fish out the most desirable top preda- Once their tors and then move on to take animals from shark preda- lower on the food chain. Because the number tors declined Fig. 6 (Source: Sierra Club BC. Graphic concept: D.Pauly. Art: of links in this chain is finite, and because as a result of A.Atanasio:. http://www.sierraclub.bc.ca) few commercially attractive species are po- overfishing espe- sitioned near the bottom, scientists believe cially for finning and as a result of bycatch, current management practices must consider the populations of these rays boomed. The the fishing down factor or fisheries in many result— a disaster for North Carolina’s bay places will collapse. scallop industry which was wiped out, end- ing a century-old North Carolina tradition. In addition there is the impact of a specific If sharks, the apex predators, were taken out, fishery lower on the wood web when an the balance among species toppled, and the is removed. For example, the effects cascaded through the ecosystem and collapse of North Carolina’s centuries old bay the food web. scallop industry. Cownose rays are preyed on

And then there is the bofff hypothesis .

While in all species of fish, larger females produce more eggs, there is evidence that in some species, larger females can produce exponentially greater quantities of eggs. The BOFFF hypothesis, or Big Old Fat Fecund Fe- male hypothesis, refers to this phenomenon. Thus, removing a few larger females from a population can have a dramatically greater effect on reproductive output, and recruit- ment, than the removal of numerous smaller females. Recent studies also show that the condition of larvae also improves with the length or age of the fish, and therefore the larvae produced by large females may have higher survival rates. Fig. 6 After the large fish at the top of the food web in the upper trophiclevels are gone, smaller fish and inver- tebrates become targeted catch. (Source: Sierra Club BC. Graphic concept: D.Pauly. Art: A.Atanasio:. http:// www.sierraclub.bc.ca)

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 21 22 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES The Future

Sustainable seafood: Ensuring a supply in the future .

Captive fisheries and freshwater and marine recently almost all of our seafood has been aquaculture supplied the world with about obtained by fishing—essentially hunting 121 million tons (110 million metric tons) at sea and in freshwater rivers, lakes, and of fish in 2006, a per capita supply of 37 lb streams. However, as demand has increased (16.7 kg), and the highest on record. Of this and the availability of wild fish has declined, total, 53 percent was wild caught and 47 interest in aquaculture has increased, with percent came from aquaculture. Seafood is new technologies being developed to raise an appealing and healthful source of pro- a greater variety of fish and shellfish for the tein and as the world population grows, seafood trade. the demand for this protein will continue to increase. Clearly, to meet the growing With the Earth’s burgeoning human population demand, there needs to be a sustainable sup- to feed, we must turn to the sea with new under- ply of seafood that protects our ocean and standing and new technology. We need to farm its resources while still providing the world the ocean as we farm the land. with an adequate supply of healthy food. Jacques Cousteau, 1973 This can happen only if fisheries and aqua- culture operations are managed properly on If Jacques Cousteau were to make that state- a global scale. ment today, he would probably add a word such as sustainably and his son or grandson Coming to Terms with Seafood might say: “We need to farm the ocean more Sustainability sustainably than we have farmed the land.” Agriculture is our main source of food from Society is now starting to demand sustainable the land. More than 10,000 years ago, hu- seafood whether wild or farmed to meet the mankind learned how to cultivate crops and needs of future generations without compro- domesticate animals for food. Aquaculture mising the ability of future generations to started in China 4,000 years ago with the meet their needs. cultivation of carp. On the other hand, until

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 23 A perspective on aquaculture

