National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)

Republic of Maldives

GEF

Prepared by The Government of Maldives

Ministry of Environment Energy and Water

National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)

Republic of Maldives

GEF

Prepared by The Government of Maldives Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water i

Maldives NAPA Team: Ms. Mariyam Saleem (Marine Research Centre) Lead Author and Project Manager: Dr. Ahmed Jamsheed Mohamed (Department of Ms. Lubna Moosa Public Health) Dr. Mohamed Shareef (Ministry of Planning and Co-Authors: National Development) Dr. Simad Saeed Ms. Hafeeza Abdulla (NAPA National Consultant) Dr. Mohamed Shiham Adam Ms. Mizna Mohamed (Ministry of Environment, Energy Dr. Abdulla Naseer and Water) Dr. Sheena Moosa Mr. Hussain Naeem (Ministry of Environment, Energy Mr. Ahmed Shaig and Water)

Contributors: Editors: Mr. Ahmed Jameel (Ministry of Environment, Energy Dr. Simad Saeed and Water) Mr. Ahmed Shaig Mr. Amjad Abdulla (Ministry of Environment, Energy Ms. Lubna Moosa and Water) Mr. Ibrahim Shaheen (Maldives Transport and Support Staff: Contracting Company) Ms. Aminath Zumeena Ms. Fathmath Shafeega (Ministry of Planning and Mr. Ibrahim Hamza Khaleel National Development) Mr. Abdulla Mohamed Didi Mr. Mohamed Aslam (LaMer) Ms Athira Ali Mr. Hussain Zahir (Marine Research Centre)

© Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water, 2006 The contents of this report may be reproduced in parts with acknowledgment of source. ISBN

Published by: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water, 2006 Fen Building Male', Republic of Maldives Tel: +960 3324861 Fax: +960 3322286 Email: [email protected] Website: www.environment.gov.mv

Cartography, design and layout by: Ahmed Shaig Photos courtesy of: Portrait Gallery Printed by: National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives ii

Foreword By President of the Republic of Maldives

27 December 2006

Our world is today faced with many mitigate against climate change, there is serious threats to the prospect of life and no local-level fix to this global problem. the well-being of our future generations. Numerous challenges lie ahead of us in Poverty, terrorism and global pandemics the quest to safeguard the Maldives and rank among the most serious perils its people from the rising seas. We must facing us. However, to the three hundred find ways to adapt to higher sea levels, thousand inhabitants of the Maldives higher levels of natural stress on coral none of these threats compare, in reefs, higher temperatures, higher magnitude and likelihood, to global frequency of severe storms and varying climate change and consequent sea level rainfall patterns. Thus, this National rise. Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) Twenty years ago, the Maldives activated will hopefully guide us in this endeavour the alarm bells on this impending threat in the years ahead. It outlines the to the survival of our nation. Slowly but activities that we must implement to surely, we caught the attention of the adapt to climate change. I note with international community. Two decades satisfaction that the NAPA was developed on, the scientific evidence of climate with wide stakeholder participation and change is overwhelming. Climate change through extensive consultations at the and sea level rise are already happening. atoll and national levels. Thus, the views Although some work is being done to and priorities in the Programme have the endorsement of the public. iii Foreword by President

The reverberating message here is that the commitments agreed on in the Kyoto Protocol fall way short of reversing the climatic trends. It is therefore absolutely essential that those who have made those commitments at least prove their good faith.

I call upon all Government agencies, our international development partners and friends to extend their full cooperation to us to make this adaptation programme a success.

Maumoon Abdul Gayoom National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives iv

Contents

Foreword ii 4.2 Precipitation 14

Acknowledgment vii 4.3 Temperature 14

Abbreviations ix 4.4 Extreme events 15

1 Introduction 1 5 Vulnerabilities and Impacts 18

2 Adaptation Policy 5.1 Land, Beach and Human Framework 3 Settlements 19

2.1 NAPA Goal 3 5.2 Critical Infrastructure 23

2.2 Maldives Adaptation Policy 5.3 Tourism 25

Framework 3 5.4 Fisheries 28

3 Country Characteristics and National 5.5 Human Health 31

Development 7 5.6 Water Resources 33

3.1 Geography and climate 8 5.7 Agriculture and Food

3.2 Society 9 Security 34

3.3 Economy 10 5.8 Coral Reef Biodiversity 36 3.4 NAPA and National 6 Adaptation Needs and Priority Development 10 Adaptation Strategies 40

4 Climate Change and Climate 6.1 Adaptation Needs 40 Variability 13 6.1.1 Land, Beach and Human 4.1 Sea level rise 13 Settlements 40

6.1.2 Critical Infrastructure 40 v Table of Contents

6.1.3 Tourism 41

6.1.4 Fisheries 41

6.1.5 Human Health 41

6.1.6 Water Resources 42

6.1.7 Agriculture and Food Security 42

6.1.8 Coral Reef Biodiversity 42

6.2 Priority Adaptation Strategies 43

7 Adaptation Projects 45

References 131

Annex I - Maldives NAPA Process

and Key Steps 137

Annex 2 - List of participants in the national and regional workshops 147 National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives vi

List of Tables year, and its linear trend for Hulhulé for 1989 to Table 4.1 Probable maximum storm 2005 15 tide 18 Figure 4.2 Relationship between hourly Table 4.2 Probable maximum storm tide sea level and return period for by region 19 Hulhulé, based on observed Table 4.3 Storm tide estimates for medium hourly sea level for 1989 to and high sea level rise 2005 16 scenarios 19 Figure 4.3 Maximum daily rainfall, by Table 4.4 Return period of wind speeds year, for Hulhulé for1975 to associated with cyclones in 2005 16 Maldives 20 Figure 4.4 Relationship between daily Table 4.5 Cyclone hazard zone in Maldives rainfall and return period for and the probable maximum Hulhulé, based on observed wind speed 20 daily rainfall for 1975 to Table 5.1 Largest inhabited and 2005 17

uninhabited islands in Figure 4.5 Cyclone tracks over Maldives Maldives 23 between 1877-2004 20

Table 5.2 Major land reclamation Figure 5.1 Island size and land utilization activities in Maldives 25 across Maldives 22

Table 6.1 List of priority adaptation Figure 5.2 Extent of erosion in strategies 48 Maldives 25

Table 7.1List of p roject profiles 50 Figure 5.3 Export revenue for tuna, reef fish fisheries and other varieties, 1998 2005. 32 List of Figures Figure 5.4 Relative estimates of fish catch Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework of NAPA by atoll units in terms of illustrating the complex population and reef area 34 relationship between Figure 5.5 Incidence of acute sustainability and adaptation gastroenteritis in the Maldives to climate change 9 2002-2005 36 Figure 3.1 Location of Maldives 11 Figure 5.6 Incidence of dengue in Figure 3.2 Map of Maldives showing Maldives 2000-2005 37 geographic and climate Figure 5.7 Incidence of scrub typhus in features Maldives 2000-2005 37 Figure 3.3 Population Distribution in year Figure 5.8 Map of Major coral reef 2000 and 2006 structures 42 Figure 4.1 Maximum hourly sea level, by vii Acknowledgement

Acknowledgement

The National Adaptation Programme of Action Maldives was prepared by the We would also like to thank the members Integrated Climate Change Strategy of the Climate Change Technical Team (ICCS) Projects of Ministry of from the following government and Environment, Energy and Water. private agencies for their valuable time The Ministry wishes to acknowledge the and input to the NAPA process from the valuable support of Global Environment following government agencies and the Facility and its implementing agency, private sector.

United Nations Development 4 Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture Programme. We would like to thank and Marine Resources Ms.Hudha Ahmed, the UNDP Programme 4 Marine Research Centre Co-ordinator for her commitment, 4 Maldives Transport and helpful support and guidance throughout Contracting Company the NAPA process. 4 Ministry of Health The Ministry gratefully acknowledges the 4 Ministry of Planning and National work undertaken by the National Project Development Manager of the Integrated Climate 4 Ministry of Tourism and Civil Change Strategy Project, Lubna Moosa Aviation and the Maldives NAPA Team for co- 4 ordinating the stakeholder consultative Ministry of Housing and Urban process and producing the draft NAPA Development report. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives viii

4 Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure

4 Ministry of Transport and Communication

4 Ministry of Education- Educational Development Centre

4 Ministry of Economic Development and Trade

4 Ministry of Atolls Development

4 Department of Meteorology

4 Maldives Fishermen's Association

4 Land and Marine Environmental Resources Group Pvt. Ltd.

4 Seamarc Pvt Ltd

4 Banyan Tree Maldives

Appreciation is also expressed to representatives from the atolls who participated in the regional stakeholder consultations and those from the government and private agencies who participated in the national workshop.

We thank the staff of the Integrated Climate Change Strategy Project, Atoll Ecosystem Conservation Project, and the Environment Section for the support extended by them. ix Acronyms

Acronyms

7NDP Seventh National Development NAPA National Adaptation Plan Programme of Action

CCTT Climate Change Technical SRES Special Reports on Emission Team Scenarios ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation SST Sea Surface Temperature FNC First National Communication UNDP United Nations Development GDP Gross Domestic Product Programme GEF Global Environment Facility UNFCCC United Nations Framework ICCS Integrated Climate Change Convention on Climate Change Strategy

IOTC Indian Ocean Tuna V&A Vulnerability and Adaptation Commission

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MSL Mean Sea Level

MTL Mean Tide Level National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives x

Male’ International Airport 1 Introduction

Chapter I Introduction

“...there must be a way out. Neither the Maldives nor any small island nation wants to drown. That's for sure. Neither do we want our lands eroded nor our economies destroyed. Nor do we want to become environmental refugees either. We want to stand up and fight.”

President Maumoon Abdul Gayyoom, Small States Conference on Sea Level Rise, Male', 1989

The Maldives is among the most Inventory and Vulnerability Assessment: vulnerable to predicted climate change A Climate Change Enabling Activity. The and non-action is not an option for the FNC contained mitigation and adaptation country. The number of scientific and measures and the project profiles for technical assessments undertaken in the continuing climate change adaptation country since 1987 has reiterated the and mitigation process. need for long-term adaptation to climate This is the first National Adaptation change. Since the commencement of sea Programme of Action (NAPA) developed wall construction around the capital to communicate the most urgent and Male' in September 1988 the immediate adaptation needs of the government has implemented several Maldives as stipulated under UNFCCC projects aimed at adaptation to Decision 28/CP.7. NAPA was prepared environmental threats. with support from the Global The Maldives played an important role in Environment Facility (GEF) and United the negotiations that led to the United Nations Development Programme Nations Framework Convention on (UNDP). Preparation of NAPA began in Climate Change (UNFCCC) and was the October 2004 and the process was first to sign the Kyoto Protocol to the halted because of the South Asian UNFCCC. The Maldives submitted the tsunami of December 2004. NAPA work First National Communication (FNC) to recommenced in February 2006. the UNFCCC in 2001 following the implementation of the Maldives GHG National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 2

NAPA process was guided by the consultations at regional and national principles of broad stakeholder level were undertaken based on a prior engagement, partnership building among agreed methodology to identify focal agencies and ownership by the vulnerabilities and adaptation activities people of Maldives especially the atoll and to prioritize these activities. population. A multidisciplinary National The NAPA is intended to be concise as Climate Change Technical Team (CCTT) well as brief and contains seven was established as a first step to foster chapters. Following this introduction stakeholder engagement. Community Chapter Two presents the NAPA goal and consultations and awareness raising describes the National Adaptation Policy activities were held for representatives Framework. Chapter Three describes the from seven atolls of the Maldives and the country characteristics and national capital Male'. Targeted awareness raising development goals. Chapter Four depicts and activity-based learning was the climate hazards and risks. Chapter conducted for school children from five Five analyses vulnerabilities and the secondary schools. Existing climate data biophysical impacts of climate change. for the Maldives was analysed with Chapter Six lists the adaptation needs international expertise culminating in the and priority activities. NAPA concludes first Climate Risk Profile for the Maldives. with Chapter Seven that contains the National experts produced vulnerability project profiles for adaptation to climate and adaptation (V&A) related technical change in the Maldives. papers for priority sectors identified by the NAPA Working Group. Extensive 3 Adaptation Policy Framework

Chapter II Adaptation Policy

Sustainable Development Framework Adpatation Strategies Outcomes

SYSTEMS

This chapter presents the goal of the sustainable development outcomes; and Maldives NAPA and the overall adaptation strategies. adaptation policy framework adopted for According to the Intergovernmental Panel the country. on Climate Change (IPCC) “vulnerability 2.1 NAPA Goal is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, The goal of the NAPA is to present a adverse effects of climate change, coherent framework to climate change including climate variability and adaptation that enhances the resilience extremes” (IPCC 2001:388). Adaptation of the natural, human, and social refers to “adjustment in natural or systems and ensures their sustainability human systems in response to actual or in the face of predicted climate hazards. expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits 2.2 Maldives Adaptation Policy beneficial opportunities” (IPCC Framework 2001:365). For the Maldives NAPA, adaptation is a multi-dimensional goal

Figure 1.1 provides a simplified picture that aims to increase resilience of the of the policy framework for adaptation to vulnerable systems against climate climate change in the Maldives. It hazards and risks to achieve sustainable presents the interactions among climate development outcomes. hazards and risks; exposure and It is acknowledged that a complete vulnerability of the systems; the desired adaptation policy framework would be National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 4

Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of NAPA illustrating the complex relationship between sustainability and adaptation to climate change.

Investment Sea Level Rise Insurance Access to V S U resources E L Sustainable Development I N Adpatation Strategies T E Outcomes Extreme I Human R Weather L A Policies I Work

B B

NaturalSYSTEMS Laws & Regulations Income I

A L Mobility

Awareness, R

Produced I Shelter E T communication &

Recreation I

N information E

L Environmental Quality

S

U V Market-based tools Knowledge Projects Health Increasing Family & Social Relations Management Freedom Temperature Security Changes to Precipitation Patterns Growth collapse Political instability Balance of payments Natural disasters Technology or trade induced shocks Social upheaval Financial crisis Civil strife Terrorism

more complex than is depicted here. adaptation framework is on climate Because of the limitations in human change related hazards, risks and shocks knowledge on complex systems such as and what the Maldives will do to cope society and ecosystems it is not possible with them. Thefirst component of the to have a perfect adaptation policy framework is the climate change-related framework. However, there is plurality of hazards for the Maldives. The hazards are values in the framework presented here assessed based on the Climate Risk as it attempts to bring climate change Profile of the Maldives, the Disaster Risk into the national development agenda Profile of the Maldives and the IPCC Third and identify key interrelationships. Assessment Report. The hazards are described in Chapter Four. Other types of Societies have always faced risks and risks such as growth collapse, balance of shocks. Sustainable societies are those payments, financial crisis and technology that have devised mechanisms to help or trade induced shocks are also shown reduce or mitigate risk and cope with the in the framework which may impact the effects of shock. The focus of the vulnerable systems concurrently and 5 Adaptation Policy Framework

hence future adaptation outcomes. systems are the human-made material resources that can be used to produce a Thesecond component of the flow of future income which includes the adaptation policy framework is basic infrastructure (transport, buildings, vulnerable systems. The vulnerable water, energy and communications), and systems are characterized by high production equipment such as machinery vulnerability through exposure to and tools (Saeed 2005). different specific climate hazards, as well as being strategically important at The vulnerability of these systems to national level. For the purposes of the climate hazards is described in Chapter Maldives NAPA 'system' comprises of Five. This chapter is based on synthesis of natural, human and produced systems. scientific and technical vulnerability assessment studies that have been Natural systems are the natural and conducted in the Maldives since 1987 environmental resources broken down and the V&A assessment contained in the into; (i) renewable natural resources; (ii) FNC in 2001. non-renewable resources; (iii) the ecosystems and services which support Thethird component depicted on the and maintain the quality of land, air and right hand side of the adaptation water; (iv) the maintenance of a vast framework is the sustainable genetic library, referred to as biological development outcomes. Sustainable diversity and (v) land, the space in which development is not an easily defined human activities take place. Human concept and it is almost impossible to system refers to human lives, human define how much of it is adequate. The health and knowledge, skills and essential elements of sustainable competences of individuals. Produced development can only be understood relative to place, time, local context, culture and value systems. The goals of the Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP) are taken as a good basis for understanding the sustainable development outcomes for the Maldives relative to present time and local context. The country characteristics and the national development goals are described in Chapter Three.

A society's ability to achieve sustainable development outcomes depends on choices made by individuals, firms and governments on how they use and National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 6

transform the systems and how they Thefinal component of the adaptation mitigate or reduce the risk of climate framework is the barriers to change to the systems. The fourth implementation. There are several socio- component of the adaptation policy political shocks and stresses such as framework is the processes that interact political instability, social upheaval and with the systems to influence adaptation. terrorism that could affect speedy In order to achieve the sustainable implementation of national adaptation development outcomes, there has to be a activities. Such shocks have a tendency to process for maintenance, replacement alter and reshape national priorities over and renewal of the systems. This process the short and medium-term. Natural needs to be equal to or exceed the shocks such as tsunamis, storms and processes of depreciation, degradation epidemics also reshape priorities in the and loss in the system. Replacement short-term. would not automatically take place and Provided that national priorities do not deliberate investment decisions are change then the key barrier to needed. On the other hand, climate implementation of adaptation strategies change poses dangers or irreversible are weak institutions. Although the losses to critical systems. Hence, a policy adaptation strategies are clear most of of prudent insurance is needed as well. the organizations lack strategic direction In order to make wise investment and and human, financial and technical insurance decisions, signals need to be resources to implement them. picked on the status of the systems, the Furthermore, lack of knowledge, hazards and risk levels to the systems, education and awareness among the how society currently uses the systems, public on the science and impacts of and how the society has coped with risks climate change tends to reduce the in the past. This requires the generation demand the public place on the of information, fostering learning and government and private sector to supply knowledge. In the NAPA the decision adaptation and mitigation to climate processes are termed adaptation change. strategies. The signals on the adaptation In the project profiles in Chapter Seven of needs of the society and the relative the NAPA special attention has been values of the adaptation strategies were given to remove barriers to long-term obtained through carefully planned adaptation to climate change in the expert analysis and regional and national Maldives. level stakeholder consultations. The key adaptation needs as identified and prioritised by stakeholders are listed in Chapter Six. 7 Country Characteristics and National Development

Chapter III Country Characteristics and National Development

This chapter provides the background on (Figure 3.1). This chain is 860km long geography, climate, society, the economy and the width varies between 80 to and the national development goals. 120km. There are 1190 small tropical islands out of which 358 islands are 3.1 Geography and climate being currently utilized mainly for human settlements, infrastructure and economic Maldives is an archipelago of 25 low- activities. The largest island is Gan in lying coral atolls located in a north to Laamu Atoll which is barely 6km2 . south direction on the Laccadives-Chagos submarine ridge in the Indian Ocean Maldives has a tropical monsoon climate.

Figure 3.1: Location map of Maldives. The south-west monsoon is from May to November and the north-east monsoon Pakistan is from January to March. Daily temperature varies between 31o C and Saudi Arabia Myanmar 23o C. The mean daily maximum

India o temperature is 30.4 C and the mean

o Thailand daily minimum temperature is 25.7 C. Humidity ranges from 73 to 85% (MEC, 2004; Meteorology, 2006). Sri Lanka MALDIVES The annual average rainfall for Maldives Equator Indonesia is 2,124mm. Southern atolls on average receive 2,277mm while northern atolls Indian Ocean National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 8

Figure 3.2: Map of Maldives showing geographic and climate features

Hanimaadhoo Weather Station Thiladhunmathi Atoll 35 350 Largest atoll in the world. Subdivided to 30 4 administrative units. Has numerous 300 7°N reef passes, a feature prominent amongst northern atolls. 25 250 Surface Area: 3788.71 km2 2 20 Reef Area: 500.70 km 200 Kulhudhuffushi 2 mm) Land Area: 68.70 km 15 150 No. of Reefs: 164

Rainfall ( No. of Islands: 167

Temperature (0C) 10 100 6°N North Maalhosmadulu Atoll 5 50 One of the 11 atolls on the western line of islands. It has an area of high faro density 0 0 JFMAMJJASOND within its lagoon, a feature most Month commonly found in atolls of Maldives. Surface Area: 1184.31 km2 Reef Area: 223.50 km2 Male’ International Airport 5°N Land Area: 12.90 km2 Weather Station No. of Reefs: 155 No. of Islands: 85

35 350 Kaashidhoo Atoll 30 300 Hulhumale’ Known as an oceanic platform reef and Male’ contains a single large island. There 4 of 25 250 4°N these reefs in Maldives. Surface Area: 9.54 km2 20 200 2

mm) Reef Area: 9.54 km Land Area: 12.2.89 km2 15 150 No. of Reefs: 1

Rainfall (

Temperature (0C) No. of Islands: 1 10 100

5 50 3°N Gan Island and Hadhdhunmathi Atoll 0 0 JFMAMJJASOND Largest island. This atoll also contains Month the largest total land area in any atoll. Surface Area: 884.63 km2 Reef Area: 203.70 km2 Land Area: 25.27 km2 2°N No. of Reefs: 56 Kadhoo No. of Islands: 130 Airport Gan’ International Airport Weather Station Huvadhoo Atoll

35 Also known as Suvadhiva Atoll, it is the 350 2nd largest atoll and contains the most 1°N number of islands. 30 300 Surface Area: 3278.59 km2 2 25 250 Reef Area: 437.90 km 2 Thinadhoo Land Area: 33.45 km 20 200 No. of Reefs: 210 mm) Kaadedhoo No. of Islands: 238 Airport 15 150

Rainfall (

Temperature (0C) 10 100 0°N Equator Islands 5 50 MALDIVES Reefs 0 0 Major weather stations JFMAMJJASOND Hithadhoo Month 0 2060 100 Km

73°E 9 Country Characteristics and National Development

Figure 3.3: Population distribution in year 2000 and 2006

Haa Alifu Atoll receive 1,786mm of rainfall annually. 14,141 Lowest annual rainfall recorded in the 13,272 Haa Dhaalu Atoll last 30 years is 1,346mm in 2002 at 16,863 Hanimaadhoo Weather Station and the 16,439 Shaviyani Atoll highest is 3,185mm in 1978 at Gan 11,391 11,814 International Airport Weather Station. Noonu Atoll The highest rainfall recorded within 24 10,429 10,080 hours to date is 220mm on 9 July 2002 Raa Atoll at Kaadedhdhoo Weather Station 14,424 14,639 (Meteorology, 2006). Lhaviyani Atoll 8,629 8,226 3.2 Society Baa Atoll 9,172 The Maldivian society is perhaps unique 8,876 Kaafu Atoll in the world as a nation since everyone 83,507 speaks the same language and belongs to 113,878 North Alifu Atoll the same religion. Maldivians speak 4,840 4,841 Dhivehi and the contemporary South Alifu Atoll population is culturally homogeneous 6,620 although originally from a varied ethnic 6,906 Vaavu Atoll mixture of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, 1,649 1,504 Sinhalese and Arabs. Faafu Atoll 3,779 Population of the Maldives passed the 3,624 Meemu Atoll 300,000 mark in July 2006. The 5,020 population growth rate is 1.8 per annum 4,654 Dhaalu Atoll (MPND, 2006). In 13 out of the 20 4,927 atolls the population declined in the 4,671 Thaa Atoll census period 2000-2006. Figure 3.3 9,302 shows the distribution of the population 8,536 Laamu Atoll by atoll. 11,497 12,018 Gaafu Alifu Atoll Population size among the atolls and the 8,129 islands differs across the country. More 7,977 Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll than a third of the total population 11,840 numbering 104,403 persons lives in the 11,023 Gnaviyani Atoll capital Male'. Out of the atolls Seenu 7,528 Atoll has the highest population at 7,642 Seenu Atoll 17,922, while Vaavu Atoll has the lowest 18,499 population at 1,614 (MPND, 2006). 17,762 Apart from Male', there are only three Population Yr 2000 Yr 2006 Population more than 5000 National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 10

islands that have a population greater than 5,000. They are Hithadhoo (Seenu Atoll) with 9,407, Fuvahmulah (Gnaviyani Atoll) with 7,642, and Kulhudhufushi (Haa Dhaalu Atoll) with 7,206 persons. In 2006, the number of islands that had a population between 5000 and 1000 people was 57, while 60 islands had between 1,000 and 500 people and 74 islands had a population of less than 500 people.