Aquaculture Or Mariculture? Aquaculture not altered or balanced their messages to includes fish farming in both fresh and reflect positive changes being made in the saltwater. The term mariculture is often used industry as it grows and solves the problems for aquaculture that occurs in brackish and of the past. saltwater. Aquaculture products are grown in on land or along the coast, and Recognizing the need to continue to engage in the ocean in pens and cages or on lines. a broad and diverse group of people in the Recirculating systems can be either freshwa- development of standards for responsible ter or marine, cages are sometimes found in aquaculture, the World Wildlife Fund initi- freshwater areas, including lakes, reservoirs, ated eight roundtables, called Aquaculture streams and ponds. There are on-bottom and Dialogues, to create standards that will off-bottom mollusk culture systems, includ- minimize the key negative environmental ing rafts, longlines, poles, and trays in the and social impacts for selected species. More latter (off-bottom) systems. Flow through than 2,000 farmers, conservationists, gov- raceways and tanks are common for produc- ernment officials and others participate in ing freshwater and marine organisms. Then the open Aquaculture Dialogue meetings— there are hydroponic systems, aquaponic making this the world’s most inclusive and systems, polytrophic systems, etc. transparent process for creating measurable, performance-based standards for aquacul- Despite current shortcomings, both real and ture. WWF, which coordinates the Dialogues, perceived, aquaculture must play a larger role is one of the stakeholder groups engaged in the future to meet the growing demand in the process. for seafood if we are to conserve our wild populations. In 2007 the consumption of Formation of Aquaculture Dialogues was seafood in the US amounted to 5.8 billion followed in early 2009 by formation of a new pounds (2.6 billion Kg) of which 4.8 bil- organization, the Aquaculture Stewardship lion pounds (2.2 billion Kg) were imported. Council (ASC). The ASC will be responsible About 50 percent of the imported came from for hiring independent, third party auditors aquaculture operations. The impact on the to certify farms that are in compliance with US trade deficit is now nine billion dollars the standards. Over the next year, draft stan- a year, making seafood one of the leading dards for minimizing the key environmental components of the portion of the deficit and social impacts associated with aquacul- that involves natural resources other than ture will be completed for 11 aquaculture hydrocarbons. The value of US produced sea- species that have the greatest impact on the food is only about one billion dollars. NOAA environment, highest market value, and/ has stated that the current US aquaculture or the heaviest trading in the global market. production of about 0.5 million tons must be They are salmon, shrimp, trout, bass, aba- quadrupled by 2025. lone, mussels, clams, oysters, scallops, cobia and yellowtail. There have been and still are controversies surrounding fish farming. Many of these Aquaculture is not a replacement for wild stem from what might be called ancient his- caught finfish and shellfish; it is a supple- tory and do not take into account progress ment to the supply. that has been made in the industry, nor do they point to the well managed operations worldwide. The news media tend to focus on the negative side of aquaculture and many environmental organizations have

24 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES A legacy of dwindling returns

Over the past 50 years the art of fishing has species in each stage of its life cycle. Essential been mastered to the point that the ability to fish habitat is defined as those waters and sub- extract fish has outpaced the ability of nature strate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, to replenish itself. Modern technology such feed, or growth to maturity. Activities that - as global positioning systems, sophisticated age the habitat must also be identified. fishing gear, sonar, factory ships, and heli- copter spotting has proven to be so effective EFH can consist of both the that the global ocean is over-harvested to the and the underlying seafloor of a particular point that many are predicting extinction of area. Certain properties of the water column most of the large species. It is estimated that such as temperature, nutrients, and salinity over 70 percent of fish stocks are overfished are essential to various species. Some species or fully exploited and 90 percent of large may require specific bottom types such as predatory such as tuna, swordfish, sandy or rocky, vegetation such as sea grass and Atlantic cod are gone, throwing off the or kelp, or structurally complex coral or balance of ecosystems and putting much of oyster reefs. the marine ecosystem at risk. The cost of our success in catching finfish and shellfish is NOAA Fisheries handles the listing, protec- devastating in many ways. Whether mea- tion and recovery of threatened and endan- sured in environmental degradation or the gered marine, estuarine and anadromous impact on biological degradation or the eco- species. The ESA requires federal agencies nomic consequences, the demand for seafood to use all reasonable methods available to comes with a price tag higher than most of conserve endangered and threatened species, the public realizes. But a wakeup call is being to facilitate an increase in their populations sounded and responded to. and to improve the quality of their habitats. Under the act NMFS is required to identify Hearing The Wakeup Call: The re-autho- critical habitats which the ESA defines as rization of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery the specific areas within the geographical Conservation Act (Magnuson-Stevens Act or area occupied by the species at the time it is MSA) in 2006 contains revisions requiring listed on which are found those physical or NOAA Fisheries to end commercial and recre- biological features essential to the conserva- ational overfishing in US waters by 2010 in- tion of the species that may require special cluding rebuilding and maintaining healthy management considerations or protection shark populations. Revisions also require and/or specific areas outside the species’ cur- all fisheries to be regulated under annual rent geographic range that are determined catch limits, with accountability measures to to be essential to its conservation. Economic ensure that catches do not exceed the limits. impacts must be taken into account when In addition, the new law elevates the impor- designating critical habitat. tance of following scientific advice in fishery management decisions, so the new guidelines States may and do designate critical and will address the role of science in establishing essential habitat within their jurisdiction. annual harvest caps.

Under the Magnuson-Stevens Act NOAA Fisheries and the eight regional Fishery Man- agement Councils must identify and describe Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) for each man- aged species using the best available science. The defined habitat must include uses by the

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 25 26 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Managing Fisheries and Ecosystems

Who’s in charge of managing United States’ fisheries?

Fisheries in the United States are managed by state and federal bodies that work together to develop and enforce fishing regulations. In some cases, this multitier approach works well to address the concerns of these vari- ous jurisdictions; in other cases, however, conflicting interests, combined with pressure from fishing communities and environmen- tal interest groups, can create challenges for developing a coordinated, balanced ap- proach to fisheries management.

Regarding federal waters (3 to 200 miles [4.8- 322 km] offshore]}), regional fishery manage- ment councils are responsible for developing management plans for the major targeted fish populations in their region. Not all parts of the U.S. recognize a 3 mile state water zone. In Texas and along the west coast of Florida, state waters extend to 9 nautical Fig 1c. An illustration of the complexity of fisheries management Alaska Seafood miles based on the fact that that was the http://sustainability.alaskaseafood.org/resource-management limit recognized under Spanish law. representatives of the commercial and rec- There are eight regional fishery manage- reational fishing industries, as well as other ment councils: New England, Mid-Atlantic, stakeholders. South Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, North Pacific, and Western Pacific. Each coastal state is responsible for manag- These councils were established in the federal ing the fisheries in state waters. In addition, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and two marine fisheries commissions—, Atlantic, Management Act of 1976, as reauthorized in and Gulf—manage stocks of fish that cross 2006. Their membership includes, in addi- boundaries between states and between state tion to state and federal fisheries managers, and federal waters.

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 27 Fisheries management is a complex process

Scientists collect data on the abundance of In its report titled Improving the Use of the fish from field surveys and from the catch “Best Scientific Information Available” Standard statistics of the . Using in Fisheries Management (2004), the National sophisticated statistical techniques and Research Council recommended that scien- modeling methods, scientists assess the data tific reports explicitly identify the level of to determine the health of the stocks and uncertainty in results, explain the sources of to estimate the number of fish that can be uncertainty, and assess the relative risks of caught each year without reducing the capac- a range of management options. That way, ity of the population to replenish itself. The fisheries managers will be better equipped to term maximum sustainable yield describes the take into account both short- and long-term theoretical limit for harvesting a given fish effects of management actions with a clearer population sustainably. Fisheries managers understanding of the level of uncertainty can use maximum sustainable yield esti- involved. mates and other types of scientific data to guide their decisions. Ideally, target harvest Despite the dramatic declines in the yields limits are set below the estimated maximum of some fisheries, there is reason for opti- sustainable yield to prevent accidentally har- mism. Management measures that more fully vesting too many fish and to account for the account for uncertainty in determining the level of uncertainty in the data and models. acceptable level of exploitation to ensure that the catch is at a sustainable level have In the real world, many variables affect the been demonstrated to effectively boost even actual sustainable yield from fisheries. For depleted stocks. Today, fisheries managers instance, spawning success and survival of in the United States and around the world juvenile fish vary from year to year, and fish acknowledge the value of the “precautionary populations frequently show fluctuations in approach,” in which uncertainty is handled abundance as a result of ecosystem interac- by setting conservative target catch levels. tions or other environmental factors. Some- Although managers are not always successful times, information about a particular species in implementing precautionary manage- is limited, and the resultant model estimates ment—often because of concerns about for maximum sustainable yield will contain a the economic and societal impacts of the high degree of uncertainty. If a management regulations—risk adverse management is now plan does not account for that uncertainty, generally accepted as the goal for fisheries. harvesting at the estimated maximum sus- tainable yield could result in overfishing the stock.