From 1997 to 2004, there is evidence of significant increases in income levels of the people (MPND, 2006). The about 7% to the GDP. Agriculture plays a headcount ratio shows that in 1997 the minor role in the economy and the proportion of population having less than sector contributed only 2.8% to GDP in Rf 15 per person per day was around 2000 (MPND, 2004). 45%, while by 2004 it had come down to about 20%. Even though income levels 3.4 NAPA and National has been increasing, income inequality Development between Male' and the atolls has increased. There is also evidence that Synergy with national development goals northern atolls are becoming poorer is one of the objectives of NAPA. In the relative to southern atolls (MPND, selection and prioritization of adaptation 2005). activities NAPA uses development goals in Vision 2020, Seventh National 3.3 Economy Development Plan (7NDP) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The annual gross domestic product (GDP) increased from Rf 385 million in 1978 The Vision 2020 outlined by President to Rf 7,934.0 million in 2005 (MPE, Maumoon Abdul Gayoom on 26th July 1988; MMA, 2004). The estimates of 1999 provides the direction for 2005 show that tertiary sector sustainable development of the Maldives dominates the GDP with 73%, while the and is the basis for current national secondary and primary sectors contribute development policies. NAPA will 17% and 10% respectively (MPND, contribute to the achievement of the 2004). Tourism is the main economic Vision 2020, particularly through activity and contributes about one third providing a planned approach to combat to the GDP. Fisheries is the largest the climate change threat. contributor to exports and contributes 11 Country Characteristics and National Development

The 7NDP lays down the development equal opportunity for education, life policies and strategies of the Government long learning and training for the period 2006 to 2010. The 7 Improve health and well-being policies and strategies in the 7NDP are targeted at improving the quality of life 8 Promote gender equality, family for the people living in the Maldives, values and youth development. particularly the poor, the disadvantaged and the vulnerable groups. A key 9 Safeguard the values, rights and principle of the 7NDP is that the freedoms necessary to allow all to development policies should not live a life of dignity. compromise the ability of future 10 Promote access to justice, rule of law generations to achieve non-declining per and maximize public safety capita well being. The proposed way forward is optimal use of the available 11 Strengthen governance and national natural resources and the protection of security critical natural capital such as water resources, coral reefs and fish breeding At the United Nations Millennium grounds. Summit held in September 2000, Maldives along with other nations of the The specific goals of the 7NDP are: world committed to achieve the MDGs. The eight broad goals and the 18 specific 1 Create an environment conducive for targets to be achieved by 2015 are growth and generate employment designed to: 2 Enhance trade, support businesses 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and and build competitive industries hunger. 3 Invest in strategic and state-of-the 2. Achieve universal primary education. art infrastructure to enable ease of movement, enhanced access to 3. Promote gender equality and services, and build competitive empower women. advantage 4. Reduce child mortality. 4 Create a built environment with opportunities for equitable access to 5. Improve maternal health. housing, sports, and recreation and 6. Combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other preserve cultural heritage diseases. 5 Protect the natural environment and 7. Ensure environmental sustainability. make people and property safer

8. Develop a global partnership for 6 Invest in people through providing development. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 12

North harbour of Capital Male’ 13 Climate Change and Climate Variability

Chapter IV Climate Change and Climate Variability

Figure 4.1: Maximum hourly sea level, by year, and its linear The first component of the Maldives trend for Hulhulé (1989 to 2005). Adaptation Framework (Figure 2.1)

750 described in Chapter Two is climate 700 change-related hazards. This chapter 650 summarises the global and national evel (mm) 600 550 predictions for climate hazards. The 500 hazards reviewed are sea level rise, 450 precipitation, temperature and extreme 400 350 events. Maximum Hourly Sea L 300 1989 1994 1999 2004 4.1 Sea level rise Year

Source: MEEW (2006) The global mean sea level rose 10 to Figure 4.2: Relationship between hourly sea level and return 20cm during the 20th century at the period for Hulhulé, based on observed hourly sea level for 1989 to 2005 rate of 1to 2mm/year. Future sea level is projected to rise within the range of 9 to 140 88cm between 1990 and 2100. Sea 120 level is projected to rise under all 100 scenarios of IPCC Special Reports on 80 Emission Scenarios (SRES). The projected 60 average rate of increase is 5mm/year, 40

Return Period (yr) with a range of 2 to 9mm/year (IPCC 20 2001). 0 550 580 610 640 670 700 Hourly Sea Level (mm)

Source: MEEW (2006) National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 14

For Maldives, the observed long term Figure 4.3: Maximum daily rainfall, by year, for Hulhulé (1975 to 2005) trend in relative sea level for Hulhulé (Male' International Airport Weather 200 180 Station) is 1.7mm/year. The maximum 160 140 hourly sea level is increasing by 120 approximately 7mm/year, a rate far in 100 (mm) 80 excess of the observed local and global 60 trends in mean sea level (Figure 4.1). 40 20 Annual Maximum Daily Rainfall 0 For Hulhulé an hourly sea level of 70cm 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 above mean sea level (MSL) is currently a Year

100-year event. It will likely be at least Source: MEEW (2006) an annual event by 2050 (Figure 4.2). Figure 4.4: Relationship between daily rainfall and return period for Hulhulé, based on observed daily rainfall 4.2 Precipitation for 1975 to 2005

400 Global average water vapour concentration and precipitation are 300 projected to increase during the 21st 200 century (IPCC, 2001). A marginal decline in precipitation is projected for the 100

Return Period (yr) Indian Ocean region (Nurse and Sem, 0 2001). 80 100 120 140 160 180 Daily Rainfall (mm) In the case of Maldives, no significant Source: MEEW (2006) long term trends are evident in the observed daily, monthly, annual or maximum daily rainfall (Figure 4.3). 4.3 Temperature

Currently a daily rainfall of at least The global average surface temperature 160mm is a relatively rare event at is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C Hulhulé, with a return period of 17 over the period 1990 to 2100. The years. An extreme daily rainfall of projected rate of warming is much larger 180mm is currently a 100-year event. It than the observed changes during the will likely occur twice as often, on 20th century (IPCC, 2001). For the average, by 2050. An extreme three- Indian Ocean region, temperature is hourly rainfall of 100mm is currently a expected to increase by 2.1°C for the 25-year event. It will likely become at 2050s and 3.2°C for the 2080s (Nurse least twice as common, on average, by and Sem, 2001). around 2050 (Figure 4.4). 15 Climate Change and Climate Variability

For Maldives, there is relatively high (Male' International Airport Weather confidence in projections of maximum Station) have been steadily increasing temperature. The annual maximum daily across seasons and the rising rates are temperature is projected to increase by very high. The annual mean SST trends at around 1.5°C by 2100. A maximum Hulhule’ and Gan are 0.2±°C and 1.1 to temperature of 33.5°C is currently a 20- 1.6°C/decade respectively. The higher year event. It will likely have a return trends observed for Gan maybe due to period of three years by 2025. Gan being located near the equator.

The present average monthly Sea Surface During May 1998 mean monthly SST was Temperature (SST) in the Maldives ranges 1.1o C above the highest mean monthly from 28oo C to 29 C, rarely increasing SST expected in any 20 year return period above 30C. Mean monthly SST is lowest (Clark et al. 2001). in December and January reaching its highest in April and May. 4.4 Extreme events

An increasing trend in SST has been Greater extremes of drying and heavy observed in the Maldives (Singh et al. rainfall is projected, increasing the risk of 2001; Khan et al. 2002). Large seasonal droughts and floods especially during El variations in the SST trends were Nino events (IPCC 2001). Tropical observed at Gan (Gan International cyclones are predicted to be enhanced in Airport) in Seenu Atoll. SST and Mean intensity by 10 to 20% (Nurse and Sem Tide Level (MTL) trends at Hulhule’ 2001).

Table 4.1: Probable maximum storm tide

Return Period Pressure Storm Surge Average Tide Storm Tide (Years) drop (hPa) Height (m) height (m) (m) 100 20 0.84 0.98 1.82 500 30 1.32 0.98 2.3

Source: UNDP (2006)

Table 4.2: Probable maximum storm tide by region

Storm Surge Average Tide Storm Tide Hazard Zone Height (m) Height (m) (m) Southern Atolls - - 0 Central-west Islands 0.45 0.93 1.38 Central-east Islands 0.6 0.93 1.53 Northwest Islands 0.99 0.98 1.97 NorthEast Islands 1.32 0.98 2.3

Source: UNDP (2006) National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 16

Table 4.3: Storm tide estimates for medium and high sea level rise scenarios

Storm Tides at Present Day Predicted SLR Scenarios 2080-2100 Average Storm Surge Storm Medium High Zone Tide Height Height (m) Tide (m) (0.48m) (0.88m) (m) Southern Atolls - 0.93 NA NA NA Central-west Islands 0.45 0.93 1.38 1.86 2.26 Central-east Islands 0.6 0.93 1.53 2.01 2.41 Northwest Islands 0.99 0.98 1.97 2.45 2.85 NorthEast Islands 1.32 0.98 2.3 2.78 3.18

Source: UNDP (2006) and Shaig (2006)

According to the Disaster Risk Profile for medium prediction, enough to Maldives (UNDP, 2006), maximum completely inundate a medium to small storm surge height is reported to be sized island in the Maldives. A storm 1.32m with a return period of 500 years. surge at high prediction could cause a If coupled with high tide, it could 3.18m wave that could inundate even generate a storm tide of 2.30m (Table the largest of islands. These surges do not 4.1). take into account regular monsoonal wind generated flooding which is The probable maximum storm tide by considered the most common in region in Table 4.2 shows that the Maldives (Shaig, 2006; UNDP, 2006). islands in the northeast of the Maldives could face storm tides of 2.30m in height.

The study also reported the forecasted maximum storm tides for different regions of the Maldives based on medium and high sea level rise scenarios (Table 4.3).

Based on these assumptions, scenarios, and given that the average height of Maldivian islands is 1.5m above MSL, sea level rise would cause regular tidal inundations in most islands even at the medium prediction. The high prediction could cause inundations recurrently in almost all islands. Storm surges can create up to 2.78m waves under 17 Climate Change and Climate Variability

Figure 4.5: Cyclone tracks over Maldives between 1877-2004 Maldives lies out of the tropical cyclone zone due to its proximity to equator. 10°N However, there have been incidents from India the past where cyclonic storms have passed over Maldives and their still 8°N remain the probability for future such events. Figure 4.5 shows the tracks of cyclonic system over Maldives in 128 6°N years.

There is a clear pattern of northern Maldives being exposed to more frequent 4°N freak storms than the south. Table 4.4 shows the predicted return periods for MALDIVES cyclonic activity based on historical 2°N records of wind data. Currently an Indian Ocean extreme wind gust of 60 knots has a return period of 16 years. It is estimated 0°N that this will reduce to 9 years by 2025 (MEEW 2006). The cyclonic wind hazard

75°E 69°E 77°E 71°E 73°E zone mapping predicts category 3 cyclone for the northern Maldives in a Table 4.4: Return period of wind speeds associated with cyclones 500 year return period (Table 4.5) in Maldives (UNDP 2006). Wind Speed Return periods Type (knots) (years) Tropical Depression 28-33 10-20 Tropical Depression 34+ 23 Cyclone 65+ 134.6

Source: UNDP (2006)

Table 4.5: Cyclone hazard zone in Maldives and the probable maximum wind speed

Probable Maximum Saffir-Simpson Scale Hazard Zone Wind Speed (knots) (Hurricane Category) Southern Maldives 0 0 South Central 55.9 0 Central 69.6 1 North Central 84.2 2 Northern Maldives 96.8 3

Source: UNDP (2006) National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 18

Chapter V Vulnerabilities and Impacts

MALDIVES

The second component of the Maldives The impacts on the vulnerable systems Adaptation Framework (Figure 2.1) are described in this chapter for the high described in Chapter Two is vulnerable risk sectors identified through the V&A systems. This chapter presents the assessment process. These are (i) Land, vulnerabilities inherent in the different Beach and Human Settlements; (ii) components of the natural, human and Critical Infrastructure; (ii) Tourism; (iv) produced systems to the climate hazards Fisheries; (v) Human Health; (vi) Water described in Chapter Four and the Resources; (vii) Agriculture and Food predicted impacts of climate change on Security and, (viii) Coral Reef Biodiversity. the Maldives.

Vulnerability assessments were undertaken for critical components of the systems and stakeholder consultations were conducted to complete hazard-vulnerabilities-impacts matrices and verify the results. The assessments and consultations showed how the vulnerabilities in the components interact with the climate hazards to impact key development sectors. 19 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

5.1 Land, Beach and Human Settlements latest satellite and aerial imagery. This land is divided over 1192 coral islands The small size, extremely low elevation and 96% of the islands are less than and unconsolidated nature of the coral 1km2 in area (Figure 5.1). Only 10 islands place the people and their islands are more than 2.5km2 . The livelihoods at very high risk from climate largest island Gan (Laamu Atoll), has an change, particularly sea level rise. area of 6.1km2 (Table 5.1). Land is highly

Maldives is the sixth smallest sovereign scarce and the 358 islands that are 2 state in terms of land area. The total land currently in use account for 176km . The area of the Maldives is estimated to be 834 unutilised islands make up only 2 approximately 235km2 , based on the 59km .

Figure 5.1: Island size and land utilization across Maldives

100.0% 83.3 80.3 80.0% 67.7

60.0%

40.0% 24.519 19.4 19.6 20.7 20.0% 10.5 8.8 5.6 7.1 % of total area utilised 0.0% 2.8 % of islands utilised 0.6 0.3 % of Total Land Area % of Total Islands

1-25ha

25-50ha

50-100ha

500+ha

100-250ha

250-500ha

Source: Shaig (2006)

Table 5.1: Largest inhabited and uninhabited islands of Maldives

Inhabited Islands Uninhabited Islands 2 2 Rank Island Atoll Area (km ) Island Atoll Area (km ) 1 Gan Laamu 6.13 Gan Seenu 2.89 2 Hithadhoo Seenu 5.26 Gan Gaafu Dhaalu 2.51 3 Fuvahmulah Gnaviyani 5.01 Kaadedhdhoo Gaafu Dhaalu 1.87 4 Isdhoo Laamu 3.73 Madidhoo Shaviyani 1.07 5 Hanimaadhoo Haa Dhaalu 3.04 Kadhdhoo Laamu 1.03 6 Kaashidhoo Kaafu 2.81 Kalhufahalafushi Thaa 1.03 7 Filladhoo Haa Alifu 2.70 Maafahi Haa Alifu 1.02 8 Baarah Haa Alifu 2.68 Maavaarulu Gaafu Dhaalu 0.98 9 Kedhikolhudhoo Noonu 2.15 Keylakunu Haa Dhaalu 0.91 10 Nolhivaramu Haa Dhaalu 2.10 Farukolhu Shaviyani 0.88 Source: Shaig (2006) National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 20

Over 80% of the total land area of the Maldives is less than 1m above MSL. The highest point recorded in the country is a beach ridge at Fuvahmulah (Gnaviyani Atoll), with an elevation of 4m above MSL (MHAHE 2001). As future sea level is projected to rise within the range of 9 to 88cm between 1990 and 2100, the islands of Maldives would be submerged in the projected worst case scenario.

The coral islands that make up the Maldives are morphologically unstable and change in their size, shape, elevation and position on reef platforms over time. Most of the islands in Maldives are barely 1m The beaches of these islands are above the sea level. Under the predicted worst case sea level risescenario, most of Maldives particularly dynamic with substantial could be inundated. seasonal changes. At present, the total low elevation also makes human beach area is estimated at 13km2 or 5% settlements defenseless against severe of the total land area and the coastline of weather events and storm surges. Over the Maldives is estimated to be 2,300km the last 6 years more than 90 inhabited long (Shaig 2006). islands have been flooded at least once

The small size of the islands forces and 37 islands have been flooded people to live next to the sea. At present, regularly or at least once a year (Shaig 44% of the settlement footprints of all 2006). The severe weather event of May islands are within 100m of coastline. 2004 alone caused flooding in 71 This translates to 42% of the population inhabited islands (MEC 2004). The and 47% of all housing structures being tsunami wave of December 2004 within 100m of coastline. More than flooded all but nine islands and required 50% of the housing structures in 121 evacuation of 13 islands (MPND 2005). islands are within 100m of coastline Since housing designs, structures and (Shaig 2006). Only Nolhivaramu (Haa materials are not adapted to flooding, it Dhaalu), has all its housing structures exacerbates the vulnerability (UNEP 100m away from the coastline. Given the 2005). The flooring of houses does not close proximity of the settlements to the have adequate elevation from the ground sea and low elevation of the islands, and because of the poor construction homes of people are at severe risk of material used for housing structures, inundation with higher sea levels. higher frequency and increase in intensity of flooding could make these The small size of the islands and their islands uninhabitable. 21 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

inhabited islands. More than 45% of the 87 tourist resorts have reported severe erosion (Shaig, 2006). Although beach erosion can be attributed to a number of factors, changes in climatic conditions is known to exacerbate erosion (Nurse and Coastal Erosion Image Sem, 2001). In the Maldives the intensity and duration of northeast and southwest monsoons affect beach erosion patterns. Further aggravation of erosion through elevated sea level and storm surges would cause significant loss and damage to people's property, tourist resorts, valuable land and critical infrastructure. The beaches that represent 5% of the total land area of the Maldives, are of Human pressures also increase the unconsolidated nature and naturally vulnerability of the land and beaches to dynamic and unstable. More than 97% of predicted climate change. The population inhabited islands reported beach erosion of the country has increased by four-fold in 2004, of which 64% reported severe since 1911 and overcrowding is a beach erosion (Figure 9). Erosion significant problem. Already 34 of the patterns of inhabited islands have been inhabited islands do not have additional further complicated due to human land for new housing and another 17 intervention in coastal areas. The islands will reach their carrying capacity problem of erosion is not specific to by 2015 (Shaig, 2006). Land

Figure 5.2: Extent of coastal erosion in Maldives

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

Proportion of Islands 0%

L

S

F

K

B

V

R

N

M

Lh

Th

Sh

Ga

Dh

AA

Ha

ADh

GDh

HDh Atoll Islands with severe erosion Islands with moderate erosion No significant erosion

Source: VPA II (2004) National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 22

reclamation work has been carried out to alleviate population pressure on land. Table 5.2 lists some of the major land reclamation projects in the last 30 years. Hulhumale' (Kaafu Atoll) is the largest land reclamation project where approximately 2km2 was reclaimed to reduce population pressure on Male'.

Apart from land reclamation, several other human activities have increased the vulnerability of land, beaches and human settlements. They include construction of poorly designed coastal infrastructure, poorly engineered coastal A number of human Activities have in the past contributed to increase protection measures, removal of coastal the vulnerability of islands. vegetation, and sand mining. Coral reefs smallness of the islands and extreme low have a critical coastal protection elevation makes retreat inland or to function, yet there have been a number higher grounds impossible. Building of human stresses on the reef system setback has limited utility and beach such as coral mining, reef entrance replenishment may only be a temporary blasting, dredging, solid waste disposal remedy for beach loss. Unless expensive and sewage disposal that has affected the coastal protection measures are health, integrity and productivity of the undertaken the human settlements face reefs. the threat of inundation. The scarcity of land in the Maldives, the

Table 5.2: Major land reclamation activities in Maldives

Area Reclaimed % Reclaimed Island Atoll 1 Rationale (Km2 ) (Present Island) Hulumale' Kaafu 1.89 100% Population Pressure Male' Kaafu 0.82 41% Population Pressure Maamigili Alifu Dhaalu 0.80 51% Economic and infrastructure Hulhule Kaafu 0.76 58% Infrastructure Thinadhoo Gaafu Dhaalu 0.66 60% Population Pressure Hithadhoo Seenu 0.53 10% Population Pressure Thilafushi Kaafu 0.49 100% Infrastructure Naifaru Lhaviyani 0.37 68% Population Pressure Thulhaadhoo Baa 0.14 66% Population Pressure Hinnavaru Lhaviyani 0.12 54% Population Pressure

Source: Shaig (2006) 23 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

5.2 Critical Infrastructure in Laamu and Seenu Atoll (Shaig, 2006).

Significant investments have been made Tourism infrastructure in the 87 resorts to develop infrastructure in the country. with 21,156 beds makes up the bulk of At present there are five airports of economic infrastructure both in terms of which two are international. Three major investment value and quantity. Each commercial sea ports have been resort has its own power generation, developed in theMale' , Kulhudhuffushi water production and sewerage system. (Haa Dhaalu Atoll)and Hithadhoo (seenu More than 1200 over-water structures Atoll). More than 128 island harbours have been developed as guest rooms, have been developed by year 2006 in spas and restaurants in tourist resorts inhabited islands, resorts, airports and (Shaig, 2006). islands leased for economic and Other critical infrastructure includes administrative purposes. There are at environmental services and utilities. least 350 piers in resorts and inhabited There are waste management systems, islands. The main causeways are located sewerage systems and erosion mitigation measures such as near-shore breakwaters and groynes. Utilities infrastructure include powerhouses and desalination plants and their distribution systems (Shaig, 2006).

The location of infrastructure within close proximity to the coastline makes them highly vulnerable to sea level rise and storm conditions. The infrastructure of the two international airports is within 50m of the coastline. About 30% of the infrastructure of Male' International Airport lies within this range and additional land reclamation done on the island towards the ocean-ward side has resulted in parts of the island being within 15m of the wave break zone (Shaig, 2006).

More than 90% of all resort infrastructure and 99% of all tourist accommodation, which make up the Male’ International Airport: One of the most vulnerable and most crucial economic product of the critical infrastructure in Maldives National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 24

country, are within 100m of coastline. the predicted rise in sea level and The average width of a tourist resort is increased frequency and intensity of 190m while 63% of resort islands have a extreme weather, the critical width less than 200m and 88% have less infrastructure such as airports, harbours, than 300m. Furthermore, 70% of all coastal protection structures, tourist fisheries infrastructure are within 100m facilities, hospitals, schools and utilities of coastline where proximity to beach is are at high risk. If appropriate adaptation taken as an advantage (Shaig 2006). measures are not taken, frequent inundations could virtually obliterate the The average width of inhabited islands is critical infrastructure damaging the 566m resulting in all infrastructures built within 233m maximum from the coastline. In both inhabited islands and resorts 80% of the powerhouses are located within 100m of coastline. Also, 90% of the islands have their waste disposal sites within 100m of coastline and on the ocean-ward side of the island. More than 75% of communications infrastructures are located within 100m from the coastline. In addition, land reclamation on some islands have caused settlements and associated infrastructure to be located close to the coastline (Shaig, 2006).

All infrastructures on an island are at the low elevation of 1.5m above mean sea level (MSL). Over-water structures in resorts are built above the high tide and require high investment costs. The average height of the causeways and bridges is 1.6m above MSL. Guidelines for setting up powerhouses require the generator sets to be placed on concrete pads usually 6 to12 inches high (Shaig, 2006).

In the location, design and construction of infrastructure climate change hazards Top: Male’ Port, Bottom: An island harbour. Ports and harbours are considered have not been taken into account. With on the most critical infrastructures vulnerable to climate change in Maldives 25 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

economy threatening safety and security 5.3 Tourism of the people. The scale and magnitude of damage that may be caused to Tourism with 87 resorts and 21,156 infrastructure can be deduced from beds is the most dominant and fastest historical records. growing economic sector in the Maldives (MPND, 2004). In December 2004, The flooding event of 1987 caused tourist arrivals reached more than damages worth US$4.5 million to the 600,000 within a calendar year (MoT, Male' International Airport alone 2005). Tourism contributes about one (MHAHE, 2001). During tsunami waves third to the GDP and accounts for of 2004, over-water structures in resorts 17,000 direct jobs (World Bank et al. were amongst the most impacted and 2005). The sector also provides indirect the total damage estimated for the employment and other opportunities in tourism sector was US$230 million transport, communication, agriculture, (World Bank et al. 2005). The damage to distribution and construction as well as transport and communications in the more dispersed local economies. infrastructures were estimated to be The tourism industry, directly and US$20.3 million where 4,200m length indirectly accounts for a high portion of of quay wall and 15,000m of government revenues. Lease payments harbour/sea walls and breakwaters were from hotel projects were US$48 million damaged or destroyed (World Bank et al. in 2004 with bed and departure taxes 2005). contributing US$41 million and custom duties another US$43 million (World Bank et al. 2005). The tourism sector is expected to grow significantly over the next five years with the opening of 53 new resorts with an additional 10,000 beds (MPND, 2006).