28 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Ecosystem-based management takes a big-picture approach

Fig, 8, http://www.piscoweb.org/files/images/SMR/BocaccioLifeCycle.JPG (source: PISCO)

An approach that has gained increasing trac- models should be used to evaluate alternative tion is the idea of ecosystem-based manage- policy and management scenarios. However, ment. In this approach, the many aspects many believe that stepwise, incremental of human interactions with the ocean— implementation of appropriate ecosystem- fishing, shipping, water quality, extraction based management measures, such as and transport of oil and gas, and invasive considering the needs of other species when species, among others—are taken into con- allocating harvest levels, can be undertaken sideration as a whole in fishery management now. For example, fisheries managers can decisions. Although fisheries management help boost populations of predatory fish by is not its only application, ecosystem-based limiting of their prey species, even management represents a new approach with relatively little data on the needs of the to harvesting marine resources. Ecosystem- predatory fish populations. based management recognizes the complex interactions among fished species, their Marine protected areas and especially, predators and prey, and other aspects of the networks that provide marine environment. It is believed that an for the connectivity of a fish’s life cycle, show ecosystem-based approach would improve promise as components of an ecosystem the prospects for long-term sustainability of based approach for conserving living marine marine fisheries. Information about predator- resources. Although the species-by-species prey relationships, food webs, habitats, and approach seems less complex, it does not the effects of climate variation, ocean circula- resolve the difficulties of either managing tion patterns, chemistry, seafloor terrain and multiple stocks or accurately assessing the fish distributions, for instance, should assist status of fish populations. Marine protected attempts to improve fisheries management. areas could provide some assurance against accidental overharvesting and also provide While the approach is promising, more data an effective way to protect vulnerable habi- and new methods are needed to support tats, such as coral reefs, from the effects of ecosystem-based strategies. Dynamic food fishing and other human activities. webs, species interaction, and ecosystem

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 29 The impact of fisheries on ecosystems .

Bycatch: Fishing not only takes the desired fishing (when fishing gear such as nets or species but also unintentionally captures fish traps are lost in the sea and continue to and other marine animals that may be killed ensnare fish). or severely injured as a result. Unwanted species are referred to as “bycatch.” Bycatch The 2006 reauthorization of the Magnuson- does not include fish released alive under a Stevens Act requires NOAA Fisheries to recreational catch and release fishery man- minimize bycatch and bycatch mortality to agement plan. Unwanted fish are caught in the extent practicable. Under the act, bycatch various types of fishing gear used primarily is defined asfish that are harvested in a fishery, in commercial and artisanal fishing: gillnet, but are not sold or kept for personal use, and otter trawl, trammel net, and seine nets; includes economic and regulatory discards. In longlines, in recreational hook-and-line and other words, the unintended catch of untar- commercial hook-and-line fisheries. geted and unwanted species.

In most fisheries at least some bycatch is re- Fishing activities physically damage turned live to the ocean and there is now an habitats emerging practice in which bycatch is kept Many marine organisms, including com- and sold. Much of the bycatch includes com- mercially valuable species, depend on seabed mercial fish that are below market size. In habitats at some point in their life cycle, es- such cases, the bycatch is not only wasteful— pecially for spawning and early development. it can deplete the fishery of larger, older fish. Many fishing practices— particularly trawling and — can disturb these important For example, in the Gulf of Mexico, the seafloor habitats. The Gulf of Mexico, for shrimp trawl fishery presents the largest example, is one of the most intensely bot- human threat to survival of juvenile red tom trawled areas off the coast of the United snapper. In this case, management of the red States, with some areas being swept 37 to 75 snapper fishery must include implementing times per year. solutions to reduce snapper bycatch from shrimp trawls. The situation is not as simple As newer, and larger fishing trawl gear is as one might think. Red snapper are an issue, used in modern fisheries, increasingly larger though the impact of trawling is still a bit swaths of seabed habitats are being affected. controversial in terms of how much trawling Changes to the physical structure of biologi- impacts the population. Protecting the large cal communities on seafloor habitats can spawners may be more effective. But most of have potentially wide-ranging consequences the Gulf of Mexico bycatch is short-lived spe- and can indirectly affect food webs. The cies that are not under any threat from trawl- damage that occurs on trawled bottoms var- ing. There is also the theory that by putting ies significantly depending on bottom type. bycatch back into the water provides a source bottoms seem to be less affected than of nutrients that helps support the shrimp hard bottoms. Also, there have been some fishery, much like dead salmon provide new trawl doors (modified from North Atlan- nutrients to the oligotrophic stream waters tic doors used off Iceland) that seem to have in which the fish reproduce that support the less impact on the bottom. Those are being plankton on which the young salmon feed. adopted by a considerable portion of the Texas shrimp fleet. Studies need to be con- Other sources of fishing mortality that are ducted to verify that the doors are actually not counted in landing statistics include more environmentally friendly than standard illegal fishing, underreporting, deaths of wooden trawl doors. fish that escape from fishing gear, and ghost

30 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Although seabed habitats and gear impacts Fisheries Have Critical Social And have not been thoroughly characterized in Economic Impacts every geographic region, enough informa- Fisheries long have played an historical, tion is available to support more effective cultural, and economic role in coastal com- management of trawling and dredging to munities. For many, fishing isn’t just a job— maintain on the ocean floor. it’s a lifestyle. Commercial and recreational Management efforts should be tailored to fishers alike have deep cultural, social, and specific habitats and fisheries using a variety financial ties to fishing. Fisheries manage- of management tools. ment strategies affect not only how many fish are allowed to be caught but also who Some management tools include: reduc- gets what share of the total catch. Changes ing fishing effort, modifying gear design or in management practices or decreases in type, determining impacts of traps, pots, and fish populations can have dire consequences longlines, on seafloor habitat, and establish- for employment and economic stability in ing protected areas that are closed to bottom coastal areas as evidenced by the closure of trawls and dredges. salmon fishing. Just as marine species are intimately interconnected in marine ecosys- Monitoring the recreational catch is challenging tems, the different fishing sectors (such as commercial/recreational, or trawlers/ hook In 2006, marine recreational fishers, or and line) have overlapping and competing anglers, made almost 90 million fishing trips interests in regulatory decisions. along the coastlines of the United States. Rec- reational fishing is a vital social and econom- Various fishing sectors compete for fish—and ic component of many coastal communities, they compete for the right to harvest them. but in some cases, marine anglers catch as Management decisions, therefore, can have many or even more fish than commercial uneven impacts on different fishing sectors. fishermen do. While commercial fisheries For example, restrictions on commercial are readily monitored, it is much more dif- fishing activities may boost the revenues of ficult to estimate how many fish are caught recreational fishing charters. Management in recreational fishing because there are so schemes that attempt to address the inter- many anglers and they fish from so many ests of each of the various fishing sectors different locations. can sometimes result in catches that exceed the target levels and lead to depletion of the Monitoring recreational fishing in federal wa- stocks. Actively engaging recreational and ters has been difficult to date. However, the commercial fishers, with their firsthand ex- situation may change with the establishment periential knowledge of the industry, in man- of a national registry. The December 2006 agement processes can improve management reauthorization of the Magnuson-Stevens Act decisions. Such engagement also improves stated: “The Secretary (of Commerce) shall communication and fosters constructive establish and implement a regionally based working relationships among fishermen, fish- registry program for recreational fishermen eries managers, and scientists, thus creating in each of the [eight] fishery management an environment that should promote greater regions.” The rule proposed by NOAA creates acceptance of fishing regulations. a national saltwater angler registry of all an- glers and spearfishers who fish recreationally NOAA Fisheries has increased the access in federal ocean waters or who fish anywhere and involvement of a wider group of stake- in tidal waters for anadromous fish, includ- holders in fisheries management decisions. ing striped bass, smelt, shad, or salmon by For example, in the South Atlantic region, January 1, 2010. a series of workshops has been held that brings together fishermen, NOAA scientists,

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 31 nongovernmental organizations, industry is in the public interest. Rights-based man- consultants, academics, state biologists, agement approaches already exist in many economists, and others to assess different fisheries. However, it may not be appropriate management scenarios. for all fisheries.

NOAA is now working with stakeholders on The choice of a rights-based management ap- replacing the individual quota system for proach will depend on many factors—social, some fisheries with rights-based manage- economic, political, and biological. If this ment. In the United States, the public trust approach is taken, managers and fishermen doctrine states that the American people must work together to identify the form of own the fish in the Exclusive Economic Zone rights-based management that will work (EEZ). Public trust includes the idea of free best for the fishery based on its history, the access or the public right to fish. But no one attitudes of the fishermen and the nature of can have exclusive ownership of the fish un- the resource. til they are captured. It is the government’s responsibility to act as a representative of the people to manage the resources. However, Rights-based Fisheries with our fisheries in crisis, these ideas are at Management a crossroads. The public and private sectors both benefit from a healthy fishing industry. Rights in a fishery define what par- And as the public interest is expanding, not ticular actions the fisherman, or other only must commercial and recreational fish- entity, is authorized to take and the ing industries be considered but also conser- associated claim to a benefit stream vation and environmental communities. To (i.e., fish catch). Rights-based fisheries become profitable, the fishing industry must management, which exist in all fisher- move toward management that allows exclu- ies management regimes in one form sion and places effective limits on access to or another, includes any system of fishing. Declining fish stocks, more restrictive allocating individual fishing rights to management measures, and decreasing prof- fishermen, fishing vessels, enterprises, itability in some sectors have resulted in a cooperatives, or fishing communi- movement toward limiting access to fishing, ties. In addition to restricting who has a first step in rights-based management. This “use” of a fishery resource, rights-based privilege to fish, or user-rights approach, can management manages how much fish- then take on a variety of forms depending on ing effort each participant is allowed, how exclusive the right becomes, the level (e.g., how many traps may be set), or) or entity to which the right is allocated, the how much catch each can take The transferability mechanisms attached to the fishing rights have a value and can be right, and the criteria used for assigning the traded. right initially.