The marine biological diversity, tropical climate, small island environment and the world-class hotels are the unique marketable assets of the tourism sector. The reef ecosystems of Maldives are the seventh largest in the world and their diversity is amongst the richest in the world. The sun-sand-and-sea product is An over-water bungalow in a tourist resort. Tourism the mainstay of tourism in the Maldives infrastructures are extremely vulnerable to climate change and climate is a key determinant in due their close proximity to beach areas. choosing the Maldives as a destination. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 26

White sandy beaches, swaying coconut palms and lush tropical vegetation are essential components of the image of the Maldives tourism. Investments in a resort range from US$10 million for an average tourist resort with 200 beds to over US$ 40 million for modern high-end resort (MHAHE, 2001). According to the World Travel Awards 2006, Maldives is the World's Leading Dive Destination and Indian Ocean's Leading Destination (World Travel Awards, 2006).

Climate change influences the viability and profitability of tourism, both directly 2001). Saltwater intrusion will impact and indirectly. In the Maldives one resort the groundwater lens in resorts affecting is one island and these small tropical the tropical vegetation. The present tourist resorts are among the most investments in tourist resort vulnerable and least defensible in the infrastructure exceed US$1 billion and world. The resort islands are vulnerable loss, or even under-utilization, of such due to its smallness, low elevation and infrastructure due to climate variability geographical dispersion. The tourist and change will devastate the Maldivian resort islands are extremely small with economy. Vulnerability of tourism to 73 out of the 87 resorts being less than extreme events is evident as shown by 0.1km2 while the largest tourist resort is the combined cost to tourist resorts and just 0.5km2 (Shaig, 2006). The average loss of Government revenue from the elevation of tourist resorts is 1.5m above tourism sector as a result of the Indian MSL. The tourist resorts are distributed Ocean tsunami in excess of US$300 along a length of 830km. million (MPND, 2005). The tourist resorts are already Snorkelling and diving are the two main experiencing damage to the environment tourist activities. At any resort at any and natural resources that are consistent given time 70to 80% of tourists are with climate change. One of the most snorkellers while 25 to 35% of tourists important assets of tourist resorts is visit the Maldives primarily for diving beaches with 70% of tourists visiting the (Westmacott, 1996). Assuming 1.5 dives Maldives primarily for beach holidays. for every tourist arrival (Anderson, 1997) Sea level rise would disrupt tourism the total number of annual dives in through loss of beaches. Already 45% of 2006 is estimated at about one million. tourist resorts have reported varying The earning from a single dive ranges degrees of beach erosion (MHAHE, 27 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

coral reefs of a popular shark diving spot in 1995 and 1996 reduced the number of divers resulting in a loss of revenue of US$500,000 in a single year (Anderson, 1997). Coral reefs are not only economically important to the tourism sector in terms of the aesthetic value and Coral reef and diving ecosystem services they provide, they also represent natural sea-defence acting to buffer beaches from wave action and other oceanic forces. Increased bleaching coupled with reduced calcification will affect coral growth and reef integrity and, reduce the ability of the reef to keep up with sea level rise.

The additional risks to tourism are in many cases indirect, with the initial from US$45 to 55. Coral reefs thrive in a impacts being imposed on the narrow temperature range and are highly infrastructure, fisheries, water resources, sensitive to changes in temperature. agriculture and human health. For Given the current predictions for increase example, over 99% of tourists arrive to in SST and the observed relatively more the Maldives by air and Male' frequent or persistent El Nino episodes, International Airport is the only entry coral bleaching is expected to rise rapidly point by air. The airport sea defenses are and significantly (IPCC, 2001). Coral barely adequate and any damage to the bleaching events occurred in the international airport by climate change Maldives in 1977, 1983, 1987, 1991, and sea level rise will cause extreme loss 1995, 1997 and 1998, with the latter to the tourism sector. being the most severe. Almost all the

shallow reefs in the country were Climate projections for the Maldives, impacted in 1998 and on average live including those related to variability and coral cover before and after the extreme events, indicate increasing bleaching was approximately 45% and likelihood of conditions detrimental to 5%, respectively (MHAHE, 2001). Coral the tourism sector. The consequences of bleaching events will have significant climate change will be felt not only implications for the tourism sector. within the tourism sector but also by the individuals, communities, enterprises and Climate change and its various impacts entire sectors that are in turn dependent on marine biological diversity pose a on tourism. At the same time adverse significant risk to tourism. Damage to climatic conditions will impact on the National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 28

tourist experience and, in extreme Figure 5.3: Export revenue for tuna and reef fish / other varieties, 1998 -2005. situations, on tourists' health and safety and on the reputation of the country as a 10o tourist destination. 8o

5.4 Fisheries 6o

4o Fisheries is a critical component of the

Millions US$ economy. More than 20% of the 2o population depend on fisheries as the o major income earning activity. Fisheries 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 is also the most dominant in terms of Year employment of the local labour force Tuna Reef Fish & Other Varieties employing over 15,000 fishermen and Source: Adam (2006), Note: 2005 data is preliminary contributes 7% to the GDP. Fish, particularly tuna, is the primary source of Fisheries industry is highly vulnerable to dietary protein for the Maldivians and climate change as tuna is highly attuned tuna is served daily in every meal (Adam, to the biophysical conditions of the 2006). pelagic environment, particularly ENSO and associated changes in SST. During The total fish catch was 186,000 metric the 1997/1998 El Nino the Indian tons in 2005 and export revenue then Ocean purse seine fishery was shifted to stood at over US$100 million (Figure the east, unlike other years owing to the 5.3). Tuna and tuna-related species elevated depth of the 20degC isotherm accounted for approximately 89% of the (Adam, 2006). In the Maldives during total fish catch and tuna products the El Nino years, catch rates of skipjack provided US$97 million of fish export tuna are depressed while catches of revenue. Skipjack tuna makes up 71% of yellowfin tuna are elevated and the total fish catch followed by yellowfin effect is reversed in La Nina years (Adam tuna at 13%. These two fishery are and Anderson 1996; Adam and significant even at the Indian Ocean wide Anderson, 1996). catch levels, representing 20% and 7% respectively. In the Maldives, fish other Tuna movement and abundance in the than tuna species are classified as reef Indian Ocean is closely linked to the fish. In 2005, 11% of the fish catch was climate driven ocean productivity (Adam, reef fish and contributed US$7 million to 2006). The Somali Basin and the north the fish export revenue (Adam, 2006; Arabian Sea is particularly productive MPND, 2006). during the southwest monsoon. The recent trend of declining winter and spring snow cover over Eurasia is causing 29 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

catch a kilogram of livebait is required which approximates to 21,000 tons of livebait each year (Adam, 2006). Without adequate and continuous supply of livebait pole-and-line fishery will not exist in the Maldives. The bait is taken from small schooling varieties associated with the coral reefs. The most popular species are silver sprats, fusiliers and cardinal fish.

The habitats for livebait are coral reef systems that are highly vulnerable to changes in SST and other climate a land ocean thermal gradient that is changes. This has significant implications particularly favourable to stronger for the availability of livebait as shown by southwest monsoons. Such favourable the 1998 coral bleaching event when conditions have caused over 300% abundance of long nose file fish increase in phytoplankton biomass in the (Ocymonocanthus longirostris) rapidly area (Goes et al. 2005). These in turn declined. This particular species is an could have profound implications for obligate corralivore and the rapid demise tuna distribution and abundance in the of the live corals had an impact on their Indian Ocean (Adam, 2006). survival (Adam, 2006).

As tuna fishery of Maldives is part of the Improved access to export markets and wider Indian Ocean tuna fisheries, increasing demand from tourist resorts climate-induced changes and fishery makes reef fishery an important source overexploitation occurring elsewhere may of livelihood for atoll communities. have local repercussions (Adam, 2006). Groupers, live-tropical fish and sea- The most recent assessments of the tuna cucumber are fished exclusively for stock in Indian Ocean revealed that export while lobsters and other reef fish yellowfin tuna stock is considered to are harvested to meet demands of have reached maximum sustainable tourism sector. Natural or anthropogenic levels (IOTC, 2005). disturbances on coral reefs are known to cause changes in community structure The dependency of pole-and-line tuna and species resilience which has fishery method on livebait makes the implications to the reef fishery. For tuna fishery further vulnerable to climate example,Gobiodon citrinus and change and variability. Live bait is a pre- Ocymonocanthus, two reef fish species requisite for the pole and line fishery in disappeared from exports after the 1998 the Maldives. For every 7 to 10kg of tuna coral bleaching event. Both species feed National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 30

predominantly on acropora polyps which Meemu, Alifu and Lhaviyani atolls while were most affected during the bleaching. fish catch per reef area is highest in Human stresses such as overexploitation, Gaafu Dhaalu, Thaa and Laamu Atolls catch of immature fish and fishery during (Figure 5.4). The capital investments in spawning periods exacerbates the fisheries are increasing rapidly with the vulnerability of reef fishery. privatization of the fisheries making the fisheries dependent island communities The fisheries catch data shows there are particularly vulnerable. geographic variations in fish catch which makes population of particular atolls Decline in tuna fishery will have direct more vulnerable to the impact of climate implications on food security in the change on fisheries than others. Highest Maldives. Fish is the main source of catch per capita is seen in Gaafu Dhaalu, protein and local consumption of fish

Figure 5.4: Relative estimates of fish catch by atoll units in terms of population and reef area

Fish catch per population Fish catch per Reef Area Per capita catch Catch per reef area (tons per person per year) (tons per SqKm per year)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Note: Reef areas are those reported by Naseer & Hatcher (2004) Fish catches are total national landings reported by MoFAMR and populations estimates from Census (2006), Ministry of Planning and National Development.

(Source: (Adam 2006)) 31 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

exceeds 50,000 metric tons (MPND, neonatal tetanus, whooping cough and 2006). Reef fish is a significant item of diphtheria have been successfully the tourist resort cuisine and impacts on eliminated while non-communicable reef fishery will affect tourism and diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, communities who depend on reef fishery hypertension, cancer and renal diseases as a source of income. have emerged as major health concerns in recent years. Furthermore, the 5.5 Human Health Maldives has one of the highest known incidences of Thalassaemia in the world The health status of the Maldivian with one out of every six Maldivians population has improved significantly being a Thalassaemia carrier. Added to over the last two decades. In 2005, the this is the growing problem of accidents infant mortality rate was 12, maternal and injuries leading to death and mortality was less than 1 per thousand disabilities. and life expectancy was 72.2 years. The population per practising doctor was 775 Despite the improvement in health status in 2005 (MHAHE, 2002; MPND, 2006). the country still experiences high incidences of water- and vector-borne Maldives is now in a transition phase diseases that are attributed to climate from communicable to non- change. Although mortality due to communicable diseases. Communicable diarrhoea and acute respiratory diseases such as malaria and vaccine infections has been reduced to zero, they preventable diseases such as polio, continue to cause significant morbidity to children and adults, indicating

Figure 5.5: Incidence of acute gastroenteritis in the Maldives 2000-2005 inadequate access to safe water and sanitation. The number of cases of acute 18000 gastroentritis increased by 50% from 16000 10,000 cases in 2004 to 15,000 cases 14000 in 2005 (Figure 5.5). 12000 10000 Changes in temperature and rainfall 8000 regimes are causing higher incidence of 6000 No. of reported cases vector-borne diseases. There is evidence 4000 that dengue outbreaks are becoming 2000 more frequent and it appears that there 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 is an association with ENSO events. The Year first outbreak of dengue occurred in Male’ < 5 Male’ > 5 Atoll < 5 1979, the second in 1983 and the third Atoll > 5 Republic < 5 Republic > 5 1988 which was the worst with 2054 cases of dengue fever and nine deaths in Source: Epidemiological Surveillance Records - DPH, Moosa (2006) children under 10 years. After that for 10 National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 32

years there were no outbreaks until the Figure 5.6: Incidence of dengue in Maldives 2000-2006 next occurred in 1998 with a total of 350 1750 cases and no reported death. 300 Since 1998 every year cases have been reported from Maldives and there is 250 continued high prevalence from mid 200 2005 (Figure 5.6). In 2005 the case 150 load increase is about 52% with as compared to 2004. 100

No. of reported cases

50 Among the other vector-borne diseases of public health concern, Scrub Typhus 0 JDFMAM J JA S ON which was endemic 60 years ago re- Month emerged in 2002(Figure 5.7) with 2000 2001 2002 2003 mortality rates as high as 10% (Moosa 2004 2005 2006 2006). Chikungunya was for the first Source: Epidemiological Surveillance Records (Dept of Public Health) time diagnosed in December 2006 and reached epidemic proportions. In Figure 5.7: Incidence of scrub typhus in Maldives 2000-2005 addition to these climate related communicable diseases there has been 50 an increase in the conditions of the skin, 45 40 subcutaneous tissue and eye that has 35 close linkages to climate change caused 30 by increase exposure to UV radiation. 25 20 The islands of the Maldives are a mere 15

No. of reported cases 1.5m above MSL which makes them 10 5 highly vulnerable to flooding and 0 salinization of freshwater supplies due to JDFMAM J JA S ON Month rise in sea level. The islands are also 2002 2003 2004 2005 vulnerable to storms and cyclones that can adversely affect water supplies. Source: Epidemiological Surveillance Records (Dept of Public Health) Water-borne diseases such as shigella could increase as a result of disruption of the tsunami. Evidence also shows that sewage and water systems due to people in the atolls are more vulnerable flooding. The high level of risk to the to diarrhoeal diseases than in Male' and health of the population from climate this disparity is more pronounced in change related water-borne diseases is children under five years (Moosa 2006). evident from the 50% increase in the number of flooding related gastroenteritis cases in 2005 following 33 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

The nutritional status of children varies across the atolls and in 2004 the prevalence of underweight in children under five years of age was estimated at 27%. The forecasts are that one in four children may still be underweight in Maldives in 2015. Even though there are 6 regional hospitals, 10 atoll hospitals, 65 atoll health centres and 52 health posts the population in the remote islands face difficulty in getting access to healthcare delivery system, and during bad weather medical evacuation is almost impossible. With more frequent extreme weather events, significant At present 18% of inhabited islands mortality and morbidity will be a serious experience rainfall and/or ocean-induced challenge to the atoll population flooding at least once a year (Shaig (Mohamed 2006). 2006). With the projected increase in sea level and higher frequency of Climate change related impacts on extreme events incidents of flooding is fisheries and agriculture, threaten food likely to be more frequent and severe. security in the Maldives. Such impacts Increased flooding coupled with will have direct effect on nutrition status increased surface air temperature will of children and overall health of the cause higher incidence of vector-borne population. Impacts on infrastructure diseases in the Maldives. Already the and human settlement during extreme vector-borne disease dengue has spread events could cause physical injury to the to the atolls at epidemic proportions. people. Children and the population living in remote islands where diagnostic and 5.6 Water Resources treatment facilities are lacking are

particularly vulnerable to the climate Groundwater is a scarce resource because related vector-borne diseases. of the hydrogeology of the country. The freshwater aquifer lying beneath the The vulnerability to climate change islands is a shallow lens, 1 to 1.5m related health risks is further below the surface and no more than a compounded by local characteristics such few meters thick. Surface freshwater is as the high level of malnutrition in lacking throughout the country with the children, accessibility and quality of exception of a few swampy areas in some healthcare, high population congestion islands. Traditionally people depended on and low income levels (Moosa 2006). shallow wells to get access to the National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 34

groundwater lens for drinking water. However, 90% of the atoll households now use rainwater as the principal source of drinking water. In Male', 100% of the population has access to piped desalinated water. Following the tsunami 38 islands have been provided with desalination plants that are being operated daily or on emergency basis.

Thickness of the groundwater aquifer in the islands is determined by net rainfall recharge, size of the island and permeability of the soil column. The freshwater aquifers already stressed from over-extraction face the risk of total depletion if dry periods extend. As the Station in Seenu Atoll. Highest rainfall is islands have a precarious hydrological during the months of May and October system, with the predicted sea level rise and the highest rainfall recorded within and during periods of wave-induced 24 hours to date is 219mm on 9 July flooding, there is a very high risk of 2002 at Kaadedhdhoo Weather Station saltwater intrusion into the freshwater in Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll. The lowest rainfall lens. Salinization of groundwater would is during February and March affect the quality of life in the islands as (Meteorology 2006). people depend on groundwater for Although the global average precipitation washing, bathing and other non-potable is projected to increase during the 21st uses. Saltwater intrusion would also century, a marginal decline in affect soil and vegetation causing impacts precipitation is projected for the Indian on agriculture and terrestrial ecosystems. Ocean region (Nurse and Sem 2001). Rainwater is the main source of drinking The predicted changes in precipitation water in the atolls. The annual average have the potential to impact on rainfall for Maldives is 2,124mm. rainwater harvesting across all the atolls Southern atolls on average receive and in particular the northern atolls. 2,277mm of rainfall annually while Drinking water shortages during dry northern atolls receive 1,786mm. Lowest periods is a significant challenge for the annual rainfall recorded in the last 30 atoll population even at present. Water years is 1,346mm in 2002 at shortages were reported by 30% of the Hanimaadhoo Weather Station in Haa atoll population in 2004 (MPND 2005). Dhaalu Atoll and the highest is 3,185mm in 1978 at Gan Weather 35 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

5.7 Agriculture and Food Security cheap imports of vegetables and fruits. The available cultivable land is 103m2 Agriculture is vital to the food security, per capita (MFAMR 2006). Soil is nutritional status and livelihoods of the generally made up of medium-sized atoll population. Agriculture contributed calcium carbonate sand grains. A typical 2.6% to GDP in 2005 (MPND 2006). soil profile is made up of a thin sandy The total cultivable land area is layer at the top, a layer of organic matter 22 estimated at 27km , including 18km on 15 to 40cm deep, layer of hardpan 30 to

2 inhabited islands and 9km on 50cm deep before reaching unweathered uninhabited islands (MFAMR 2006). The bedrock. The soil is absent of silt and clay main subsistence crops include banana, reducing the adsorption capacity only to watermelon, cucumber, taro, coconut, the organic matter layer while the breadfruit, mango, sweet potato, medium sized calcium carbonate grains pumpkin, papaya, luffa, cabbage and result in high infiltration rates. The brinjal. average pH is 8.5 due to high calcium content of the soil causing deficiencies in Agriculture sector is constrained by the micro-nutrients. In addition, the soil limited availability of cultivable land, lacks nitrogen and potassium due to poor quality of soil and the abundance of excessive leaching making the fertility low (FAO 2005; MFAMR 2006).

Every year more than 17 million kilograms of rice, 17 million kilograms of flour and 10 million kilograms of sugar are imported (MCS 2006). Imports of fresh vegetables and fruits have also increased mainly due to the expanding tourism sector. In 2003, the Maldives imported US$32.4 million worth of vegetable products, US$25.9 million worth of meat and meat products, US$3 million worth of animal and vegetable fats and oils, and US$37.8 million worth of prepared foodstuffs (MFAMR 2006).

Climate hazards such as changes in temperature, precipitation and timing of extreme or critical threshold events will affect agriculture in the Maldives. The critical impact pathways include heat stress on plants, changes in soil moisture National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 36

and temperature, loss of soil fertility through erosion of fertile top soil, less water available for crop production, changes in height of water table, salinization of freshwater aquifer and loss of land through sea level rise. The consequences of such impacts are likely coral reef biodiversity to be more severe in the Maldives because agriculture is already under stress due to poor soil, limited land available for cultivation and water scarcity. The subsistence crop agriculture will also be affected by severe weather events. Over the past six years 90 islands have experienced flooding and amongst 5.8 Coral Reef Biodiversity these 37 islands had flooding six times or more (Shaig 2006). Coral reef ecosystems of the Maldives are

Heavy import dependency, limited food significant both at international and storage and ad hoc distribution also pose national level. They form the seventh severe food security risk to the largest reef system and are among the population. The Maldives imports almost richest in the world in terms of species all food items except fresh tuna and diversity. It has two of the largest natural coconut. Long-term and emergency food atolls in the world, Thiladhunmathi Atoll 2 storage is virtually absent except for with a total surface area of 3,788km warehousing in Male' and nine other and Huvadhoo Atoll with a total surface 2 islands (STO 2006). Since food area of 3,278km . At the national level, distribution system is by boat from Male' the Maldives is a nation of coral islands to islands and the quantity that can be where the reefs function as natural sea transported across on one trip is small defences for the highly vulnerable (MHAHE 2001), higher frequency of islands. The two major economic extreme events associated with climate activities tourism and fisheries are reef change would increase food security based and provide more than 80% of the problems. In 2003, 7% of the population total revenues to the country. The reefs experienced food crisis and for nearly also provide food and are the source of half of this population it lasted for less coral sand that is used as a construction than 10 days (MPND 2004). material.

In the 25 natural atolls of the Maldives there are 2,041 distinct coral reefs (Naseer 2006). About 529 reefs are 37 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

Figure 5.8: Map coral reef structures

Ihavandhippolhu Atoll A:289.81 R:119.50 I: 5.70 Thiladhunmathi Atoll 7°N A:3788.71 R:500.70 I: 68.70 Makunudhoo Atoll A:142.48 R: 142.48 I: 0.96 Alifushi-Eththigili Atoll A:4.38 R: 4.38 I: 0.71 North Maalhosmadulu Atoll 6°N A:1184.31 R:223.50 I: 12.90 Kudarikilu Atoll A: R: I: Faadhippolhu Atoll A:701.42 R:158.00 I: 7.20 South Maalhosmadulu Atoll 5°N A:1126.95 R: 262.90 I: 5.50 Kaashidhoo Atoll A:9.54 R: 9.54 I: 2.89 Goidhoo Atoll A:112.61 R: 112.61 I: 2.20 Gaafaru Atoll 4°N A:88.05 R: 88.05 I: 0.19 Thoddoo Atoll A:4.75 R: 4.75 I: 1.62 North Male’ Atoll A:1568.18 R:349 I: 9.40 Rasdhoo Atoll 3°N A:61.84 R: 61.84 I: 0.62 South Male’ Atoll A:536.33 R: 175.60 I: 2.00 Ari Atoll A:2271.75 R:489.40 I: 8.30 Felidhe Atoll A:1090.97 R: 251.10 I: 0.92 2°N Vattaru Atoll A:46.72 R: 46.72 I: 0.01 North Nilandhe Atoll A:597.15 R: 151.30 I: 2.20 Mulaku Atoll 1°N A:983.92 R:197.30 I: 4.20 South Nilandhe Atoll A:736.46 R:179.40 I: 4.40 Kolhumadulu Atoll A: Land Area (sqkm) 1695.79 243.70 9.30 A: R: I: R: Reef Area (Sqkm) Hadhdhunmathi Atoll No of Islands A:884.63 R:203.70 I: 23.10 I: 0°N Equator Huvadhoo Atoll Islands A:3278.59 R:437.90 I: 34.30 Reefs Fuvahmulah Atoll A:10.18 R: 10.18 I: 5.13 0 20 100 Km Addu Atoll A:157.22 R: 70.32 I: 15.00 Source data: Naseer (2006)

73°E National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 38

found on the rims of the 16 complex bleaching. During the 1998 El Nino atolls, five make up ocean faros and four event monthly mean SST was 1.2±4 S.D. are oceanic platform reefs. The rest are above the 1950 to 1999 average, with found as patch reefs within the lagoons the greatest anomaly in May of +2.1°C of the complex atolls. Figure 15 shows a (Edwards et al., 2001). During that event diagrammatic outline of these major coral bleaching was first reported in mid- coral reef structures. The total area of the April. Bleaching was reported to be atolls including the atoll lagoons is severe from late April to mid-May with approximately 21,372km2 and the total some recovery evident by late-May. reef area is close to 4,500km2 The reefs in the central and northern representing 20% of the total area of the region were more affected than the other atolls. Thiladhunmathi Atoll has the regions (Zahir, 1999). Significant largest reef area with approximately reductions in live coral cover were seen 500km2 while Ari Atoll has the second at reefs in the central atolls, with average largest with 489km2 (Figure 5.8). live coral cover decreasing from about The coral reef system of the Maldives 42% to 2%, a 20-fold reduction from supports rich marine biological diversity. pre-bleaching levels. Almost 98% of Over 1090 species of fish, 36 species of branching corals died whereas the sponges, 180 species of stony corals and majority of massive corals survived the 250 species of hermatypic corals are bleaching (Edwards et al., 2001). found. In addition, 9 species of whales, Monitoring programs have shown that 15 to 20 species of sharks and seven recovery of both coral cover and species species of dolphins and five species of diversity is underway with dominance of turtles have also been observed. recruitment by branching corals (Edwards Altogether 285 species of algae, five et al., 2001). On 23 March 2003, species of seagrass, 400 species of several species of branching corals from molluscs, 350 species of crustaceans and the genus Acropora released thousands 80 species of echinoderms have been of bright red eggs and sperm bundles documented (MHAHE, 2002; MEC, into the Indian Ocean. This indicates that 2004). the corals have reached maturity and as the new generation of coral colonies Corals are highly sensitive to changes in continues to grow, increased spawning is temperature and some species of corals expected in the coming years and there is live at or near their thermal limits hope that the Maldivian reefs will fully (Goreau, 1992). As a result the incidence recover. of bleaching will increase in frequency and intensity with the projected rise in On the other hand, estimates of April SST. The evidence from the reefs of the mean monthly SST suggests a rise of Maldives supports that warming of the 0.16°C per decade. If this trend ocean surface leads to significant coral continues, by 2030 mean April SST in 39 Vulnerabilities and Impacts

Coral reefs in the Maldives are also vulnerable to the projected rise in sea level. Most reefs of the Maldives appear to be at the point where they are sea level limited and with no potential for upward growth. Reefs appear to be now growing outwards laterally and filling up Coral Bleaching inside (Naseer 2006). It is predicted that sea level rise would induce reefs to grow vertically upwards. However, increased

SST and oceanic CO2 concentrations may alter the calcification potential of coral reefs resulting in slow growth. The calcification rate of corals is expected to decline by 14 to 30% by 2050 (IPCC A pile of dead coral: In the 1998 El-Nino 2001). Reef health is also being severely event, almost 98% of the branching coral died. There are numerous implication for the affected by human activities. Hence reefs coral reef survival due predicted increase in may not be able to keep pace with the Seas Surface Temperatures. predicted rise in sea level. This also

the central atolls will normally exceed reduces the chances of the islands of the anomaly level at which corals appear Maldives to naturally adapt to the susceptible to mass bleaching (Edwards predicted rise in sea level. et al., 2001). The impacts on the reefs would affect

As mass spawning and recruitment in the tourism, fisheries, food security and reef ecosystems is cued to environmental human settlements. These impacts are conditions coral reef biodiversity is considered in details in the respective particularly vulnerable to climate change. sections of this chapter. After spawning, coral larvae usually drift with the currents for at least four days before settling on nearby reefs. Many reef fish are also known to have seasonal spawning cycles which may be disrupted by changes in environmental conditions resulting in recruitment failure. In addition, reef fishes have a pelagic larval phase ranging from days to few weeks. Survival of larvae depends on favourable conditions of the pelagic environment as well (Adam 2006). National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 40

Chapter VI Adaptation Needs and Priority Adaptation Strategies

The fourth component of the Adaptation 3. Strengthen land-use planning as a Framework is the adaptation strategies tool for protection of human (Figure 1 Chapter Two). This chapter first settlements. lists the adaptation needs and then the 4. Build capacity for coastal priority adaptation strategies. protection, coastal zone 6.1 Adaptation Needs management and flood control.

5. Protect beaches through soft and The adaptation needs were identified hard-engineering solutions. through wide stakeholder consultations.

The adaptation needs are classified here 6. Protect house reef to maintain under the priority sectors presented in natural defense of islands. Chapter Five. These sectors are similar to those given in the FNC (2001). 7. Improve building designs and regulations to increase resilience. 6.1.1 Land, Beach and Human Settlements 8. Integrate climate change adaptation into national disaster 1. Consolidate population and management framework. development.

2. Acquire support for the speedy and efficient implementation of Safer Island Strategy. 41 Adaptation Needs and Priority Adaptation Strategies

6.1.2 Critical Infrastructure breeding to reduce the economic and social impacts of changing 1. Develop coastal protection for tuna abundance. airports and development focus islands. 3. Undertake research and disseminate information on 2. Strengthen capacity for planning fisheries and climate change. and design of infrastructure to ensure development of resilient 4. Experiment new and alternative infrastructure. species and breeding methods for livebait. 3. Protect powerhouses and utilities. 5. Integrated reef fishery 4. Protect telecommunication management. infrastructure. 6. Exploit new species and promote 6.1.3 Tourism poultry farming as alternative sources of protein to reduce over- 1. Protect beaches and tourist dependency on tuna for protein. infrastructure.

6.1.5 Human Health 2. Develop climate change

adaptation policy and strategy for 1. Strengthen regulatory and tourism. institutional capacity for vector control. 3. Diversify the tourism product to

reduce over-dependency on 2. Streamline the planning of marine environment. healthcare services and strengthen medical emergency response. 4. Strengthen tourism institutions to

coordinate climate response in the 3. Promote healthy lifestyles, healthy tourism sector. islands and healthy buildings.

5. Incorporate climate change 4. Strengthen the capacity for adaptation measures to upcoming healthcare delivery. resorts. 5. Undertake research and 6.1.4 Fisheries disseminate information on climate change related diseases. 1. Improve fish finding and fish

harvesting. 6. Increase nutrition promotion campaigns. 2. Establish aquaculture/mariculture as an alternative to natural National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 42

6.1.6 Water Resources for local food.

1. Acquire appropriate sewage 8. Enforce and strengthen quarantine treatment and disposal and integrated pest control to technologies to protect water prevent pests and diseases. resources. 9. Introduce new irrigation 2. Increase safe rainwater harvesting. technologies.

3. Acquire desalination technologies 6.1.8 Coral Reef Biodiversity appropriate for small islands. 1. Provide alternatives to coral and 4. Undertake recharging of aquifers sand as construction materials and to reduce salinisation from enforce the ban on coral mining. saltwater intrusion and storm 2. Enhance the capacity for waste surge flooding. management to prevent pollution 5. Protect and preserve natural water of marine environment. catchment areas. 3. Formulate and implement an oil 6.1.7 Agriculture and Food Security pollution contingency plan.

1. Develop a national food security 4. Acquire appropriate sewage strategy. treatment technologies.

2. Secure trade agreements with 5. Establish marine protected areas. foreign trade partners to ensure 6. Establish an information base on food security. coral reefs and climate change. 3. Establish capacity for emergency 7. Undertake monitoring and food storage in development focus research to prevent coral diseases islands at regional level. and rehabilitate coral reefs. 4. Introduce new technologies to 8. Develop measures to protect coral increase local food production. reefs from development activities. 5. Strengthen marketing and sale of local food items.

6. Improve allocation of land for agriculture.

7. Promote traditional food preservation and storage practices 43 Adaptation Needs and Priority Adaptation Strategies

5.2 Priority Adaptation Strategies prioritisation method are given in Annex I. The top ranking priority adaptation The adaptation needs were prioritised by strategies are listed in Table 9. The community, government and private priority project profiles developed to sector stakeholders using analytical implement these strategies are given in hierarchy process. Details of the Chapter Seven.

Table 6.1: List of priority adaptation strategies

Adaptation Measures Score Rank

Build capacity for coastal protection, coastal zone management and flood 76.14 1 control.

Consolidate population and development. 44.47 2

Introduce new technologies to increase local food production 35.62 3

Acquire support for the speedy and efficient implementation of Safer 32.94 4 Island Strategy.

Develop coastal protection for airports and development focus islands. 32.94 5

Integrat e climate change adaptation into national disaster management 32.03 6 framework.

Strengthen tourism institutions to coordinate climate response in the 29.78 7 tourism sector.

Improve building designs to increase resilience and strengthen 29.09 8 enforcement of building code.

Acquire appropriate sewage treatment and disposal technologies to 28.32 9 protect water resources.

Incorporate climate change adaptation measures to upcoming resorts 27.83 10

Promote healthy lifestyles, healthy islands and healthy buildings. 27.45 11

Enhance the capacity for waste management to prevent pollution of 27.03 12 marine environment.

Provide alternatives to coral and sand as construction materials and 26.54 13 enforce the ban on coral mining.

Integrated reef fishery management. 24.42 14

Streamline the planning of healthcare services and strengthen medical 23.72 15 emergency response. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 44

Table 6.1 (Continued): List of priority adaptation strategies

Adaptation Measures Score Rank

Increase safe rainwater harvesting. 23.66 16

Develop measures to protect coral reefs from development activities 22.83 17

Undertake recharging of aquifers and other measures to reduce 19.37 18 salinisation from saltwater intrusion and storm surge flooding.

Undertake research and disseminate information on climate change 19.26 19 related diseases.

Strengthen the capacity for healthcare delivery. 19.02 20

Strengthen capacity for planning and design of ports, harbours and 17.40 21 jetties.

Develop climate change adaptation policy and strategy for tourism. 16.84 22

Protect house reef to maintain natural defense of islands. 16.27 23

Protect and preserve natural water catchment areas. 15.15 24

Experiment new and alternative species and breeding methods for 14.54 25 livebait.

Enforce and strengthen quarantine and integrated pest control to prevent 13.89 26 pests and diseases.

Strengthen regulatory and institutional capacity for vector control. 13.74 27

Protect beaches and tourist infrastructure. 13.02 28

Review the marketing strategy of tourism to diversify the tourism 12.89 29 product and reduce over-dependency on coral.

Acquire desalination technologies appropriate for small islands. 11.93 30 45 Adaptation Projects

Chapter VII Adaptation Projects

7.1 Adaptation Projects Maldives to the adverse effects of climate change. The project profiles in Table 10 This chapter presents the projects that are based on the priority adaptation are necessary for long-term adaptation of strategies in Section 6.2.

Table 7.1: List of project profiles

Project Project Title Number

1 Strengthening coastal zone management in Maldives to enhance climate change resilience.

2 On-the-ground demonstration of safer islands and integration of future climate change scenarios in the safer island strategy to adapt to sea level rise and extreme weather risks associated with climate change 3 Increase the resilience of local food production through enhancing the capacity of farmers, local communities and institutions to address food security issues caused by climate change and climate variability.

4 Coastal protection of airports and focus islands to reduce the risk from sea induced flooding and predicted sea level rise.

5 Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development planning and National Disaster Management Framework to accommodate adaptation measures in future development and disaster management plans. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 46

Table 7.1 (Continued): Project profiles

6 Enabling adaptation of tourism businesses and tourism dependent communities to predicted climate change and variability

7 Improve resilience of Island communities to climate change and variability through sustainable building designs.

8 Demonstrate on-the-ground wastewater technologies that can protect groundwater and coral reef resources vulnerable to climate change stresses .

9 Promotion of health, creation of effective structures and implementation of policies and measures to reduce health vulnerability to climate change.

10 On-the-ground demonstration of effectiveness of waste management at regional level to protect coral reefs, human health and water resources for increased adaptive capacity to climate change.

11 Preventing coral and sand mining from coral reefs, lagoons and beaches to maintain their natural status and increase the resilience of natural environment to climate change.

12 Accumulate knowledge and communicate practical information to raise public awareness and increase political commitment to adapt to the health risks to the Maldivian population from climate change

13 Build the information base on vulnerability of reef fishery to the predicted impacts of climate change and variabilities to determine adaptation measures required for integrated reef fishery management. 14 Strengthening capacity of healthcare delivery and streamlining planning of healthcare services to adapt to climate change related health risks 15 Improve rainwater harvesting to secure availability of safe water and reduce vulnerability to changes in precipitation caused by climate change.

16 Increase resilience of coral reefs to reduce the vulnerability of islands, communities and reef-dependant economic activities to predicted climate change.

17 Enhance adaptive capacity to manage climate change related risks to water resources through increasing knowledge, strengthening regulatory framework and adoption of appropriate new technologies.

18 Improve the design and construction of access infrastructure in Maldives to increase the resilience of access infrastructure and island beaches to climate change.

19 Investigating alternative livebait management, catch, culture and holding techniques in the Maldives to reduce vulnerability of the tuna fishery sector to the predicted climate change and variability. 20 Improve the health status of the population, particularly children, by the prevention and management of vector-borne diseases caused by changes in temperature and flooding due to extreme rainfall. 47 Adaptation Projects - Project 1

Project Strengthening coastal zone management in 1 Maldives to enhance climate change resilience.

Rationale naturally adapt to changing conditions. Unfortunately, there are a number of The Maldives is a country based almost non-climate drivers, resulting from entirely on a coastal environment. The human activities, that has acted to climate, geology, geomorphology and increase the vulnerability of these coastal processes of the Maldivian low islands. Human activities such as lying coral islands make their coastal improperly designed coastal development environments highly dynamic. Islands activities, sand mining, coral mining, develop on the reef environment based waste and sewage disposal into coastal on an equilibrium of different forces such areas and removal of coastal vegetation as wave conditions, climate, ocean has led to considerable and often currents, sediments or reef characteristics permanent negative impacts on the and has potential to change in geological coastal environments. time based on changes to the different forces. Human settlements in such a The impacts on the coastal zone are its relatively volatile environment have gradual degradation. Coastal erosion has meant that considerable effort is been reported by almost all inhabited required to manage the coastal islands and the majority report severe environment in order to maintain the erosion. Coral reefs which stand as the settlements. first line of defense for the islands against waves have been removed considerably Climate change and climate variability in some islands. The sediment budget of has added new dimensions to the the islands have been reduced in some vulnerability of such coastal islands due to sand mining while environments. It is expected that the sediment loss has occurred in most coastal areas of coral islands will undergo islands with improperly designed coastal considerable change with the predicted infrastructure. The impact of these climate change and the maximum changes is felt by the entire island chances of survival in the worst case community to the extent that most predictions are reliant on how far the islands unanimously agree that their elements natural environment such as major environmental concern is coastal coral reefs and island beaches are able erosion. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 48

Much of these human induced Objective 1: Develop the human resource vulnerabilities have been a result of the and institutional capacity at atoll and absence or limitations in coastal zone island level to manage coastal zones management. Human activities on coastal environment need to be Activities regulated and negative impacts mitigated 1.1 Develop a coastal zone constantly to allow the natural processes management training kit based to function properly. The main specifically based on the hindrances to properly manage the environmental conditions of coastal zone are considerable. There is an Maldives. apparent lack of human resources, 1.2 Coastal management training limitations in institutional setup at island conducted in the outer atolls level, lack of technical capacity to targeting the key players at island properly assess and design coastal level. development activities or to develop 1.3 Establish environmental standards and guidelines, and a lack of surveying units and develop basic capacity at island to manage the coastal coastal surveying capacity at Atoll environment. or Regional level.

In the face of the predicted climate 1.4 Train coastal engineers to be change and increase in coastal based in the 5 Regional development activities, coastal zone Development Management management has become a critical Offices (RDMO's) concern for all inhabited islands. Urgent 1.5 Undertake feasibility study to actions needs to be taken to establish the conduct a coastal zone human resources, technical capacity and management course in the institutional setup to minimize or Maldives College for Higher mitigate the impacts from human Education. activities and facilitate the natural 1.6 Develop curriculum for a coastal adaptation processes to work, in order to zone management course in the maximize the chances of adaptation to Maldives College for Higher climate change. Education

1.7 Establish a Coastal Zone Description Management Training Course in the Maldives College for Higher Goal Education.

Strengthen human, technical, regulatory Short term outputs and institutional capacity for coastal 4 zone management to enhance future Coastal zone management climate change resilience of islands. training kit developed 49 Adaptation Projects - Project 1

4 Coastal Zone management activities and how current design Training conducted in the outer and implementation could be atolls. enhanced.

4 Environmental surveying units 2.2 Review existing practices in land established at Atoll or regional reclamation and conduct detailed level. studies on how they increase the vulnerability islands to short term 4 Coastal surveying equipments severe weather events and and office setup assistance climate change. provided for the units. 2.3 Develop standards and guidelines 4 Staff identified for the surveying for access infrastructure units. development and land 4 One Coastal engineer trained for reclamation projects to each of the RDMO's complement EIA requirements. 4 Feasibility study for establishing a 2.4 Develop environmental coastal zone management course guidelines for land use planning in the Maldives College for at island level. Higher Education

4 Curriculum for a coastal zone Short term outputs management course in the 4 Technical study on impacts of Maldives College for Higher current access infrastructure Education. development activities in islands 4 Coastal Zone Management and recommendations for training course developed and enhancement accredited. 4 Study on impacts of land reclamation activities on island Outcome vulnerability 4 Coastal zone management skills Standards and guidelines enhanced and institutional setting developed for land reclamation improved at regional, atoll and island and access infrastructure level. development activities in all islands. Objective 2: Enhance the technical 4 Environmental guidelines for land capacity to design coastal modifications use planning at island level. suitable for small coral islands. Outcome Activities

2.1 Undertaking studies to assess the Technical capacity to design coastal main impacts from access modifications suitable for small coral infrastructure development islands. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 50

Objective 3: Strengthen atoll and island Implementation level capacity to enforce existing coastal zone management related regulations. Institutional arrangement

Activities Lead agency:

3.1 Designation of staff responsible Ministry of Environment, Energy and for enforcement and monitoring. Water. 3.2 Sensitization programmes on coastal zone management Partner agencies: regulations Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry 3.3 Develop and provide an of Planning and National Development; information package (including MCI; Ministry of Housing and Urban leaflets and posters) for island Development; Regional Development offices to inform public on all Management Offices; Atoll Offices. regulations related to coastal zone management. Project Steering Committee: 3.4 Develop mechanisms to Policy-level officials from community determine compliance with representatives and NGOs regulations.

Project Management Team: Short term outputs

4 Staff designated for coastal zone Official from Ministry of Environment, related regulations enforcement Energy and Water and Ministry of and monitoring Construction and Infrastructure. 4 A number of sensitization programmes on Coastal zone Risks and barriers management regulations 4 Existing inappropriate 4 An information package modifications may negate promoting coastal zone positive changes from improved management related regulation new infrastructure developed and disseminated to 4 Long-term maintenance of island offices equipment acquired under the 4 Compliance monitoring system. project may be expensive and there may not be a budget Outcome allocation for the maintenance.

4 Human resource limitations in Atoll and island level capacity to enforce existing coastal zone management outer islands related regulations enhanced 4 Trained staff retention at the specified locations 51 Adaptation Projects - Project 1

4 Adequacy of single surveying units for each region/atoll

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and Ministry of Planning and National Development. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted accordingly. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total project cost: US$ 1,230,00. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 52

Project On-the-ground demonstration of safer islands and integration of future climate change scenarios in 2 the safer island strategy to adapt to sea level rise and extreme weather risks associated with climate change

Rationale and enable the communities to sustain social and economic development in All the islands of the Maldives are among times of emergencies and disasters. It the most vulnerable to the rise in sea aims at providing ecologically safe zones level associated with climate change. All principally to mitigate tsunami hazards the islands are also vulnerable to natural and other disasters by establishing disasters such as storms, high winds and building and construction codes that wave actions, which regularly result in would enable vertical evacuation if and floods, destruction of property, and when necessary and provide all basic sometimes loss of lives. The primary aim services in an emergency, including of this project is to enhance people's particularly health, communication and safety from climate change impacts and transport infrastructure, and have a natural disasters, and the path selected is buffer stock of basic food stuffs and to improve and strengthen the safer water. island strategy developed by the government to resettle communities The safe islands would have (i) quick from the smaller, more vulnerable access to air travel, (ii) coastal protection islands onto larger, better protected (iii) sufficient space for subsequent ones. Several components of the Safer population growth (iv) potential for Island Strategy may in fact contribute to expansion (v) proximity to another island making islands more vulnerable to and or possibility for connection with climate change impacts and natural another island, (vi) a viable economy and disasters, if the climate change scenarios (vii) access to social services. are not adequately considered in the In the absence of this project, it is land-use planning and development of possible that climate change concerns safer islands. may not be adequately integrated into

The concept of the “safe islands” is to the safer island strategy. This project extend the population consolidation would contribute to the resilience of the strategy to incorporate the aspect of Maldives in the face of climate change extreme vulnerability and develop and its capacity to respond effectively to measures to mitigate ecological disasters increasing threats posed by climate change and natural disasters. 53 Adaptation Projects - Project 2

Description Short-term outputs 4 Climate risk profile for the five Goal regions of the Maldives. 4 Development of the institutional, Vulnerability assessment of technical and regulatory capacity for existing host islands and healthcare services planning and delivery proposed host islands. to prevent and manage climate-related 4 Climate change sensitive health risks. selection criteria for host/safe islands. Objective 1: Integrate climate change 4 Methodology for selection of concerns in the safer island strategy adaptation measures.

Activities: 4 Training for key stakeholders and awareness materials. 1.1 Undertake a detailed climate risk 4 CBA of different adaptation profile for the different regions measures and technologies. of the Maldives

Outcome 1.2 Assess and evaluate the specific

vulnerabilities of the proposed Adaptation to future climate change host islands to the climate scenarios fully integrated in the safer hazards island strategy of the Maldives.

1.3 Develop climate change criteria Objective 2: Strengthen the capacity to to be used in the selection of implement practically the safer island host/safe islands strategy for adaptation to climate

1.4 Develop methods and models for change. the selection of a pragmatic suite Activities of climate change adaptation

measures to be implemented in 2.1 Improve the land use planning safer islands process through informing the land use planners on latest 1.5 Provide training and technical science of climate change and assistance to the key sensitizing them on pragmatic stakeholders to integrate climate long term adaptation change adaptation in the present

safer island strategy 2.2 Incorporate climate change concerns into the land use 1.6 Undertake cost-benefit analysis planning laws, regulations and of adaptation measures and guidelines technologies for safer islands National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 54

2.3 Undertake an inventory and Outcome: assessment of coastal resources Capacity for implementation of safer in one of the host islands island strategy improved. 2.4 Formulate a model coastal zone management strategy to reduce Objective 3: Demonstrate on-the-ground island vulnerability and guide the practicality of safer islands as coastal development activities in adaptation to climate change. a host/safe island Activities 2.5 Develop the capacity to 3.1 Using the selection criteria, formulate regional development select an island to be developed plans and integrate climate as a safe island change adaptation into them

3.2 Mobilize the incremental finance 2.6 Train island, atoll, and regional required to develop the island as level environmental officers on a safer island climate change adaptation

3.3 Develop the land use plan for 2.7 Establish a donor assistance the safer island coordination forum to mobilize funds for safer island 3.4 Undertake the coastal zone development management planning for the safe island Short-term outputs:

4 Training courses and awareness 3.5 Conduct an environmental building for land use planners. impact assessment for the

4 Draft land use laws, regulations proposed safer island and guidelines. development 4 Method for assessment and 3.6 Undertake the coastal protection inventorization of coastal and flood control engineering resources pilot tested works 4 CZM strategy for safe islands 3.7 Implement the selected 4 Climate concerns integrated in adaptation measures for the regional development plans island 4 Training for environmental officers working in the islands 3.8 Review and report on the successes and lessons learnt 4 Modalities for mobilizing finance developed and regular meetings with donors 55 Adaptation Projects - Project 2

Short-term outputs and NGOs will be established

4 Selection of a safer island. Project Management: Full time project 4 Mobilization of incremental staff will be recruited to the Regional finance. Development section of the Ministry of 4 Land use plan for the safer island Planning and National Development

4 CZM plan for safer island Risks and barriers 4 EIA for safer island 4 Ministry of Planning and National 4 Engineering solutions for erosion Development is the agency prevention and flood control coordinating the tsunami 4 Demonstration of adaptation reconstruction activities. Hence it activities would be necessary to provide 4 Dissemination of lessons and additional staff to implement this success stories project.

4 Ministry of Planning and National Outcome Development would require the Practical implementation of safer island technical support from the strategy demonstrated. Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water and other agencies. It Implementation would be important to delineate the roles and responsibilities at Institutional arrangement: an earlier stage to avoid duplication of effort and seek Lead agency cooperation.

Ministry of Planning and National Development Evaluation and monitoring

Partner agencies The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by Ministry of Environment, Energy and President's Office and Ministry of Water; Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning and National Development. Development; Ministry of Atolls Quarterly progress reports, expenditure Development; Ministry of Construction reports, annual monitoring reports will and Public Infrastructure be submitted accordingly. Donor requirements on M&E will be fulfilled. Project Steering Committee Financial resources A steering committee comprising of senior planning officials, island Total project cost: US$ 3,360,000 development committees, private sector National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 56

Project Increase the resilience of local food production through enhancing the capacity of farmers, local 3 communities and institutions to address food security issues caused by climate change and climate variability.