The assignment of rights not only to fish- ery access but also to a specified share of the catch is a controversial issue. Individual fishing rights or property ownership does not automatically lead to better stewardship. It depends on the mentality of the people who participate. Property rights approaches to fisheries management are not new; they have existed for centuries. As the trustee of fishery resources, the government may assign exclusive rights to the resources only if it

32 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Conclusion

Faced with decreasing populations of edible fish species and an increasing population of consumers; the impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems; the socio-economic impacts; the for “ocean space and resources; and the need for international and national cooperation, managing the world’s fisheries, both wild and famed, is challenging.

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 33 Appendices

Appendix A

Recommended References and Resources

National Academy of Sciences. (2008). Ocean http://www.marinebiodiversity.ca/cmb/what- science series: marine ecosystems and fisher- is-marine-biodiversity ies. Prepared for the National Academies. Sherman, K., M. Aquarone, and S. Adams. General Global Applications of the Large Marine Eco- Ellis, Richard (2003). The Empty Ocean: system Concept 2007–2010. http://www.lme. Plundering the World’s Marine Life. Wash- noaa.gov/LMEWeb/Publications/tm208.pdf ington, D.C.: Island Press, p 202. UNEP Regional Programme Linked with World Fisheries and Aquaculture Large Marine Ecosystems Assesssment and Management prepared by United Nations UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Environment Programme (UNEP) and the US (2008). The state of world fisheries and National Oceanographic and Atmospheric aquaculture. http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/ Administration (NOAA). i0250e/i0250e00.HTM LME Video: An explanation of the LME Con- Aquaculture cept by Ken Sherman, Director, NOAA Large Rubino, M. (2007). NOAA’s 10-year plan for Marine Ecosystem Programs ttp://www.lme. marine aquaculture. US Department of Com- noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content& merce, Washington, DC. http://aquaculture. view=category&layout=blog&id=44&Itemi noaa.gov/pdf/finalnoaa10yrrweb.pdf d=70

Food Webs and Food Chains LME Video: Turning the Tide: Sustaining Pauly, D. V. Christensen, J. Dalsgaard, R. Earth’s Large Marine Ecosystems. Froese and F. Torres, Jr. 1998. Fishing down The oceans of the earth are under serious marine food webs. Science 279:860-863. threat from the overexploitation of marine life, pollution and the effects of global warm- Marine Ecosystems ing. Turning the Tide examines the condition http://www.piscoweb.org/files/SMR_US_ of the world’s large marine ecosystems and HighRes.pdf presents the solutions being put forth by the international community of scientists, EPA website Aquatic biodiversity. Marine politicians, and those living in the affected ecosystems. Retrieved May 16, 2009 areas. Armed with science, political will, and sheer determination, the tide is turning to a http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/aquatic/ brighter future for all. 26:19 minutes. marine.html http://www.lme.noaa.gov/index. php?option=com_content&view=category&l What is marine biodiversity? Center for ayout=blog&id=44&Itemid=70 Biodiversity