Rationale sustainability and productivity of existing farming schemes will require innovative Climate change will impact agriculture marketing approaches and particularly, and food production in the Maldives strengthening of the links to existing through sea level rise, salt intrusion into tourism market. Better control of pests the ground water aquifer, salinization of and weeds would also be crucial for soil and flooding caused by increased sustained increase in local food rainfall. The geographical distribution of production. islands in the country across a large area of sea seriously constraints the This project is designed to increase the distribution of food. Consequently, many capacity of farmers, local communities island communities depend on home and institutions by enhancing grown vegetables and fruits for nutrition knowledge, access to technologies, best while the staple diet of imported rice and practices, marketing and pest control. flour is transported from Male'. Description Increased local food production is identified as a key adaptation measure to Goal tackle food security issues posed by Improve local food production for food climate change. There is acute lack of security through capacity building of knowledge on the adaptive capacity of farmers, local communities and the local plant species used for food institutions. production to the predicted climate change. Appropriate irrigation and other Objective 1: Assess community technologies are also crucial for knowledge and practices on local plant increased food production and national species used for food production. food security. Increasing agriculture will require simultaneous capacity building at Activities all levels, from the farmers in the field to 1. Develop a framework of analysis national agencies managing agriculture to assess different types and and national water resources scales of local food production management institutions. Improving the and gather data about different 57 Adaptation Projects - Project 3

species cultivated in different 3. Demonstrate appropriate scales. irrigation technologies suitable

2. Identification of traditional food for different local crop species. varieties and their management. 4. Explore technologies applicable

3. Assess how the predicted climate to agriculture in small tropical change hazards will impact the islands. local plant species used for food 5. Communications and capacity- production. building to disseminate and

4. Examine how food crops are integrate proven methodologies conserved traditionally and into relevant farming identify current farming practices communities. applicable to adaptation. Short-term outputs

Short-term outputs 4 Recommendations on seed and

4 Analytical framework on data planting materials management requirements. system. 4 4 Agricultural Produce Database. Community level network publicized on internet and yellow 4 Assessment report on local food pages. production. 4 Irrigation demonstrations for 4 Vulnerability and Adaptation commercially important species. Assessment for agriculture sector. 4 Profile of available technologies Outcome disseminated.

4 Workshops, awareness materials. Knowledge required to increase adaptive 4 capacity enhanced. Best practice guides.

Objective 2: Identification and testing of Outcome appropriate technologies and good New and alternative ways of increasing practices to increase adaptive capacity of food production promoted. local plants. Objective 3: Develop the policy, Activities institutional and regulatory framework 1. Develop mechanisms to manage to ensure food security. local plants genetic diversity.

2. Establish a seed and planting Activities materials network to support 1. Provide technical assistance for informal exchange of seedlings the formulation of National Food and rootstocks. Security Strategy that includes review of existing mandates, National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 58

designating a national focal produce fair to link farmers with agency, defining roles and buyers and sellers.

responsibilities and, 3. Undertake feasibility study on strengthening food storage and elevation of current subsistence distribution. crops to commercial use.

2. Review the existing laws on land, 4. Educate local farmers on uninhabited islands and land use maintaining quality standards planning and recommend required from tourism market. improved land allocation measures for food production. Short-term outputs

3. Secure preferential trade 4 Agriculture market analysis report.

agreements with major bilateral, 4 First trade fair for agricultural regional and international trade produce. partners to ensure food security 4 Feasibility report on for essential food items. commercialisation of subsistence crops. Short-term outputs 4 Quality standards defined and 4 Draft National Food Security workshops conducted. Strategy. 4 Policy recommendations to Outcome improve land allocation for food production. Market access to farmers improved.

4 Trade agreements for rice, flour Objective 5: Enhance agricultural and sugar. production through enabling integrated

Outcome pest control and better quarantine of imports. Policy and institutional framework for food security strengthened. Activities 1. Develop guidebooks and manuals Objective 4: Strengthen the links on pest and disease identification between farmers and markets to ensure for farmers sustainable local food production. 2. Demonstrate appropriate integrated pest and disease Activities control measures in agricultural 1. Undertake an analysis of the service centres tourism market and identify 3. Undertake technical studies for major consumer preferences with development of a pest and regard to local food crops. disease laboratory at Male' 2. Establish an annual local food International Airport. 59 Adaptation Projects - Project 2

4. Draft regulations to protect the Development; Ministry of Tourism and farmers, natural resource base, Civil Aviation; Ministry of Economic and biological diversity from Development and Trade; Ministry of pesticide imports and use. Atolls Development; Ministry of Health;

5. Develop the policies, regulatory Maldives Food and Drug Authority framework and plans necessary Project Steering Committee: Policy-level to establish plant and animal officials, community representatives, quarantine system. private sector and NGOs

Short-term outputs Project Management: Full time project 4 Guidebook and manuals on pests staff will be recruited. and diseases 4 Demonstration of integrated pest Risks and barriers

control methods and tools in three 4 Organizational roles and Agricultural Service Centres responsibilities on food security 4 Design and technical requirements not clear.

report for pest and disease 4 Legal framework for food security laboratory inadequate. 4 Regulations on pesticide import and use Evaluation and monitoring 4 National policy and regulations on The project will be monitored according plant and animal quarantine to the national M&E standards set by Outcome President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, Better pest control and, plant and animal annual monitoring reports will be quarantine enabled for local food submitted to MPND. In addition, any security. donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled. Implementation Financial resources Institutional arrangement:

Total project cost: US$ 825,000 Lead agency: Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources

Partner agencies: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water; Ministry of Housing and Urban Development; Ministry of Planning and National National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 60

Project Coastal protection of airports and focus islands to reduce the risk from sea induced flooding and 4 predicted sea level rise.

Rationale high risk from climate related damages and more importantly to predicted Airports, especially the two international climate change. The consolidation of airports are amongst the most critical population to these growth centres economic infrastructures of Maldives due further exposes more population and their importance in the limited their property, due to the high density of transportation network. The tourism development and proximity to coastline. industry is almost entirely dependent on It is crucial that these islands be the proper functioning of the protected from the impacts of the international airports. At times of predicted climate change in order to disasters it is also the main entry point reduce the risks to human life and for international aid, the main critical infrastructure. distribution points of emergency aid and perhaps the main evacuation point at At present, Maldives lack the capacity to times of a major disaster. Unfortunately, undertake risk assessment studies or to due their low elevation and proximity to develop technical and engineering coastline, the infrastructure of the five solutions. They also lack the financial main airports are highly vulnerable to resources to undertake large scale damage from severe weather related protection of the above described flooding and future climatic change. In infrastructure. It has become an urgent the past, during natural disasters and priority to protect these investments to severe weather events, airport operations avoid substantial economic losses in the have been interrupted due to extensive future. flooding of main infrastructures.

Similarly, the development focus islands identified under the regional development programme are expected to receive large public investments in order to develop them as growth centers within the country. Currently these new expensive and critical investments are at 61 Adaptation Projects - Project 4

Description 4 Detailed engineering and designs of MIA coastal protection Goal measures

4 Implementation of MIA coastal Reduce vulnerability of airport and focus protection measures island to current climate risks and future climate change risks. Outcomes

Objective 1: Protect Male' International Reduced vulnerability of airports to Airport (MIA) and the Regional Airports future climate change related flooding; from sea induced hazards and predicted Smooth operation of tourism industry. climate change impacts Objective 2: Demonstrate innovative Activities coastal protection measures for Focus Islands 1.1 Undertake technical and

engineering studies to protect Activities Male' International Airport and regional airports using hard 2.1 Evaluate existing and new coastal and/or soft engineering solutions protection options suitable for small coral islands. 1.2 Undertake cost effectiveness analysis of the proposed 2.2 Undertake detailed technical and solutions and develop financing engineering studies for the plans for MIA selected coastal protection options. 1.3 Develop detailed engineering and design of coastal protection 2.3 Implement demonstration measures for MIA. projects for the different options in selected island or islands. 1.3 Mobilise resources and implement the public works 2.4 Undertake evaluations of the required for MIA protection. successes and lessons learned from the demonstration projects Short-term outputs and disseminate results. 4 Technical and engineering reports 2.5 Develop financing plans for the for protecting Male' International continuation of successful Airport and Regional Airports demonstration options. 4 Cost effectiveness analysis of

Coastal protection options for Short-term outputs MIA 4 Evaluation report identifying most suitable coastal protections National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 62

measures for islands of Maldives Project Steering Committee

4 Detailed technical and Policy-level officials from and community engineering designs for the most representatives appropriate coastal protection

options Project Management Team: Officials from 4 Demonstration project or projects Ministry of Construction and Public implemented for the most Infrastructure and Ministry of Transport appropriate options and Communication.

4 Evaluation reports and further recommendations from Risks and barriers demonstration projects. 4 Standard designs might not suit

4 Financing Plan for continuation all focus islands. of demonstration options 4 Timeframe required for a comprehensive study may be Outcomes: long, during which period the airport remains exposed. Reduced vulnerability of focus islands to 4 climate change related risks; Improved Building solid coastal protection response of disaster management now may remove any possibility services during disaster events. of natural adaptation for those islands in the future.

Implementation 4 Hard engineering solutions are expensive to implement and Institutional arrangement hence, difficult to sustain for all inhabited islands. Lead agency

Ministry of Construction and Public Evaluation and monitoring Infrastructure (focus Islands) and The project will be monitored according Ministry of Transport and to the national M&E standards set by Communication (Airports) President's Office and MPND. Quarterly Partner agencies progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry submitted accordingly. In addition, any of Planning and National Development; donor finance agency requirements on MCI; Ministry of Housing and Urban M&E will be fulfilled. Development; Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water; Ministry of Tourism Financial resources and Civil Aviation. Total project cost: US$12,250,000 63 Adaptation Projects - Project 5

Project Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development planning and National Disaster 5 Management Framework to accommodate adaptation measures in future development and disaster management plans.

Rationale adaptation measures included in it. The reasons for the lack of climate change The vulnerability of Maldives archipelago adaptation elements with the current to climate change is readily apparent. planning and management framework The root causes of vulnerability include are manifold; lack of climate change extreme low elevation of just 1.5m above sensitization amongst planners and mean sea level, the small, dispersed and public administrators, lack of public unconsolidated nature of land and fragile awareness on the need for adaptation reef and island eco systems. Predicted measures and lack of capacity to develop climate change related hazards such as adaptation measures within the disaster sea level rise, Sea Surface Temperature management framework. Hence, in order (SST) rise and changes in local and to effectively incorporate adaptation regional climate patterns would expose measures a first priority should be to Maldives to events which it may not mainstream climate change adaptation cope. In order to prepare Maldives for into the above mentioned key areas. what now appears to be inevitable climate change related impacts, an Maldives has a sectoral planning integrated planning and management approach making it important to approach is required. Unfortunately, mainstream climate change adaptation Maldives is far from achieving such an into national level planning process. approach. There is an urgent need for Hence, the island level adaptation mainstreaming climate change measures and risk reduction of the most adaptation into the development vulnerable groups at island level are planning process and to the disaster largely reliant on how far the national management framework. Development level sectoral plans incorporate plans such as National Development adaptation measures into them. Plans and Sectoral Master plans such as The benefits from this project will be Fisheries and tourism sector master plans nation wide. It is an important step for need to include climate change future adaptation preparation. Findings adaptation measures. The planning from this project can also be replicated to processes, especially physical planning other small island states which uses a processes such as land use planning sectoral planning approach. requires adequate climate change National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 64

Description sensitized to climate change risks and adaptations measures.

Goal 4 A number of private developer and businesses sensitized to Mainstreaming climate change into climate change risks and national development and physical adaptations measures. planning processes and into the Disaster

Management Framework thought Outcome awareness creation and capacity building Public policy developers, atoll/island Objective 1: Sensitize key stake holders administrators and private sector in development planning and public developers sensitized to climate change administration to climate change risks risks and adaptation requirements and adaptation measures Objective 2: Increase public awareness of Activities climate change risks and adaptation 1.1 Conduct workshops targeted at measures public policy makers. Activities 1.2 Conduct workshops targeted at atoll/island administrators. 2.1 Develop a public communication Workshops will be held in the strategy for climate change risks atolls providing practical 2.2 Relay climate change risk and examples from their own adaptation information through environment. key media outlets. These would

1.3 Conduct workshops and training include radio and TV programs programs targeted at private designed to convey the key sector businesses and messages. developers. 2.3 Develop and distribute

1.4 Exposure of key policy information leaflets to outer developers to international islands. forums on climate change 2.4 Promote ongoing community adaptation. discussions on climate risk adaptation. Discussions will be Short term outputs facilitated by local specialists in 4 A number of policy developers the field. sensitized and exposed to climate Short term outputs change risks and adaptations measures. 4 Public communication strategy

4 A number of public on climate change developed administrators in outer islands 65 Adaptation Projects - Project 5

4 A number of public awareness general adaptation measures material developed for media identified at island level

4 Public awareness campaign Outcome conducted.

4 Nationwide community Medium to long-term climate change discussions held on climate risks incorporated in Disaster change adaptation. Management Framework.

Outcome Objective 4: Capacity building in climate change related disaster planning and Public awareness on the climate change management risks and adaptation needs raised Activities Objective 3: Include climate change risk management in National Disaster 4.1 Train NDMC staff in climate Management Framework change science and risk assessment. Activities 4.2 Conduct study tours to gain 3.1 Conduct studies to understand experience of adaptation potential hazard exposure measures. scenarios resulting from climate change and develop Short term outputs methodological framework for 4 Disaster Management Framework assessing island level risk updated to include climate exposure and response change risks. mechanisms. 4 NDMC staff trained and exposed 3.2 Conduct island level studies and to climate change risk assessment pubic consultations to determine and adaptation. individual island risk exposures and response mechanisms and Outcome enhance existing Disaster Management Plans to include Capacity in climate change risk the findings. assessment developed within National Disaster Management Centre. Short term outputs

4 Methodological framework developed to assess individual island exposure to climate change.

4 Response mechanisms and National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 66

Objective 5: Streamline current and new Ministry of Housing and Urban development plans to include climate Development; Ministry of Tourism and change risk management. Civil Aviation; Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure; Ministry of Activities Health; Ministry of Education; Ministry of 5.1 Facilitate inclusion of climate Transport and Communication; Atoll and change adaptation in new Island Offices. development plans such as the Project Steering Committee National Development Plans.

5.2 Facilitate inclusion of climate Policy-level officials and community change risks in sectoral representatives development plans such as Sectoral Master Plans Project Management Team: Officials from Ministry of Environment, Energy and 5.3 Improve land use planning Water. process by including climate change adaptation measures. Risks and barriers

Short term outputs 4 Difficulties in differentiating between current adaptation Development plans, land use plans and requirements and future sectoral master plans include climate requirements during community change adaptation aspects. consultations.

Outcome 4 Some development plans, especially master plans have Streamline development plans to include already been developed to climate change adaptation. medium term, making it difficult to incorporate climate change Implementation adaptation measures in the short-term. Institutional arrangement 4 Requires coordination and Lead agency cooperation from a number of different government Ministry of Environment, Energy and departments and community Water groups. 4 Partner agencies Human resource limitations in outer islands and government National Disaster Management Centre; departments Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry of Planning and National Development; 67 Adaptation Projects - Project 5

4 Trained staff retention at the specified field and location

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total Project Cost: US$975,000 National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 68

Project Enabling adaptation of tourism businesses and tourism dependent communities to predicted 6 climate change and variability

Rationale combined cost (direct and indirect) to tourist resorts and loss of Government Tourism with 87 resorts and 18,447 revenue from the tourism sector in excess beds is the most dominant and fastest of US$300 million as a result of the growing economic sector in the Maldives. Indian Ocean tsunami. In 2003 it accounted for 32.7% of GDP, and employed over 56% of the working Climate projections for the Maldives, population. The sector also provides including those related to variability and employment and other opportunities in extreme events, pose a significant risk to transport, communication, agriculture, tourism sector. The consequences will be distribution and construction as well as felt not only within that sector but also in the more dispersed local economies. by the individuals, communities, Additional 10,000 beds are planned over enterprises and entire sectors that are in the next five years. turn dependent on it. Climate influences the viability and profitability of tourism, The tropical small island environment both directly and indirectly. In the sun- and the marine biological diversity of the sand-and-sea tourism segment, which is Maldives are the unique marketable the mainstay of tourism in the Maldives, assets of the tourism sector. The reef climate is a key determinant in choosing ecosystems of Maldives are the seventh a destination. At the same time adverse largest in the world and their diversity is conditions impact on the tourist amongst the richest in the world. Coral experience and, in extreme situations, on reefs also represent natural sea-defence their health and safety and on the acting to buffer tourist resort beaches reputation of the country as a tourist from wave action and are important as destination. habitat for reef fish. But the small islands and their rich biological diversity is Although tourism sector is pursuing among the most vulnerable and least sound environmental management there defensible in the world. The resorts are are no direct efforts to adapt to the vulnerable due to its low elevation, significant, and growing, risks as a smallness, fragile ecosystems, consequence of climate change. The remoteness, and geographical dispersion. main barriers are lack of capacity, Their vulnerability is evident by the including awareness, knowledge, trained 69 Adaptation Projects - Project 6

personnel, institutional support, and the infrastructure due to climate variability inability to finance measures that reduce and change will devastate the Maldivian risks which have external origins. There is economy. Product diversification by the a need for urgent action to address these tourism industry is thus an essential barriers. adaptation measure to reduce this dependency, and hence the level of risk In the absence of this project, the to the overall economy, and to society. Government, the private sector, and the Concerted effort is required to find communities that depend on tourism alternative tourism products to beaches activities would not be able to factor the and reefs. Options could include cultural risks of climate change, including climate attractions and adventure activities such variability, in their short and long term as traditional sailing, as well as planning to ensure the sustainability of establishing convention centres to host the tourism sector. The tourism sector is international meetings and promote already experiencing damage to the ecotourism. Promotion and uptake of environment and natural resources that insurance for resort investments, is also are consistent with climate change. 45% required to ensure adequate cover by of tourist resorts currently suffer from insurance policies for natural disasters beach erosion. The effects of sea surface and other extreme events. Adaptation warming on coral reefs in the Maldives initiatives that reduce climate-related are reflected in the increased incidence risks to the tourism sector will need to be of coral bleaching and mortality events. taken across the full spectrum of players, Coral bleaching events occurred in the from the individual tourist resort Maldives in 1977, 1983, 1987, 1991, operator to governmental and inter- 1995, 1997 and 1998, with the latter governmental organisations, and at being the most severe as almost all the diverse locations both within and outside shallow reefs in the country were the Maldives. impacted. Bleaching events, as well as slow recovery, have significant This project will identify and implement consequences for the tourist sector as practical, on-the-ground adaptation well as for global biodiversity. Other measures to accelerate the process of vulnerabilities due to climate change reducing the vulnerability of the tourism include salt water intrusion impacting on sector in the Maldives to climate change. the availability of fresh water and on The project will contribute to wider human health, and terrestrial biodiveristy understanding of climate change impacts on tourism, including adaptation In an average tourist resort with 200 opportunities in other island beds the investment is over US$ 13 destinations, coastal zones, and for million and is over US$ 43 million for tourism worldwide and thus generate the modern super-luxury resorts. Loss, or substantial global environmental even under-utilization, of such benefits. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 70

Description Short-term outputs 4 A capacity enhancement action Goal plan for adaptation of the tourism sector to develop and implement adaptation 4 initiatives that will reduce climate-related Enhanced capacity of key players risks to tourism sector, tourism in, or related to tourism to better dependent communities and to tourism's manage and undertake initiatives natural resource base. that will reduce climate-related risks

Objective 1: Strengthen capacity of the 4 Tourism climate change tourism sector to develop policy and plan information baseA targeted for, and implement, adaptation activities climate risk profile for the designed to reduce climate-related risks tourism sector to the tourism sector. Outcome Activities Improved understanding of specific 1.1 Develop a capacity enhancement climate related risks to tourism and an plan to strengthen the enabling enabling environment to address those environment for adaptation by risks. the tourism sector Objective 2: Demonstrate adaptation 1.2 Build the capacity of key players measures that will reduce climate change to coordinate, manage, risks to tourism undertake, monitor and evaluate initiatives that will reduce Activities climate-related risks 2.1 Select high priority adaptation 1.3 Gather information to ensure measures for demonstration existence of required information 2.2 Implement appropriate base including technical, policy, demonstration adaptation economic and environmental initiatives, including uptake of information. technologies 1.4 Prepare a targeted climate risk 2.3 Implement demonstration profile for the tourism sector of adaptation measures for reef the Maldives, with risk conservation conditions such as high sea surface temperatures, and the 2.4 Undertake demonstration of consequences such as coral beach erosion management bleaching. 71 Adaptation Projects - Project 6

2.5 Assess the costs and benefits of Outcome the demonstration initiatives Increased use of good practices in 2.6 Develop a climate change adaptation by the tourism sector. adaptation implementation strategy for the sector Implementation

Short-term outputs Institutional arrangement: 4 Completed adaptation Lead agency demonstration projects 4 Report on the costs and benefits Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation of adaptation measures Partner agencies 4 A tourism adaptation implementation strategy Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water; Maldives Association of Tourism Outcome Industry; National Chamber of Effectiveness of tourism adaptation Commerce and Industry; Ministry of demonstrated and communicated Planning and National Development; leading to a more resilient tourism Ministry of Economic Development and sector. Trade; National Disaster Management Center Objective 3: Increase understanding of climate change adaptation policies and Project Steering Committee measures in the tourism sector An inter-ministerial committee with

Activities participation of private sector and NGOs will be established to provide project 1.1 Prepare a synthesis of the coordination execution, monitoring and adaptation projects, with evaluation. particular emphasis on: a) the enabling environment; b) Project Management implementation process; c) costs Full time staff will be recruited to and benefits of adaptation; and manage the project. d) replication and up-scaling;

Short-term outputs Risks and barriers 4 4 Synthesis report of adaptation Low human resource capacity in projects the lead agency. 4 Co-ordination among a number of different stakeholders National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 72

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. The project will comply with donor M&E requirements as well.

Financial resources

Total project cost: US$ 765,000 73 Adaptation Projects - Project 7

Project Improve resilience of Island communities to climate change and variability through 7 sustainable building designs.

Rationale coastline. Majority of the islands, have more than 50% of their housing The low elevation and small size of structures within 100m of coastline. islands, makes the population highly vulnerable to the predicted rise in sea There is currently low adaptive capacity level and frequent and more intense due to insufficient knowledge, limited extreme weather events. human resources in institutions and poor regulatory framework. The current Over the last 6 years more than 90 building code does not take climate inhabited islands have been flooded at change associated impacts into account least once and 37 islands have been and the linkage is poorly understood due flooded regularly or at least once a year. to inadequate information dissemination. Coastal erosion has been reported in 97% of inhabited islands in 2004, of Description which 64% reported severe coastal erosion. While land reclamation has Goal: Better and stronger buildings to become the solution to alleviate increase resilience of island communities population pressure this increases to climate change and variability. exposure of the island and attracts Objective 1: Ensure climate change settlements to the more vulnerable area. adaptation is incorporated into the The average width of inhabited islands is regulatory framework concerning design 566m resulting in most settlements to and construction of public and private be within close proximity from the structures. coastline. There is little opportunity for communities to retreat inland. It has Activities been found that 44% of the settlement 1.1 Assess risks from current and footprints of all islands are within 100m predicted climate hazards to of coastline which translates to 47% of existing structures and building all housing structures and 42% of the designs. population being within 100m of National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 74

1.2 Conduct feasibility study for Objective 2: Create enabling retrofitting existing housing environment for establishing climate structures and incorporating resilient structures adaptation measures into new housing structures. Activities

1.3 Review existing regulatory 2.1 Conduct awareness programmes framework to identify gaps and across the country to increase limitations in relation to climate public knowledge on climate change adaptation change related hazards, promote climate resilient structures and 1.4 Revise the building code to introduce changes to Building incorporate minimum climate Code change and disaster resilience measures. 2.2 Develop climate risk assessment tools to assess vulnerability of Short-term outputs structures and hazard zones 4 Assessment report identifying within focus islands current and predicted climate 2.3 Construct demonstration hazards to existing buildings and structures in the most vulnerable building designs zones of selected focus islands 4 Feasibility study for retrofitting existing housing structures and 2.4 Establish an upgrade assistance incorporating adaptation fund to facilitate speedy measures into new housing transformation of most critical structures. structures and structures of

4 Review of existing regulatory vulnerable groups in focus framework islands.

4 Revised building code with 2.5 Train staff from key climate change and variability implementation agencies to adaptation measures develop capacity in sustainable housing and public social Outcome infrastructure design.

Existing structures and future Short-term outputs construction regulated to mandate 4 minimum climate resilience A number of public awareness campaigns conducted nationwide

4 Climate risk assessment toolkit developed for focus island. 75 Adaptation Projects - Project 7

4 Demonstration structures Risks and barriers developed in selected 10 focus 4 High costs of Upgrade Assistance islands Fund 4 An upgrade assistance fund 4 Reluctance amongst individuals established to upgrade existing structures 4 Human resources developed in based on a predicted risk. key public infrastructure 4 Difficulties in enforcing building implementation agencies. code in existing structures, if they require considerable Outcome modification.