34 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES BOFFF Hypothesis Fisheries Management Berkeley, S.A., Chapman, C., and Sogard, S. Busch, W-D. n., B. L. Brow, and G. F. Mayer 2004. Maternal age as a determinant of larval Eds). 2003. Strategic guidance for implement- growth and survival in a marine fish, Sebastes ing an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries melanops. 85(5):1258-1264. http:// management. US Department of Commerce, californiafish.org/maternal_age.pdf National Oceanic and Administrative Agency, NMFS, Sliver Spring, Md 62p. Conover, David. Size Matters: Alter harvest strategies to account for evolutionary change Petruny-Parker, M.E., K.M. Castro, M.L. http://www.conservationmagazine.org/ar- Schwartz, L.G. Skrobe, and B. Somers (eds.). ticles/v8n3/10-solutions-to-save-the-ocean/ 2004. Who Gets the Fish? Proceedings of the New England Workshops on Rights-Based Longhurst, A. 2002. Murphy’s Law revisited: Fisheries Management Approaches. Rhode longevity as a factor in to fish Island Sea Grant, Narragansett, R.I. 28pp. populations. Fisheries Research 56:125-131. http://www.cnr.uidaho.edu/fish510/PDF/Lon- Ecosystems Principles Advisory Panel. 1998. ghurst.pdf Ecocystem-based Fishery Management: A re- port to Congress. Department of Commerce, Walsh, M.R., Munch, S.B., Chiba, S., and National Marine Fisheries Service. Silver Conover, D.O. 2006. Maladaptive changes Springs, MD. in multiple traits caused by fishing: impedi- ments to population recovery. Ecology Let- White, C. J. (2007). Federal fisheries manage- ters 9:142-148. http://www.msrc.sunysb.edu/ ment: an adaptive ecosystem-based perspec- people/munchpdf/Walsh_et_al06_EcolLet.pdf tive. Nicholas School of Environmental and Earth Sciences. Duke University: Conover, David. Size Matters: Alter harvest strategies to account for evolutionary change http://www.conservationmagazine.org/ar- ticles/v8n3/10-solutions-to-save-the-ocean/

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 35 Appendix B Conference Participants

Name Affiliation Email Address Kathy Almon MacGillivray Freeman Films [email protected] John Anderson New England Aquarium [email protected] Wolf Berger Scripps Institution of [email protected] Tom Bowman Bowman Design Group [email protected] James Cortina Cortina Productions [email protected] Robert K. Cowen University of Miami [email protected] Paulynn Cue Cal State Long Beach-CSULB [email protected] Robert A. Dalrymple Johns Hopkins University [email protected] Robert G. Dean University of Florida [email protected] Alistair Dove Georgia State Aquarium [email protected] Sandy Eslinger NOAA Coastal Service Center [email protected] Kristin Evans [email protected] Kathleen Frith Harvard University [email protected] Christian Greer Shedd Aquarium [email protected] Cpt. Douglas Grubbs Crescent River Port Pilots [email protected] Judith Hill-Harris City of Portland, Maine [email protected] Michael Hirshfield Oceana [email protected] Roger Holzberg Right Brainiacs [email protected] Jennifer A. Jay UCLA [email protected] Susan Kirch Right Brainiacs [email protected] Sheril Kirshenbaum Duke University [email protected] Louisa Koch NOAA [email protected] Jon Krosnick Stanford University [email protected] Conrad C. Lautenbacher CSC Corporation [email protected] Shaun MacGillivray MacGillivray Freeman Films [email protected] Edward Maibach George Mason University [email protected] Michael Mann Pennsylvania State University [email protected] Steven Mayer Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] William Patzert NASA/Jet Propulsion Lab [email protected] Richard Pieper Marine Institute [email protected] Paul Sandifer NOAA [email protected] Michael Schaadt [email protected] Karen Setty SCCWRP [email protected] Robert Stickney Texas A&M [email protected] Soames Summerhays Summerhay’s Films, Inc. [email protected] R. Lawrence Swanson Stony Brook University [email protected] James Thebaut The Chronicles Group [email protected] Brian Trimble Cal State Long Beach-CSULB [email protected] Cynthia Vernon [email protected] Dallas Weaver Scientific Hatcheries [email protected] Stephen Weisberg SCCWRP [email protected] Richard West Private Consultant [email protected]

36 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Aquarium Staff David Anderson Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Dave Bader Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Derek Balsillie Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Linda Brown Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Andrew Gruel Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Perry Hampton Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Alexi Holford Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Elizabeth Keenan Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Lisa Leof Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Barbara Long Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Adina Metz Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Bruce Monroe Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Corinne Monroe Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Kim Moore Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Jerry Schubel Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Margaret Schubel Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Bill Waterhouse Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Dudley Wigdahl Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] Leah Young Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected] James Wood Aquarium of the Pacific [email protected]

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES 37