Increase public awareness and speedy 4 Potential increase in initial establishment of climate resilient capital costs for structures built in structures nationwide major hazard zones

4 Trained staff retention at the Implementation specified field and location.

Institutional arrangement: .Evaluation and monitoring Lead agency The project will be monitored according Ministry of Construction and Public to the national M&E standards set by Infrastructure President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, Partner agencies annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry donor finance agency requirements on of Planning and National Development; M&E will be fulfilled. Ministry of Housing and Urban Development; Ministry of Environment, Financial resources Energy and Water; National Disaster Management Centre. Total Project Cost: US$1,970,000

Project Steering Committee

Policy-level officials, selected Island Development Committee members and Maldives Architects Association.

Project Management Team

Officials from Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 76

Project Enhance adaptive capacity to manage climate change related risks to water resources through 8 increasing knowledge, strengthening regulatory framework and adoption of appropriate new technologies.

Rationale groundwater aquifer would decrease or eliminate groundwater as a water Quality and availability of water is resource affecting livelihood activity of critically linked to quality of life for agriculture and damaging the terrestrial people living in islands with very scarce environment of islands. water resources. Groundwater is the primary source of water for non-potable Climate change related impacts on the uses such as bathing and washing in all aquifer will be exacerbated as current use the inhabited islands of Maldives except of groundwater aquifers exceeds the Male'. supply. The proximity of the aquifer to the surface not only makes the Groundwater in the islands is a freshwater lens easily accessible but also component of a precarious hydrological highly susceptible to contamination. system. The freshwater aquifer is a Salinisation of aquifers is already a shallow lens of freshwater floating on top serious issue in the more vulnerable of the saline water found on average at 1 islands due to over-extraction. to 1.5m below the surface and is no more than a few meters thick. The Surface water is generally lacking in the quality and the quantity of freshwater in islands and where natural water the aquifer vary from island to island as catchment areas are found they are it is determined by net rainfall recharge, currently undervalued. Catchments are size of the islands and permeability of often reclaimed for additional land or the soil column. used as waste disposal areas. In most instances the catchments are found close The low-lying nature of the islands makes to the sea and highly vulnerable to storm the groundwater aquifer vulnerable to surge flooding caused by the projected salinization due to storm surge flooding rise in sea level. Catchments are also and saltwater intrusion caused by rising susceptible to drought conditions caused sea levels. Over the last 6 years more by variability in rainfall patterns. The than 90 islands (45% of all islands) have human impacts often undermines the been flooded at least once and 37 important role that catchments play in islands have been flooded regularly or at natural stormwater drainage and flood least once a year. Salinisation of the control. 77 Adaptation Projects - Project 8

In the absence of this project there will risks to the aquifer systems due be lack of information on the risks to the to climate change-related integrity of groundwater aquifers and hazards. catchments. The hydrology, hydrogeology 1.3 Assess the hydrology and and recharge dynamics of aquifers are hydrogeology of natural water poorly understood now. Laws, policies catchment areas and their and regulations on water resource potential as a reservoir and as management is insufficient or absent stormwater flood control. leading to weak institutional capacity. Continued pressure on water resources 1.4 Study options to protect and would result in loss of adaptive capacity manage groundwater aquifers at for climate change impacts. local level.

Description Short-term outputs

4 List of islands for risk analysis and Goal demonstration activities.

Better understanding of the dynamics of 4 Report on coral island aquifer water resources, their relationship to dynamics and climate change- climatic hazards and enhanced related risks to aquifers.

institutional and technological capacity 4 Status of natural water catchment to manage climate change-related risks areas and their potential as a to water. reservoir and stormwater flood control determined. Objective 1: Gain knowledge on the 4 Cost-benefit-analysis of different dynamics of groundwater aquifers and tools and methods for aquifer natural water catchment areas to better management. understand climate change-related risks

to aquifers. Outcome

Activities Better knowledge on characteristics of groundwater aquifers, long term risks to 1.1 Identify the islands most aquifers from climate change and ways to vulnerable to climate change as manage risks. starting point for conducting risk analysis.

1.2 Assess groundwater aquifers to understand the hydrology, hydrogeology and recharge characteristics and identify the National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 78

Objective 2: Strengthen the policy and Outcome regulatory framework for groundwater Better water resources management protection and preservation to build through implementation of applicable adaptive capacity of aquifers. policy and enforcement of regulations.

Activities Objective 3: Acquire and demonstrate

2.1 Review existing regulations on sound water technologies suitable to water resources management small coral island environment. and landuse planning to Activities incorporate climate change- related risk management. 3.1 Demonstrate infiltration gallery technology in selected islands. 2.2 Develop policies, standards and guidelines for management of 3.2 Undertake an in-depth groundwater aquifers in assessment of solar desalination inhabited islands. technology and pilot test the technology in a selected 2.3 Provide technical assistance for location. the development and implementation of management 3.3 Demonstrate aquifer recharging plans for water catchment areas technologies in selected by communities. vulnerable islands.

2.4 Sensitize water users to prevent 3.4 Identify and test other salinisation caused by over- appropriate technologies to extraction and saltwater prevent groundwater intrusion. salinisation.

Short-term outputs 3.5 Identify and document the 4 Draft regulations that address lessons from demonstration sites climatic risks to groundwater and develop replicable Aquifer aquifers. System Management Guidelines. 4 Policies, standards and guidelines Short-term outputs for management of groundwater 4 aquifers in inhabited islands Applicability of infiltration gallery and barrier removal for 4 Management plans for water implementation determined. catchment areas. 4 In-depth technology assessment 4 Awareness materials and on solar desalination. programmes prevention of 4 salinisation. Demonstration of solar 79 Adaptation Projects - Project 8

desalination technology in a Project Management selected island. Full time project staff will be recruited. 4 Costs and benefits of aquifer recharging determined. Risks and barriers 4 Technology options identified 4 Lack of human resources. and tested. 4 Fragmented and unclear mandate 4 Compilation of lessons learned leading to coordination issues on on appropriate technology and water management. implementation at local level. 4 Aquifer System Management Evaluation and monitoring Guidelines. The project will be monitored according Outcome to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly Enhanced adaptive capacity of progress reports, expenditure reports, communities to address vulnerabilities of annual monitoring reports will be water resources through adoption of submitted to MPND. In addition, any technologies. donor finance agency requirements on Implementation M&E will be fulfilled.

Institutional arrangement Financial resources

Lead agency Total project cost: US$675,000

Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water

Partner agencies

Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, Ministry of Atolls Development, Ministry of Planning and National Development, Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources, Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority

Project Steering Committee

Policy-level officials, community representatives, private sector and NGOs National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 80

Project Promotion of health, creation of effective structures and implementation of policies and 9 measures to reduce health vulnerability to climate change.

Rationale prevented by reducing the vulnerability of the natural and social systems. Thus, There is overwhelming scientific evidence there is a clear need for adaptation of past and future global climate change. measures to protect human health under There are credible established links climate change and climate variability. between climate change and the health Planned adaptation to the health impacts of the population. The NAPA of the of climate change comprises a broad Maldives mainly predicts changes in range of public health interventions. frequency, intensity and severity of General measures include building familiar health risks. Global research has capacity, developing the political concluded that the global warming will commitment, raising community alter most of the disease carrying vector's awareness, building strong alliances and geographic distribution, increase the networks. Specific adaptation measures reproductive rates, and shorten the include health promotion and health pathogen incubation period within them. policy development to prevent health This means a further increase the effects from vector, rodent and food and incidence of vector borne diseases like water borne diseases, floods and heat Dengue, scrub typhus and the newly stress. The mobilization of resources introduced Chikungunya in the Maldives. introduction of incentives to actually Reemergence of malaria is also a high implement them is also essential. risk in view of the changing global epidemiology. Diarrhoeal diseases, Description typhoid and other water borne diseases are predicted to increase with the more Goal frequent and severe incidences of Promotion of health through flooding and salinization of water. Poor development of appropriate policies and nutrition is likely to exacerbate the measures and creation of effective health problems. Direct physical hazards capable structures that will decrease from severe storms and flooding is also health vulnerability to current climate likely to increase. Heat related illness and variability and future climate change and morbidity are also predicted to increase. increase adaptive capacity in the Most of these health impacts can be Maldives 81 Adaptation Projects - Project 9

Objective 1: Promote public health policy Objective 2: Build alliances among health to adapt to climate change and other development sectors for strategic planning and health promotion Activities Activities 1.1 Evaluate the efficacy of current health policies to address 2.1 Develop methods to integrate changing patterns of vector- health impact studies into borne pathogens, flooding, environmental impact malnutrition, heat stress and assessment and for the extreme events. participation of health officials in decision making on EIAs 1.2 Identify based on the review of existing policies the new policies, 2.2 Develop methods to integrate strategies and measures to cope “healthy islands concept” in with the additional burden of land-use planning climate change and variability. 2.3 Develop public health guidelines 1.3 Identify barriers to the for the construction industry implementation of the covering aspects such as adaptation policies and prevention of mosquito breeding strategies in construction sites; adequate ventilation and lighting in houses 1.4 Estimate the additional cost of and buildings; and convenient climate change adaptation to the access to elderly and people with health sector special needs.

Short-term outputs 2.4 Undertake a comprehensive 4 Review of existing policies and stakeholder analysis on climate measures and health 4 Assessment of policy needs and 2.5 Develop a framework to mobilize barriers intersectoral action and 4 Cost-benefit analysis of climate coordination for climate and change adaptation health

Outcome 2.6 Undertake a study on effective community mobilization for Health policy to address climate change promotion of public health adaptation National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 82

Short-term outputs media to raise public awareness

4 EIA guidelines modified to on climate and health issues include health impact assessment through appropriate training, exposure and advocacy. 4 Health guidelines for land use

planning developed Short-term outputs 4 Public health guidelines for the 4 Assessment report on construction industry environmental health incorporated in the National institutional capacity Building Code 4 Participation in international 4 Stakeholder participation plan for conferences, seminars and health and environment workshops on climate change developed and health. 4 Strategies for community 4 Awareness materials and public mobilization in health promotion information assessed Outcome Outcome Increased national capacity in the Integration of health concerns in environmental health sector planning and policy implementation across development sectors to address Implementation adaptation to climate change Institutional arrangement: Objective 3: Create the capacity to implement and sustain the health Lead agency adaptation policies Ministry of Health Activities Partner agencies 3.1 Undertake a national capacity Ministry of Environment, Energy and self assessment for the health Water; Ministry of Housing and Urban sector on climate and health Development; Ministry of Planning and 3.2 Provide education and training National Development; Ministry of Atolls opportunities for public health Development; Ministry of Construction officials and medical and Public Infrastructure practitioners on climate related Project Steering Committee diseases prevention, control and management. Policy-level officials, community representatives, private sector and NGOs 3.3 Increase the capacity of the 83 Adaptation Projects - Project 9

Project Management

An inter-agency Project Management Committee will be established and a project office set up. Full time project staff will be recruited. Technical support groups will be established as needed.

Risks and barriers

Understanding and translating the project's strategies and methods of work into plans and actions that are compatible with short-term priorities and traditions of island communities.

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. Donor requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total project cost: US$ 165,000 National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 84

Project On-the-ground demonstration of effectiveness of waste management at regional level to protect 10 coral reefs, human health and water resources for increased adaptive capacity to climate change

Rationale reef integrity and, reduce the ability of the reef to keep up with sea level rise. Inadequate waste management increases The ability of coral reefs to recover from the vulnerability of coral reefs and water bleaching and maintain growth rate may resources to the impacts of climate be compromised by the improper change through reducing their natural disposal of waste in the marine adaptive capacity. Poor waste environment. management is also one of the root causes of poor environmental conditions Vector borne diseases such as dengue that increase the vulnerability of human and scrub typhus are now major public health. health concerns in the country. Epidemiological data shows changes in Current arrangements for solid waste the seasonal nature of dengue and management on the inhabited islands continued high prevalence from mid are inadequate. Most wastes are dumped 2005. Scrub Typhus which was endemic onto the island foreshore or burnt at low 60 years ago reemerged in 2002 with combustion temperatures. As a result mortality rates as high as 10%. There is leachate and unconsolidated waste enter also high morbidity caused by water- the lagoon causing pollution of the reef borne diseases particularly system. Non-biodegradable waste such gastroenteritis. From 15,000 cases in as plastic bottles is accumulated in open 2004 number of cases increased by dumping areas often creating breeding almost 50% to 21,000 cases in 2005. grounds for mosquitoes and other The random and unsegregated dumping disease causing vectors. of waste is one of the main causes for breeding grounds for vectors and The coral reefs of the Maldives are contamination of water. important for its biodiversity value, coastal defence functions and its At present significant investment is being contribution to the tourism and fisheries made to provide waste management sectors. The predicted increase in SST will infrastructure at island level. In the cause coral bleaching. Increased absence of this project, routine collection bleaching coupled with reduced and transfer of the waste for processing, calcification will affect coral growth and recycling and proper disposal is unlikely. 85 Adaptation Projects - Project 10

There is a need to ensure sustainable government regulations and management of waste at island level to lessons learned from existing prevent marine pollution and threats to facilities. human health. Waste management is 1.5 Undertake construction of the one of the objectives in the 7NDP. facility in accordance with Description approved design.

1.6 Identify and procure necessary Goal equipments and provide training

Effective management of waste to reduce to staff on operation and human stresses on biodiversity, human maintenance. health and water resources for increasing 1.7 Undertake feasibility study for their adaptive capacity to climate change the regional waste transfer and variability. system.

Objective 1: Establish a model waste Short-term outputs management system at regional scale 4 Site selected based on pre- that can be replicated and upscaled defined criteria. across the Maldives. 4 Types and quantities of waste Activities generated determined.

4 Options for establishment of 1.1 Select the region based on RWMF identified. sectoral consultation and an 4 assessment of national Design and detailed engineering development and environmental drawings management priorities. 4 Structure for RWMF established.

4 RWMF equipped for waste 1.2 Undertake a detailed waste processing and management and characterisation survey for all training provided to staff. the inhabited, industrial and 4 tourism islands of the region. Feasible options for waste transfer identified. 1.3 Undertake feasibility study of the potential sites within the region Outcome and recommend most Model Regional Waste Management appropriate site. Facility (RWMFs) and regiona waste

1.4 Propose design with detailed transfer system established. engineering drawings, of the facility in accordance with National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 86

Objective 2: Create the enabling commercialisation of waste environment for regional level management services. waste management. 2.8 Develop a monitoring and evaluation system to ensure Activities compliance with regulations and standards. 2.1 Develop a regional waste

management plan with Short-term outputs appropriate stakeholder 4 An agreed plan for region wide consultations that includes, waste management system. collection, transfer, processing 4 Policy framework and draft and disposal. regulations on regional level 2.2 Develop policies and regulations waste management.

to enable regional level waste 4 Institutions and respective roles management. and responsibilities defined. 4 2.3 Develop the organizational and Legal framework for cost- management framework for recovery regional level waste 4 Quality assurance system for management. operation and maintenance of RWMFs and transfer system. 2.4 Establish the legal basis for 4 Community workshops, introducing a pricing structure awareness materials and arrangements for levying 4 fees for waste management A clear investment climate for services with sanctions private sector established. 4 An operational M&E system. 2.5 Revise and improve existing criteria, standards and guidelines Outcome for operation of RWMFs and transfer system. Stress on the ecosystems and human health reduced through sound waste 2.6 Conduct public education and management. awareness programmes on reducing, segregation, reusing Implementation and proper disposal of waste. Institutional arrangement 2.7 Enable private sector participation in operation and Lead agency maintenance through developing Ministry of Environment, Energy and the regulatory framework for Water 87 Adaptation Projects - Project 10

Partner agencies

Ministry of Atolls Development, Island Offices, Atoll Offices, Ministry of Planning and National Development, Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure, Ministry of Finance and Treasury, Ministry of Housing and Urban Development

Project Steering Committee

Policy-level officials, community representatives, private sector and NGOs

Project Management

Full-time project staff will be recruited.

Risks and barriers

Gaps in the island level governance framework.

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total project cost: USD2.8 million National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 88

Project Preventing coral and sand mining from coral reefs, lagoons and beaches to maintain their 11 natural status and increase the resilience of natural environment to climate change.

Rationale has posed numerous challenges in achieving this goal. The stability of coral reef and island coastal environment is known to be two Coral mining and large scale sand mining crucial factors defining the physical is currently being practiced only in the vulnerability of land in Maldives. Coral outer atolls especially atolls furthest from reefs provide protection for islands by Male'. The poorest islands usually are dissipating wave energy and by providing unable to bear the comparatively high sediments to keep the islands coastline costs of alternative construction material at equilibrium. The features of coastline resulting from high transportation costs. itself are critical to maintain the natural Strong enforcement of mining regulations adaptive capacity of an island. With the without proper alternatives, also causes predicted climate change, and associated the risks of most vulnerable groups to Sea Surface Temperature (SST) rise and increase as their houses are constructed Sea Level Rise (SLR), the growth of reefs is substandard, exposing them to intense predicted to be highly limited and the flood and wind damage risks associated ability of coastlines to naturally adapt with climate change. has been questioned. These climate There is an urgent need to develop and driven root causes of land and reef deliver an integrated approach to coral vulnerability is expected to be further and sand mining, which includes exacerbated due to human stress. Two measures to provide affordable sources of human stress that have a alternative sources of construction direct impact on the vulnerability of reefs material to outer islands, strong and land is coral and sand mining. Since enforcement of coral and sand mining the early 1990's a lot of efforts have regulations and community involvement been put into prevent a centuries old in the coastal zone management. Failure practice of coral and sand mining, to deliver such an approach now may including a ban on coral mining and seriously hinder the future natural restrictions on sand mining from adaptation Maldives to climate change. beaches. The recent high growth of the constructed industry in Male' and high The benefits from this project will have demand for new housing in outer islands far reaching positive impacts on a 89 Adaptation Projects - Project 11

number of sectors and vulnerable groups. 1.2 Develop alternative policy tools Sectors such as tourism and fisheries to reduce the existing economic benefit from the better conserved reefs barriers to affordable and the practice of poor quality housing construction material. especially in the small outer islands are 1.3 Implement the necessary policy eliminated, reducing the vulnerability of tools. those structures to flood and wind damage. Experiences from this project Short term Outputs can be further replicated to similar 4 Feasibility study for alternate archipelagic Small Island Developing sources of construction material States to manage critical natural in outer atolls. resources that are in high demand from 4 both a human activity and a Policy tools developed to conservation perspective. removed economic barriers to provide construction material in This project is expected to deliver an outer atolls integrated set of activities to address the 4 Appropriate policy tools key problems in eliminating and implemented managing coral and sand mining. Outcome Description Affordable alternatives sources of Goal construction material available in outer islands Reduce and eliminate coral and sand mining in the outer islands to ensure Objective 2: Enable the enforcement of optimum conditions for natural coral and sand mining regulations adaptation of natural environment to climate change. Activities

Objective 1: Provide affordable 2.1 Strengthen the capacity of island and atoll administrations to alternative sources of construction enforce regulations. This will material. include training on coastal Activities management and designation of staff responsible for monitoring 1.1 Undertake feasibility study for enforcement. sustained provision of alternate sources of construction material 2.2 Enhance public awareness of the in outer atolls. impacts of coral and sand mining and the regulations prohibiting such activities. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 90

2.3 Develop mechanisms to 3.3 Develop awareness within determine compliance with construction groups or regulations. companies using targeted workshops and leaflets. Short term Outputs

4 Capacity within atoll and island Short term Outputs administration enhanced for 4 A number of awareness enforcement of coral and sand campaigns conducted for NGOs, mining regulations. IDCs and WDCs to improve

4 A number of public awareness understanding of coral and sand activities conducted to mining impacts in relation to disseminate knowledge on climate change adaptation. impacts of coral and sand mining 4 A number of community and the regulations prohibiting involvement activities in such activities. monitoring coral and sand

4 Compliance monitoring system. mining activities supported. 4 A number of community Outcome involvement activities in monitoring coral and sand Improved enforcement of coral and sand mining activities supported. mining regulations

Outcome Objective 3: Facilitate community role in awareness building and regulation Community involvement in coastal enforcement. management increased

Activities Implementation

3.1 Develop awareness within Institutional arrangement NGO's, IDCs and WDCs on

climate change risks and the Lead agency impacts of coral and sand mining on future adaptation Ministry of Environment, Energy and efforts. Programs would include Water awareness raising workshops Partner agencies conducted at atoll or island level

Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry 3.2 Support the efforts for of Housing and Urban Development; community involvement in Atoll and Island Offices. monitoring sand and coral mining regulation compliance. 91 Adaptation Projects - Project 11

Project Steering Committee Financial resources

Policy-level officials and community Total Project Cost: US$375,000 representatives

Project Management Team

Officials from Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water.

Risks and barriers

4 Mining sand could continue to be cheaper than imported alternatives especially for poorer communities

4 Import dependence on construction industry increases

4 Subsidies might have to be permanent creating a financial burden on government

4 Potential overlaps and administrative conflicts between island administration and community groups in enforcing regulations

4 Human resource limitations in outer islands

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 92

Project Accumulate knowledge and communicate practical information to raise public awareness 12 and increase political commitment to adapt to the health risks to the Maldivian population from climate change

Rationale through focus on health promotion and disease prevention and cooperation Changes in the climate system pose a among different sectors of society to range of severe health risks to the ensure that people have access to the population of the Maldives. The NAPA prerequisites for health. The long term identified health effects from vector, goal is to protect people from rodent, food and water borne diseases, environmental risks related to climate floods, and heat stress. According to the change and achieve community recent scientific evidence climate change participation. International cooperation has already started to occur, and even in would be used to fill the knowledge gap the best scenarios the people are going and the knowledge gained will be shared to face direct and indirect health effects with small island developing states and over the coming decades. other countries that may have to deal with the same or similar health problems However, the morbidity due to the caused by climate change. majority of these effects can be decreased by implementing suitable Description adaptation policies. Successful planned adaptation depends on knowledge about Goal the types of health risks and the effective response strategies. The information Acquire knowledge on the types of health needs to be disseminated through an risks to the Maldivian population from effective communication strategy to the climate change, and effectively public to raise awareness and to the communicate to the public and key political and community leaders to stakeholders information to facilitate increase political commitment for prevention of climate change related adaptation. diseases for effective adaptation.

Principles of Health For All, the Ottawa Charter and the Adelaide Declaration guided the outcomes and activities of this project. This project translates the HFA principles vis a vis climate change 93 Adaptation Projects - Project 12

Objective1: Fill the knowledge gap on increase future adaptive capacity types of health risks to Maldivians from identified climate change and find innovative and 4 Information and knowledge appropriate response measures to sharing at regional and prevent climate change related health international level. issues and diseases Outcome Activities Greater knowledge on health risks from 1.1 Conduct targeted research and climate change and better understanding strengthen disease surveillance of practical measures to adapt to climate to analyze and understand the change related diseases relationship between health and Objective 2: Build the capacity to climate change in the Maldives. undertake research, disseminate 1.2 Undertake inter-agency information and raise public awareness collaborative efforts to assess the on climate related health risks and existing adaptive capacity in the preventive measures through an effective health sector and identify communication strategy practical new measures to increase adaptive capacity Activities

1.3 Participate in and contribute to 2.1 Train medical practitioners and regional level and international public health officials to level efforts to better understand undertake progressive research the climate related health risks on climate change related and measures to address the diseases in the Maldives risks. 2.2 Develop a communication Short-term outputs strategy on climate change and

4 Assessment report on health and health climate change that describes the 2.3 Enable comprehensive, current baseline conditions, consistent and continuous future data needs and analytical awareness raising campaign, tools through development of 4 Adaptive capacity baseline for information materials, providing coping with current climate publicity, doing health audits change determined including and cooperating with the media. existing policies, key stakeholder attitudes and level of awareness

4 Specific policies and practices to National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 94

Short-term outputs representatives, private sector and NGOs

4 Research training needs identified will be responsible for all planning and and priority training provided major decision making. The steering committee should have well-defined 4 National communication strategy responsibilities, representative on climate change and health membership, efficient working structures 4 Public awareness materials and and clear, but flexible procedures. activities Project Management: A project Outcome Management committee, project office and technical support groups will be Health policy makers well-informed on established to assist in the day to day need for climate change adaptation, running of the project. greater public awareness on the relationship between climate change and Full time project staff will be recruited. health and higher commitment for co- operative efforts for promotion of health Risks and barriers

Implementation The health priorities at the island level at this moment may be more towards Institutional arrangement establishing health care physical facilities rather than preventing diseases. Thus Lead agency there may be a need to sensitize

Ministry of Health politicians on the strategies and methods of work outlined in this project Partner agencies Evaluation and monitoring Department of Public Health;

Department of Medical Services; Ministry Establishing accountability for the project of Environment, Energy and Water; is absolutely essential for the success of Ministry of Housing and Urban the project and the project will be Development; Ministry of Planning and monitored according to the national M&E National Development; Ministry of standards set by President's Office and Construction and Public Infrastructure; MPND. Quarterly progress reports, Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry expenditure reports, annual monitoring of Information and Arts; Male' reports will be submitted to MPND. Municipality. Donor requirements on M&E will be fulfilled. Project Steering Committee

A steering committee comprising of Financial resources policy-level officials, community Total project cost: US$ 375,000 95 Adaptation Projects - Project 13

Project Build the information base on vulnerability of reef fishery to the predicted impacts of climate 13 change and variabilities to determine adaptation measures required for integrated reef fishery management.

Rationale Maldives experienced extensive coral “bleaching” in 1998 where almost all Reef fishery is a livelihood activity shallow reefs were affected. Communities associated with both tourism and changed dramatically in some instances. exports. Groupers, live-tropical fish and Large areas of reef flats were bleached sea-cucumber are fished exclusively for affecting habitats of reef associated export while lobsters and other reef fish species and the reef fishery. For example, are harvested to meet demands of an analysis of aquarium fish exports tourism sector. The largest fishing showed that two species exported in industry, the tuna fisheries is dependent large numbers before 1998 bleaching on reef fishery for livebait. Reef fishery is event disappeared from exports following also significant for food security. the bleaching. Both of these species feed predominantly on acropora polyps which The predicted climate change such as were most affected during the bleaching. increasing SST would adversely affect the reef fishery through impacts on coral Overexploitation, catch of immature fish reefs and the conditions of the pelagic and intensive fishing during spawning environment in which the reef species periods exacerbates the vulnerability of thrive. Reef fish are almost entirely reef fishery. The current regulatory dependent on coral reefs as breeding framework addresses aquarium fishery, grounds. Many reef species are known to sea-cucumber and lobsters while grouper have seasonal spawning cycles which fishery has no regulatory management. may be disrupted resulting in recruitment Management activities implemented at failure. In addition, reef fishes have a present include limited bans, pelagic larval phase ranging from days to prohibitions, setting up quotas, licensing few weeks. Survival of larvae depends on and levying fees (royalties for fish favourable conditions of the pelagic exports). However, there are no environment. Reef fish species are also monitoring procedures in place. specialists requiring specific types of habitats within a reef or specific type of This project is intended to strengthen the food from a reef. management of reef fishery to increase the resilience of reef fishery dependent As a result of an episodic increase in SST, communities and ensure sustained National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 96

livelihoods. Reef fishery management is 1.5 Collaborate with overseas also important for ensuring sustainable centres of excellence in reef fish tourism development. Integrated reef research to better understand fishery management is a key objective of the effects of climate change on the 7NDP. reef fish population.

Description Short-term outputs 4 Comprehensive reef fishery Goal database.

4 Data collection and reporting Enhance the knowledge on climate mechanism established. change impacts on reef fishery and 4 integrate adaptation into reef fishery Training programme on data management. collection and analysis. 4 Targeted research reports on Objective 1: Improve the understanding important reef species and their of potential impacts of climatic hazards spawning, breeding, foraging on reef fishery. patterns and conditions and, mobility of reef species in the Activities context of predicted climate

1.1 Improve catch and effort data change and variability. collection at species level of 4 Assessment on the impacts of commercial and subsistence reef climate change on reef fishery.

species. 4 Access to information gathered by other countries on reef 1.2 Develop human resource fisheries. capacity at community and national level to collect and Outcome analyse data on reef fishery. Knowledge essential for increasing 1.3 Study the spawning, breeding, adaptive capacity of reef fishery foraging patterns and conditions acquired. and, mobility of reef species in the context of predicted climate change and variability.

1.4 Undertake an assessment of the impacts of predicted climate change on the viability of reef fishery as a source of livelihood as well as source of export revenue. 97 Adaptation Projects - Project 13

Objective 2: Test the applicability of Outcome existing reef fishery management tools Regulatory framework for improved and methods to address adaptation needs management of reef fishery of reef fishery. strengthened.

Activities Implementation 2.1 Gather knowledge on traditional reef fisheries management to Institutional arrangement: identify lessons to enhance Lead agency future adaptive capacity.

Marine Research Centre/Ministry of 2.2 Undertake a Cost-Benefit Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Analysis of 'no-take zones' as an Resources adaptation measure.

2.3 Test the usefulness of Partner agencies community-based management Ministry of Economic Development and approaches as an adaptation Trade, Maldives Customs Service, Ministry measure for reef fishery of Environment, Energy and Water; management. Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry

2.4 Raise awareness among key of Finance and Treasury; Atolls Offices; stakeholders on reef fishery best Island Offices; NGOs practices. Project Steering Committee

Short-term outputs Policy-level officials, community 4 Compilation of lessons learned representatives, private sector and NGOs from traditional reef fisheries management. Project Management: Project management unit will be established. 4 CBA report on 'no-take zones' as an adaptation tool for reef Risks and barriers fishery. 4 Human resource constraints in 4 Policy recommendations and lead agency. tools on community-based reef management. 4 Continuing policy priority to

4 Information dissemination manage the more economically important tuna fishery. materials on policies and regulations.

4 Best practices guide targeted towards stakeholders. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 98

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total project cost: US$1.5 million 99 Adaptation Projects - Project 14

Project Strengthening capacity of healthcare delivery and streamlining planning of healthcare services 14 to adapt to climate change related health risks

Rationale coming decades. However the majority of these effects can be avoided by Climate change would affect human implementing suitable adaptation health in the Maldives through pathways policies. It is established that factors such of differing complexity, scale and timing. as availability of quality health care, the According to the NAPA direct impacts on status of the health of the population human health from climate change and availability of technical and other include exposure to weather extremes resources matters for adaptation. and increased production of air pollutants and allergens. Indirect impacts In 2004, there were 6 regional hospitals, include transmission of infectious 10 atoll hospitals, 65 atoll health centres diseases especially water- and vector- and 52 health posts distributed across borne diseases. For vector-borne the Maldives. However, the facilities and infections the distribution and services in many of these islands are still abundance of vector organisms and inadequate. Efforts need to be pursued to intermediate hosts are affected by ensure that all Maldivians, even those changes in temperature, precipitation, living in remote or small communities, humidity, flooding and wind. The biotic have equal access to quality primary factors that contribute to vector-borne health care. At least one health post is infections include changes in vegetation, needed in each inhabited island. , host species, predators, competitors, Setting-up of better and faster parasites and human interventions. transportation systems to provide Human stresses such as rapid outreach and emergency care services is urbanization, over-crowding, improper a must. Moreover, emphasis needs to be solid waste management, poor sewage placed on the quality of services provided and wastewater disposal and poor by ensuring that facilities at various levels nutrition exacerbate quality of health. are adequately staffed and equipped for the type of care required at each level. According to the recent scientific evidence climate change has already Access to medicines is also a major started to occur, and even in the best challenge in the atolls, especially with scenarios the people are going to face regard to combating epidemic diseases. direct and indirect health effects over the In 2004 one in five of the island National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 100

population had difficulties in obtaining control and management of medicines. There is a need to establish emerging and reemerging pharmacies on all islands and station diseases qualified medical staff to prescribe the 1.2 Provide regular in-service appropriate drugs. training to service providers on Currently work is underway to formulate surveillance, detection and a comprehensive health bill covering management of emerging and health services, public health aspects, re-emerging climate related and protection of rights of patients and diseases service providers. To standardize and 1.3 Establish a responsive integrated regulate health services, revision of the disease surveillance system for standards of different levels of the health climate change related diseases system is required. Guidelines for public health services and climate change 1.4 Strengthen Public Health related disease management needs to be Laboratory to detect and developed. diagnose emerging and re- emerging climate related In the absence of this project, the diseases resilience of the Maldives health system and its capacity to respond effectively to 1.5 Prepare national outbreak increasing health threats posed by preparedness plan for public climate change is likely to be low. health emergencies

Description 1.6 Provide technical assistance for development of FHS capacity to Goal: Development of the institutional, initiate courses on epidemiology, technical and regulatory capacity for environmental health and health healthcare services planning and delivery management to prevent and manage climate-related health risks. Short-term outputs

4 Training needs assessment and Objective 1: Build the capacity for human resource development control, diagnosis and management of plan. climate-related diseases 4 In-service training sessions.

Activities 4 New disease surveillance system established. 1.1 Undertake a training needs 4 Laboratory equipment and assessment and develop a training provided to Public Health human resource development Laboratory. plan targeted at prevention, 101 Adaptation Projects - Project 14

4 Epidemics outbreak preparedness Outcome plan. Quality of healthcare delivery and 4 Curriculum, modules, course accessibility improved. outlines and teaching-aids on climate related diseases. Implementation

Outcome Institutional arrangement

The emerging/re-emerging climate Lead agency related diseases control program in the country developed and continuously Ministry of Health strengthened Partner agencies Objective 2: Improve accessibility to healthcare services and improve quality Department of Public Health, of healthcare delivery. Department of Medical Services; World Health Organization; Activities Project Steering Committee 2.1 Undertake a financial feasibility and diagnostic study to facilitate A steering committee comprising of establishment of community senior health policy officials, hospital pharmacies managers, private health care providers and NGOs will be established 2.2 Provide equipment and establish testing capacity at regional and Project Management atoll level as per defined scope Additional full time project staff will be and level of service for the recruited to the relevant section of the health system Ministry of Health. Short-term outputs Risks and barriers Financial feasibility of community pharmacies and investment plan. The lack of information and awareness on climate related diseases is a key Manuals, operating procedures and barrier. Thus there may be a need to equipment provided to regional and atoll sensitize politicians on the strategies and hospital laboratories to diagnose climate methods of work outlined in this project. change related diseases. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 102

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. Donor requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total project cost: US$ 760,000 103 Adaptation Projects - Project 15

Project Improve rainwater harvesting to secure availability of safe water and reduce 15 vulnerability to changes in precipitation caused by climate change.

Rationale quality such as diarrhea are currently causing high morbidity to children and Rainwater is the main source of drinking adults. The number of cases of acute water in the atolls. Approximately 90% of gastroentritis increased by 50% from the atoll population harvested rainwater 15,000 cases in 2004 to 21,000 cases as the source of drinking water in 2004 in 2005. while 30% reported drinking water shortages. This shows the extreme Climate change related risks to water dependency of the atoll population on supply are not well-understood and weak rainwater and their vulnerability to water management policies and changes in rainfall. governance structures hinder the country's adaptive capacity. Rainwater The predicted climate change could harvesting is an indigenous practice affect rainwater supply in the atolls which has ensured water availability to because of high sensitivity to atolls for centuries and is a solid climate precipitation patterns, duration and change adaptation measure that needs to spatial variability and, changes in storm be continued. This project is aimed at tracks. The alternative source of water in strengthening the capacity for safe these small tropical islands is rainwater harvesting by the vulnerable groundwater which is in fact a thin lens atoll population. of rainwater floating on seawater. As such this lens is not only vulnerable to Description changes in precipitation but also to salinisation caused by storm surge Goal flooding and saltwater intrusion Secure availability of safe drinking water associated with rising sea levels. for communities through increasing While rainwater is harvested extensively rainwater harvesting at household and by households the measures taken to community levels and efficient ensure quality of collection and storage management of rainwater. are inadequate. There is no regular testing of rainwater quality and water safety. Diseases related to poor water National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 104

Objective 1: Enable household and 4 Manual on rainwater collection community level rainwater harvesting to and storage distributed. prevent potable water shortages. 4 Awareness materials.

4 Voluntary contracts on rainwater Activities harvesting.

1.1 Assess the number of rainwater 4 Rainwater harvesting storage tanks in the islands and incorporated into building code. their capacities to estimate 4 Protocols for use and rainwater harvesting capacity management of community needs. rainwater tanks.

1.2 Provide rainwater tanks free of Outcome charge to needy households and

assist in roof retrofitting where Rainwater harvesting increased to a level necessary. whereby communities do not face water shortages during extended dry periods. 1.3 Disseminate guidelines and

standards for rainwater Objective 2: Improve methods and collection and storage to every practices used in rainwater harvesting household. and storage to ensure the rainwater is safe and of high quality. 1.4 Raise public awareness and seek community commitment on Activities rainwater harvesting. 2.1 Undertake an audit of the 1.5 Make it mandatory to harvest quality of rainwater harvested in rainwater from all public the islands and identify the buildings. causes of water contamination

1.6 Develop protocols for use and and poor water quality. management of community 2.2 Enable water quality testing at rainwater tanks. community level.

Short-term outputs 2.3 Develop and publicize protocols 4 Baseline assessment of existing and procedures for regular water rainwater storage capacity. testing and quality assurance. 4 Storage tanks and retrofitting Short-term outputs materials made available. 4 Assessment report on rainwater 4 Guidelines and standards for quality with recommendations to rainwater collection and storage. improve water quality. 105 Adaptation Projects - Project 15

4 Basic water quality testing kits Evaluation and monitoring provided to 200 islands. The project will be monitored according 4 National drinking water quality to the national M&E standards set by standards and quality assurance President's Office and MPND. Quarterly system developed. progress reports, expenditure reports, Outcome annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any Water related climate risks to human donor finance agency requirements on health prevented. M&E will be fulfilled.

Implementation Financial resources

Institutional arrangement Total project cost: US$275,000

Lead agency

Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority

Partner agencies

Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water; Ministry of Health; Ministry of Planning and National Development; Ministry of Atolls Development; Atoll Offices; Island Offices

Project Steering Committee

Policy-level officials, community representatives, private sector and NGOs

Project Management

Full time project staff will be recruited.

Risks and barriers

4 Lack of technical know-how and inadequate human resources.

4 Lack of adequate legal framework to support project activities. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 106

Project Increase resilience of coral reefs to reduce the vulnerability of islands, communities and reef- 16 dependant economic activities to predicted climate change.

Rationale inappropriate designs and methods used in coastal modifications, improper Maldives is a nation with coral reefs as its sewage disposal and over-exploitation of geologic setting. The low elevation, small reef fish. size and unconsolidated nature of coral islands makes the islands highly reliant Since Maldives is entirely made-up of on the biological and geomorphologic coral reefs, the reefs of the entire country functioning of the reef environment for are vulnerable to the effects of future their stability. Much of the economic climate change. At present, selected base such as tourism and fisheries, and areas such as reef fishery zones, livelihood of most Maldivians are directly inhabited island reefs and reefs hosting linked to the coral reefs. economic activities are most vulnerable due to human impacts. As a result the The stability and survival of coral reefs most vulnerable populations of outer has been questioned with the predicted islands stand inline to be most effected climate change, particularly the risks by the onset of climate change impacts. associated with the Sea Surface Populations relying on fishing as the Temperature (SST) rise and Sea level rise mainstay may find themselves not only (SLR). Coral reefs are not expected to economically affected but their food withstand the predicted high SST and as a security affected as well. Closure of result may not keep up its growth with resorts coupled with decline of fishing rising sea level, leading to the prediction industry will cause the economies of that Maldives may disappear in the next entire islands collapse. 100-200 years. Not only does the SST and SLR threaten physical survival of There are a currently a number of islands, but also could lead to the loss of hindrances to protect the reef from what major industries such as tourism and now appears to be an obvious onset of fisheries industry. The risks linked to climate change. The coral reef and coral climate change are further exacerbated island environment of Maldives is poorly due to non-climate related human understood and there are considerable activities such as sand and coral mining, gaps in scientific research. Research is snorkeler damage, anchor damage, required on coral reefs, coral islands and how they naturally adapt to climate 107 Adaptation Projects - Project 16

change so that adaptation measure could Objective 1: Increase the knowledge be devised. The regulatory framework base and understanding of the natural and management of human induced adaptation process in coral reefs. stress on coral reefs and islands are weak. Capacity to undertake coral reef Activities protection and minimise human induce 1.1 Synthesize and enhance the stress is limited. Finally there is an knowledge on Maldivian reef apparent lack of awareness amongst the biology and ecology and its public, community groups and even interactions with climate decision makers. parameters.

This project aims to overcome much of 1.2 Conduct research on how human these shortcomings to pave way for induced stresses such as reef climate risk adaptation programme for fishery, tourism, land coral reefs. There is an urgent need to reclamation and other begin understanding how coral developmental activities affect environments can adapt to climate growth and functioning of coral change and to develop capacity in coral reefs to facilitate informed reef management, for a lengthy battle to decision-making on coral reef adapt to climate change. Failure to do so management. may reduce the window of opportunity

available for adaptation. 1.3 Conduct research to understand how coral reefs and islands This project is designed to benefit the adapt to climate change and entire country and specifically the most identify ways and measures vulnerable groups located in outer required to enhance the natural islands. Experiences and findings form adaptation process. Specific this project can provide far reaching attention will be given to the benefits for the Small Island Developing modified coastal environments Countries as a whole. of inhabited islands.

Description 1.4 Develop a GIS-based national coral reef database to enable the Goal management and analysis of ecological and socioeconomic Minimize human stress on coral reefs of data on coral reefs. Maldives to facilitate natural adaptation of reefs and islands in the face of Short-term outputs predicted climate change. 4 Research report on coral reef biology and ecology of Maldives. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 108

4 Research report on influence of between resource protection and human induced stresses on coral resource usage. reefs and how they could be 2.4 Develop standards and reduced. guidelines for high impact 4 Research report on how coral coastal development activities, reefs and islands adapt to climate especially land reclamation and change and recommendations on island access infrastructure measures to enhance the natural development. adaptation process.

4 Maldives Coral Reef Base (MCRB). Short-term outputs

4 Coral reef management Outcome framework agreed by key stakeholders. Knowledge gap on coral reefs and coral island adaptation to climate change 4 Institutional roles and reduced. responsibilities for coral reef management defined and agreed. Objective 2: Develop policy and legal 4 Draft regulations relating to framework to protect and manage coral resource use between competing reefs. industries developed. 4 Activities Standards and guidelines for high impact coastal development 2.1 Develop the coral reef activities. management framework that enables the relevant institutions Outcome to designate zones, uses and Legal and institutional framework for marine protected areas systems. coral reef management enhanced.

2.2 Review the existing institutional Objective 3: Enable the enforcement of framework to identify gaps and existing coral reef management barriers in coral reef regulations. management and recommend roles and responsibilities for Activities custodians, users and managers. 3.1 Sensitize public infrastructure 2.3 Develop regulations and conflict contracting agencies and resolution mechanisms for contractors on coral reef resource use among competing protection regulations relating to industries such as fishing and design and construction of tourism to ensure balance coastal developments. 109 Adaptation Projects - Project 16

3.2 Develop the mechanisms for Outcome public consultation and inquiry Compliance with coral reef management in the EIA process. measures. 3.3 Strengthen the capacity of island and atoll offices to enforce Objective 4: Reduce human induced and regulations including training on natural stress on reef environment. coral reef management and Activities designation of staff responsible

for enforcement and monitoring. 4.1 Identify the criteria for the selection of Marine Protected 3.4 Organize an information Areas (MPAs). dissemination campaign to

inform public on all regulations 4.2 Review the effectiveness of related to coral reef designated MPAs and management. recommend ways and means to strengthen MPA management. 3.5 Develop mechanisms to

determine compliance with 4.3 Develop guidelines on different regulations. reef resource uses.

Short-term outputs 4.4 Develop quotas and control 4 Targeted sensitization programs. methods to prevent over-

4 Best practices on coastal exploitation of specific species, developments disseminated. ban destructive fishing practices such as use of chemicals and 4 Provisions for public consultation explosives and regularly monitor and inquiry included in the EIA status of fish stock. regulations.

4 Training programs conducted for 4.5 Develop monitoring plans for atoll island administration staff. reef fishery stock.

4 Designated staff for enforcement 4.6 Investigate the effectiveness of and monitoring. mooring buoys, navigation aids 4 Roles and responsibilities and and signs in preventing boat reporting requirements clearly damage on reefs. defined. 4.7 Develop and establish best 4 Print and audio visual materials practice guidelines on on regulations. snorkelling, diving and water 4 Compliance monitoring system. sports activities. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 110

Short-term outputs a strategy for human resource

4 Agreed and endorsed criteria for development. selection of MPAs. 5.3 Develop a comprehensive 4 Report on effectiveness of MPAs training package on coral reef and next steps. science and management to be 4 Guidelines on different reef integrated into the existing resource uses. Coastal Zone Management

4 Species-based reef fishery control Training Course (CZMTC). methods. 5.4 Conduct appropriate training 4 Monitoring plan for reef fishery programmes for atoll and island stock. office staff on coral reef 4 Cost-benefit-analysis of options management. to reduce marine transport- 5.5 Carry out awareness among related impacts on reefs. NGO's, IDCs and WDCs on 4 Best practice guidelines on climate change risks and the snorkeling, diving and water importance of coral reef sports activities. management on future natural

Outcome adaptation of islands and reefs.

Better managed coral reef environments Short-term outputs throughout Maldives 4 Organizational plan for a NCRMA.

4 Human resource development Objective 5: Develop the capacity of plan with training needs national organizations and communities assessment. to manage coral reef environment. 4 Training modules and teaching

Activities aids on coral reef science and management. 5.1 Develop the terms of reference, 4 Training given to staff from each organisational structure and atoll. staffing needs for a National 4 Awareness raising workshops and Coral Reef Management seminars on reef management. Authority (NCRMA) with nodal agencies in the atolls. Outcome

5.2 Undertake training needs Coral reefs protected and preserved assessment to determine the through well-informed communities and training requirements for the knowledgeable staff in organizations. NCRMA and nodal agencies and 111 Adaptation Projects - Project 16

Implementation 4 Overlaps in mandates between MEEW and MFAMR relating coral Institutional arrangement reef management issues.

4 Potential overlaps and Lead agency administrative conflicts between Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and island administration, community Marine Resources. groups and government departments in enforcing Partner agencies regulations

4 Potential delays in coastal Ministry of Environment, Energy and development projects' Water; Marine Research Centre; Ministry implementation due public of Atolls Development; Attorney disagreements over project General's Office; Ministry of Planning and components and objections to National Development; Ministry of predicted environmental impacts. Housing and Urban Development; Ministry of Construction and Public 4 Human resource limitations in Infrastructure; Atoll and Island Offices. outer islands and government departments Project Steering Committee 4 Trained staff retention at the

Policy-level officials and community specified field and location representatives Evaluation and monitoring Project Management Team The project will be monitored according Officials from Ministry of Environment, to the national M&E standards set by Energy and Water and Marine Research President's Office and MPND. Quarterly Centre. progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be Risks and barriers submitted to MPND. In addition, any

4 Difficulties in persuading public donor finance agency requirements on in outer islands to predicted M&E will be fulfilled. impacts rather than existing conditions. Often developments Financial resources come to communities after Total project cost: US$2,315,000 considerable demands and the public may usually be prepared to overlook future impacts. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 112

Project Demonstrate “on-the-ground” wastewater technologies that can protect groundwater and 17 coral reef resources vulnerable to climate change stresses.

Rationale infrastructure and options for treatment, as well as the frequently porous nature of The ability of Maldives to manage its soils. The access to safe drinking water, water resources and ecosystems in a the provision of sanitation and the sustainable manner is crucial to sustain promotion of hygiene are the livelihoods and social and economic well foundations of human dignity, public being. Since the islands are small, low- health and economic and social lying and isolated they are extremely development and are among the vulnerable to climate change and priorities for Maldives outlined in the variability influences such as storms, 7NDP. This project will also help the drought and sea-level rise. These same Maldives achieve MDG targets to halve islands are globally significant with by 2015 the number of people without regard to biodiversity, particularly access to basic sanitation, and to halve because of the richness in diversity and by 2015 the proportion of people being the seventh largest reef system in without sustainable access to safe the world. The unique geographic and drinking water. physical characteristics, as well as the fragile nature of water resources in the Although the project is targeted to Maldives impact the health and well- reduce vulnerability to climate change being of the people, environment and and particularly extreme events, the economic development. project will lead to many cross-cutting benefits such as protection of water Presently there area number of human supplies, address land and marine-based stresses on water resources caused sources of pollution, related downstream largely by over-extraction and coastal area management, protection of deficiencies in waste water management coral reef biodiversity, sustainable which will exacerbate the risks of saline management of fisheries, and tourism intrusion through sea-level rise, flooding development. and changes in precipitation caused by climate variability and climate change. There is the need to provide support to The water resources are highly vulnerable expand foundational capacity building in to water pollution as a result of lack of sewage and wastewater treatment that will address the key adaptation needs of 113 Adaptation Projects - Project 17

water resources protection, human and wastewater management. There is health and biodiversity conservation. The also inappropriate policy, legislation, project will develop capacity and planning and administration. strengthen efforts to reduce and manage If the project were not to go ahead then sewage and wastewater pollution and the expected general baseline scenario building capacity for maintaining and can be deterioration in the quality of managing systems to deliver integrated freshwater resources; a general failure in water and sanitation services, in both coastal and watershed ecosystem rural and urban areas. There is a need for functions along with the loss of reform and capacity building focusing on associated natural habitats and the development of a more cross-cutting biodiversity; and increased LBS pollution approach to water resource management into the coastal environment. This is that captures the relationship to other likely to cause a general deterioration of areas such as land degradation, human condition manifested in increased biodiversity and climate change, poverty, reduced health, failed particularly adaptation. livelihoods and an associated Climatic threats to water supplies deterioration in GDP. Climate change and include. drought, flooding, storm surge, sea level rise will exacerbate all these and sea level rise. Inappropriate sewage problems. This serves to highlight the and wastewater disposal leads to urgency to develop integrated pollution of marine and freshwater approaches to sewage and wastewater (including groundwater) from a land- treatment. based activity; physical, ecological and hydrological modification of critical Description habitats and issues of environmental flow relating to habitat and ecosystem Goal protection. Develop the full range of institutional,

Root causes are knowledge deficiency technical, regulatory, and economic and management deficiencies. There is measures needed to operationalise insufficient knowledge of waste water wastewater treatment to maintain treatment methods; insufficient resilience of water resources and coral education, training and capacity in reef biodiversity in the face of climate wastewater engineering (at various levels hazards. including government, private sector and community) lack of access to, and awareness of, appropriate technologies and methodologies for sewage and wastewater treatment; lack of access to models and demonstrations of sewage National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 114

Objective 1: Strengthen 4 Interagency committee institutional arrangements for established with clearly defined roles and responsibilities. effective intersectoral coordination and management of wastewater Outcome pollution prevention. Policies, strategies and institutional arrangements necessary for effective and Activities operational wastewater management

1.1 Develop manuals and guidelines established for best practice on wastewater Objective 2: Identify and demonstrate on management the ground innovative, appropriate and

1.2 Develop a Wastewater Policy and cost-effective wastewater treatment Wastewater Treatment technologies. Implementation Strategy. Activities 1.3 Assess the specific country training needs and undertake 2.1 Undertake sewage and initial training for wastewater wastewater treatment treatment and management. technology assessments focusing on coral island needs and 1.4 Establish an interagency priorities including a diagnostic committee to regularly review analysis of areas of critical implementation of Wastewater concerns related to climate Policy and Wastewater Treatment change adaptation. Implementation Strategy. 2.2 Undertake a study on removal of Short-term outputs barriers to implementation of

4 Manuals and Best Practice sewage treatment strategies. Guidelines for wastewater 2.3 Develop criteria for management. demonstration projects and 4 Wastewater Policy and select islands for demonstration Wastewater Treatment Strategy. based on criteria. 4 Human resource development 2.4 Implement the demonstration plan. projects. 4 Training workshops, study tours

and exposure to wastewater Short-term outputs treatment and management 4 In-depth wastewater technology technologies needs assessment and diagnostic analysis. 115 Adaptation Projects - Project 17

4 Policies and measures for Short-term outputs

removal of barriers to wastewater 4 Methodology for performance treatment. review established. 4 Islands selected for 4 Lessons and best practices from demonstration. demonstration projects 4 Minimum five demonstration documented.

projects implemented. 4 Timely dissemination of results to stakeholders. Outcome 4 Post information on SIDSNet and Demonstrations of sewage and other relevant systems. wastewater treatment technologies that target particular concerns and removal of Outcome barriers relating to the implementation Capture of lessons, best practices and of such technologies. best available technologies for

Objective 3: Develop mechanisms to wastewater management. learn the lessons and best practices from Objective 4: Ensure the financial viability the project and share the knowledge for sustainable wastewater treatment gained Activities Activities 4.1 Raise public awareness to create 3.1 Develop standard indicators and a better recognition of the value data collection and reporting of wastewater treatment. formats to review performance of demonstration projects. 4.2 Review the legislative reforms required to introduce fees and 3.2 Review and assess regularly charges demonstration projects to capture lessons and best 4.3 Develop and test strategies for practices recovering the costs.

3.3 Disseminate final results from 4.4 Position and empower private demonstration projects for sector and communities to effect assessment and replication. their own management strategies for water and 3.4 Implement information sharing wastewater. with other Small Island Developing States Short-term outputs

4 Public awareness materials and campaigns. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 116

4 Draft framework laws and Risks and barriers regulations. 4 Technology access 4 Effective cost recovery 4 R& D facilities not available in- mechanisms identified. country 4 Provide access to information on wastewater treatment and Evaluation and monitoring introduce new regulations on public and private sector The project will be monitored according participation. to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly Outcome progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be Identification of sustainable financing submitted to MPND. Donor requirements mechanisms for longterm wastewater on M&E will be fulfilled. treatment and management.

Financial resources Implementation

Total project cost: US$ 800,000 Institutional arrangement

Lead agency

Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water;

Partner agencies

Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority; Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation; Ministry of Housing and Urban Development; Ministry of Planning and National Development; Ministry of Atolls Development.

Project Steering Committee

Policy-level officials, community representatives, private sector and NGOs

Project Management

Full time project staff will be recruited. 117 Adaptation Projects - Project 18

Project Improve the design and construction of access infrastructure in Maldives to increase the 18 resilience of access infrastructure and island beaches to climate change.

Rationale change, let alone present severe climatic events. During the tsunami of 2004, The importance of sea transport in the 68% of all existing harbours were socio-economic development of Maldives damaged, some beyond use. Past low has meant that appropriate and cost designs has also meant that proper functioning access infrastructure is a considerations for existing coastal basic necessity in all inhabited islands. processes were sacrificed. A functioning Unfortunately, such infrastructure is also coastal system is crucial for an islands highly vulnerable to severe weather natural adaptive response to variation in events and predicted climate change wave conditions and future sea level rise. risks. The unconsolidated nature of coral Hence, the poor design and construction islands and low elevation means than of access infrastructure in Maldives has the predicted sea level rise and increase caused risks to both the infrastructure in intensity and frequency of storm itself and island's coastal environment to activity in the Indian Ocean could increase. potentially expose access infrastructure to considerable risks. These climatic root Currently there are more than 127 causes and their potential magnitude of harbours and 3 major ports valued over damage are exacerbated due to improper US$200 million located within Maldives. design and construction. High demand An access improvement project initiated for access infrastructure combined with by the government is expected to provide massive capital costs associated with harbours to all remaining inhabited construction, has inadvertently led the islands by 2008. Almost all current Government to adopt short-term harbours are based on a standard design solutions by constructing low cost which includes sand-cement bags as harbours. Maldives being one of the least material for breakwater construction. A developed countries could not in the past few high cost harbours exists based on afford the high costs of climate resilient climate resilient designs and their structures. As a result, majority of the strength was further revealed during the access infrastructure were poorly tsunami where none of these harbours designed and constructed, and aren't were damaged. expected to withstand future climate Much of the poorly designed National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 118

infrastructure is located in the outer the burden of such a scenario. This islands with small to medium sized project proposes to minimize these risks populations. Damage to their access by introducing and enhancing the key infrastructure may lead a number of components essential to improve the additional vulnerabilities to the island access infrastructure development and communities. They include disruption to management in Maldives. economic activities such as fishing, agriculture and tourism, loss of income Description especially amongst the poorest, damage to fishing vessels, reduced food security Goal due to poor accessibility and limitations Improve the resilience of access in disaster management. infrastructure and island beaches to

Maldives is at present badly in need to severe weather events and predicted improve the access infrastructure climate change development and management in order Objective 1: Develop climate change to adapt to future climate change risks. resilient, environment friendly and cost Currently, there is a lack of trained effective engineering solutions for access coastal engineers to design structures suitable for a coral island environment, infrastructure which not only withstands climate risks Activities but also considers the preservations of coastal environment as much as possible. 1.1 Undertake studies to develop Maldives also lack the scientific access infrastructure engineering knowledge required to develop solutions based on the current sustainable coastal infrastructure. climate change scenarios, Furthermore, there is also a marked lack considering the least impact of awareness amongst island solutions on the surrounding communities on the future risks involved coastal environment. with improper coastal structures and a need to strengthen the regulatory 1.2 Undertake cost effectiveness and framework required to facilitate better benefit-cost analysis of the management. suitable designs

If measures to streamline proper design 1.3 Demonstrate and test the and construction of access infrastructure effectiveness of the new design aren't developed as an urgent priority, by constructing a model harbour there is risk of considerable economic in a development focus island. damage in the near future and a 1.4 Establish mechanisms to monitor possibility that the vulnerable groups the model harbour and within the outer islands may have to bear periodically report findings. 119 Adaptation Projects - Project 18

1.5 Establish mechanisms to transfer Objective 2: Improve regulatory positive findings from the model framework to incorporate climate change harbour into a National Access resilient standards for access Infrastructure Design and infrastructure Construction Standard (NAIDCS) Activities Short-term outputs 2.1 Establish mechanisms to transfer 4 Suitable access infrastructure positive findings from the model options for Maldivian coral island harbour into a National Access environment developed Infrastructure Design and 4 Cost effectiveness and benefit- Construction Standard (NAIDCS) costs reports for most suitable designs developed and the most 2.2 Develop the National Access suitable design adopted Infrastructure Design and 4 A model harbour constructed Construction Standard and incorporate into the regulatory 4 Monitoring mechanisms framework minimum design and established for the model construction standards for harbour implementing access 4 Mechanisms to incorporate infrastructure projects. findings from new harbour into a new National Access 2.3 Strengthen the enforcement of Infrastructure Design and EIA regulation in all access Construction Standard (NAIDCS) infrastructure projects. established 2.4 Raise public awareness on the Outcome new standards and the importance of complying with Cost effective climate change resilient them during site selection and environment friendly access process. infrastructure designs developed and mechanisms to replicate Short-term outputs

new designs nationwide 4 National Access Infrastructure established. Design and Construction Standard (NAIDCS) established.

4 Provisions for efficient and strict enforcement of EIA regulations in public access infrastructure development projects established. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 120

4 A number of public awareness Implementation programmes conducted on the NAIDCS Institutional arrangement

Outcome Lead agency

Regulatory framework for design and Ministry of Construction and Public construction of access infrastructure Infrastructure. enhanced. Partner agencies Objective 3: Develop the capacity of Ministry of Atolls Development; Ministry national organizations to properly design of Housing and Urban Development; and evaluate access infrastructure Ministry of Environment, Energy and projects Water.

Activities Project Steering Committee

3.1 Establish mechanisms to transfer Policy-level officials and community positive findings from the model representatives harbour into a National Access Infrastructure Design and Project Management Team Construction Standard (NAIDCS) Officials from Ministry of Construction 3.2 Train selected staff from and Public Infrastructure. regulatory authorities and implementation agencies, in the Risks and barriers field of coastal engineering. 4 Potential high costs of developing

Short-term outputs climate change resilient structures today. 4 5 Staff trained in the field of 4 Although harbours have been coastal engineering developed in a large number of 4 Training programmes conducted inhabited islands so far for staff of regulatory authorities improvements to these existing and implementation agencies on structures may require complete NAIDCS upgrades.

Outcome 4 Trained staff retention at the specified field and location. Local capacity in access infrastructure 4 Long-term studies required to design and assessment developed. assess potential effective designs may be beyond the project timeframe. 121 Adaptation Projects - Project 18

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

US$3,800,000 National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 122

Project Investigating alternative livebait management, catch, culture and holding techniques in the 19 Maldives to reduce vulnerability of the tuna fishery sector to the predicted climate change and variability.

Rationale declined. This particular species is an obligate corralivore and the rapid demise The ability of Maldives to manage its of the live corals had an impact on their fisheries is crucial to sustain livelihoods survival. With such direct vulnerability of and social and economic well being. The live bait availability to changes in coral fishery catches almost 150,000t of tuna reef ecosystem evident, it is imperative every year with fish exports valued at that alternative ways and means of US$88 million. The fishing activity itself livebait is sought to adapt to climate provides direct employment for about change. One obvious means is 16,000 people and thousands more in mariculture. Captive culturing of livebait post-harvest activities. The fisheries species (Caesionids, Apogonids, Clupeids) contribution to annual GDP is more than is new and needs to be investigated in 7 percent. the Maldives.

Live bait is a pre-requisite for the pole The possibility of catching livebait in the and line fishery in the Maldives. Without open outer atoll water will be another adequate and continuous supply of useful adaptation option. It will have the livebait pole-and-line fishery will not additional benefit of relieving exist. The bait is traditionally caught exploitation pressure on coral reef for during daytime using a square lift net livebait. This will contribute to richer deployed alongside the boat. The bait biological diversity and sustainable eco- fishery has seen rapid changes in recent tourism development. years and fishermen now use lights at night for catching bait. Tuna fishing activities in the Maldives are directly related to livelihoods and play a Coral reefs are the habitats for livebait critical role in poverty alleviation in the and they are highly vulnerable to islands. The human stresses on the coral changes in SST and other climate reefs of the Maldives are acute due to changes. This has significant implications rapid developments such as reclamation, for the availability of bait as shown by harbour dredging, and sand mining. On the 1998 coral bleaching event when the other hand a highly successful abundance of long nose file fish tourism industry is promoting (Oxymonocanthus longirostris) rapidly sustainable use of the reef resources and 123 Adaptation Projects - Project 19

advocating no take of corals, sharks, and techniques. The fishermen will be aquarium fish. In the absence of this motivated to experiment by themselves project, there is a real possibility that the for bait catching in oceanic waters. amount of available bait fish will decline Fishery research and development is a with deteriorating coral reef conditions, key priority policy in the seventh causing significant time and effort to be National Development Plan (NDP) and spent on bait fishing, over exploitation of research on bait fish is a priority strategy certain bait species, social conflicts of the seventh NDP. In addition to the between tourism and fisheries If national benefits the proposed project successful, the activities proposed in this would generate several global benefits project have potential to limit or cease and help fulfill important obligations of the bait fishing activities on the reef the Maldives under international thereby promoting sustainable use of the conventions and agreements relating to coral reefs and making them more sustainable use of living marine resilient to natural disturbances caused resources, and maintaining biodiversity. by climate change. Description The fishery dependent communities and tourism dependent communities stand to Goal gain much from this project. The proposed activities will be carried out Better bait fishery management and with full participation of fishermen and exploration of alternative techniques of their involvement will have added livebait catching, culture and storage to benefit of education, better reduce the vulnerability of bait fish to understanding and finally acceptance of predicted sea surface temperature sustainable bait fishery methods. Their changes and consequent habitat changes. expertise in selection of project Objective 1: Enhance the knowledge on demonstration areas and timing will on bait use and utilization, alternative the other hand be crucial to the success livebait, catching methods and improved of the project. The new knowledge gained will be shared with key holding techniques. stakeholders to develop new policies and Activities guidelines to manage bait fishing.

1.1 Undertake a comprehensive The expected benefits in the immediate review of bait biology, bait use term would be better know how, policies, and bait utilization in the and regulation of bait fishery and Maldives. demonstration of alternative bait fishing

methods and bait fish breeding options. 1.2 Identify, catalogue and map At times of poor bait fishery fishermen popular baitfishing grounds in will have at their disposal new each atoll National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 124

1.3 Undertake scientific and different methods of attracting technical evaluations for live bait

alternatives to bait and 4 Evaluation report on use of alternative species mycophids as livebait 4 1.4 Study and evaluate the potential Economic and financial feasibility for mariculture of alternative of alternatives to bait and species of bait. different methods of bait catching established 1.5 Conduct bait fishing trails in 4 Priority ranking of bait fishery various regions of the Maldives solutions in different periods to investigate efficacy of attracting livebait Outcome using different methods Well informed decision making for 1.6 Conduct bait fishing trails using sustainable development & management submersible lights in the open of bait fishery based on up-to-date ocean to investigate the scientific knowledge potential for use of mycophids as livebiat Objective 2: Strengthen the policy, regulatory and institutional framework 1.7 Evaluate the cost effectiveness of for bait fishery management alternatives to bait and alternative methods of bait Activities catching 2.1 Develop manuals and guidelines 1.8 Identify and rank the practical for best practice on bait fishery solutions to bait fishery in the 2.2 Develop the policies, rules and Maldives standards to regulate bait fishery Short-term outputs in the Maldives

4 Targeted research study reports 2.3 Prepare a stakeholder and public on bait biology, bait use and participation plan for bait fishery utilization management 4 Bait resource use maps for each atoll 2.4 Conduct education and outreach programmes for fishermen on 4 Identification of alternatives to rational utilization of livebiat bait and alternative species

4 Practicality and applicability of 2.5 Develop a bait fishery research mariculture for bait determined implementation strategy

4 Information made available on 125 Adaptation Projects - Project 19

2.6 Undertake training on research strategies leading to improved overall methods to investigate bait health of reef ecosystem, biological catching options diversity and species richness strengthening the adaptation capacity of 2.7 Training on mariculture for the communities dependent on fisheries and existing research staff; establish tourism for their livelihoods. collaborative research programme with appropriate Objective 3: Demonstrate innovative, overseas institutions appropriate and cost-effective mariculture for breeding alternative 2.8 Identify methods/techniques for livebait species measuring bait catch and

utilization Activities

Short-term outputs 3.1 Undertake in-depth assessment 4 Best practice guide for bait of mariculture technology fishery focusing on the specific needs of

4 New policy and regulatory the fishermen and the future framework for bait fishery vulnerabilities of coral reef developed ecosystems to climate change and human induced stresses. 4 Definition of stakeholders and a

public participation plan 3.2 Develop criteria for the selection 4 Training workshops for fishermen of mariculture demonstration on rational use of bait and species and sites training material disseminated 3.3 Select species and sites for 4 An endorsed bait fishery research mariculture demonstration based strategy on selection criteria, and 4 Research methods training national priorities. provided to research team

4 Training workshops, study tours, 3.4 Implement mariculture demonstration projects in the exchange programmes and existing fisheries extension exposure trips on mariculture service centres 4 Tools and markers for measuring

bait catch and bait utilization Short-term outputs determined 4 In-depth technology needs

Outcome assessment of mariculture for bait Effective bait fishery management policy, regulation and operational research National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 126

4 Selection criteria for bait Risks and barriers mariculture demonstration sites 4 R& D investments are low in the and species Maldives. 4 Sites and species for mariculture 4 Few qualified scientists selected 4 Results of demonstration projects Evaluation and monitoring made available to stakeholders The project will be monitored according Outcome to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly Demonstrations of mariculture progress reports, expenditure reports, technologies that target particular annual monitoring reports will be concerns of the fishermen and removing submitted to MPND. Donor requirements the technical and financial barriers on M&E will be fulfilled. relating to the implementation of such technologies. Financial resources

Implementation Total project cost: US$ 1.027 million

Institutional arrangement

Lead agency

Marine Research Center

Partner agencies

Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources; Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water; Ministry of Economic Development and Trade;

Project Steering Committee

Policy-level officials, community representatives, private sector and NGOs

Project Management

Full time project staff will be recruited. 127 Adaptation Projects - Project 20

Project Improve the health status of the population, particularly children, by the prevention and 20 management of vector-borne diseases caused by changes in temperature and flooding due to extreme rainfall.

Rationale outbreak of dengue occurred in 1979, the second in 1983 and the third 1988 Vector borne diseases such as dengue which was the worst with 2054 cases of and scrub typhus are climate related and dengue fever and nine deaths in children are major communicable diseases of under 10 years. After that for 10 years public health concern in the Maldives. there were no outbreaks until the next Disease trends show that dengue is now occurred in 1998 with a total of 1750 endemic in the country with seasonal cases and no reported death. The outbreaks. Epidemiological data shows incidence of vector-borne disease will continued high prevalence from mid also increase with increase frequency of 2005, spreading to the atolls, leading to flooding. At present 18% of inhabited epidemic proportions. Scrub typhus islands experience rainfall and/or ocean- which was endemic in the country in the induced flooding at least once a year. early years of the 20th century reemerged in 2002 resulting in mortality Human stresses on environment such as rates as high as 10%. Although mortality poor solid waste disposal, increasing rate has declined to 1% with appropriate number of construction work sites and case management, scrub typhus continue poor sewage and wastewater disposal to be prevalent causing significant increases vector breeding sites. In the morbidity. In December 2006 the absence of this project, it is likely that country had its first outbreak of incidence of vector-borne diseases would Chikungunya, another climate related increase leading to reduced quality of life vector-borne disease. in the vulnerable population. With vector-borne diseases at epidemic There is high likelihood that the proportions children and the more predicted climate change, particularly vulnerable groups face increased risk of changes in temperature and rainfall mortality. Control of vector-borne regimes, will cause higher incidence of diseases is a priority of the government vector-borne diseases. Evidence shows as outlined in the 7NDP. that dengue outbreaks are becoming more frequent and there is an association with ENSO events. The first National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 128

Description 4 Inter-agency co-ordination mechanism.

Goal 4 Public awareness materials for TV, radio, media and materials for Protect human health from climate distribution. change-related vector-borne diseases. 4 Costs to society quantified and Objective 1: Undertake integrated vector policy-makers sensitised. management (IVM) to prevent climate 4 Training materials on IVM. change related vector-borne diseases. 4 Trained healthcare services staff

Activities at island, atoll, regional and national level. 1.1 Conduct inter-sectoral consultations and agree on roles Outcome and responsibilities of Climate change-related vectors government agencies and proactively controlled through Integrated island/atoll councils in IVM. Vector Management (IVM).

1.2 Educate public on elimination of Objective 2: Develop the capacity for vector breeding grounds and early diagnosis and establish effective other vector control measures. disease and vector surveillance system 1.3 Assess the economic implications for planning and response. of current and emerging climate- Activities related vector-borne diseases and cost to society. 2.1 Develop and orient service

1.4 Strengthen capacity of island, providers on case definitions, atoll, regional and national detection, reporting and healthcare services on their standard operating procedures respective roles in oversight, on vector-borne diseases. management, implementation 2.2 Improve tracking and reporting and/or monitoring of the IVM of vector-borne diseases cases to program. facilitate timely response to outbreaks and mitigate their Short-term outputs impact. 4 A stakeholder participation plan

for IVM. 2.3 Strengthen laboratory capacity 4 IVM included in the mandate of for early diagnosis. island/atoll councils 129 Adaptation Projects - Project 20

2.4 Train atoll level health care Implementation worker/community on vector surveillance. Institutional arrangement:

2.5 Strengthen monitoring and Lead agency evaluation and, operational Ministry of Health research capacity to assess effectiveness of innovative Partner agencies strategies and interventions. Department of Public Health; Ministry of Short-term outputs Environment, Energy and Water; Ministry 4 Manual on case definitions, of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine detection and reporting Resources; Ministry of Housing and procedures and, standard Urban Development; Ministry of Atolls operating procedures. Development; Male' Municipality; Atoll 4 Orientiation training programme Offices; Island Offices for service providers. Project Steering Committee 4 An automated database on

vector-borne diseases accessible Policy-level officials, community to healthcare planners and representatives, private sector and NGOs service providers. Project Management 4 Laboratory test kits and diagnosis procedures. Full-time project staff will be recruited. 4 Training manual and training programmes on vector Risks and barriers surveillance. 4 Lack of human resources, 4 Monitoring and evaluation information and financial procedures. resources. 4 Report on successes and failures and lessons learned on vector disease control.

Outcome

Early diagnosis and complete case management improved and capacity for timely and appropriate response to outbreaks established. National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 130

Evaluation and monitoring

The project will be monitored according to the national M&E standards set by President's Office and MPND. Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND. In addition, any donor finance agency requirements on M&E will be fulfilled.

Financial resources

Total project cost: US$350,000 131 References

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National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives

Annex 137 Annex 1 - Maldives NAPA processes and key steps

Annex 1 Maldives NAPA Process and Key Steps

NAPA process was guided by the and Measures, and Project Proposals. The principles of transparency, broad country-driven NAPA of 2006 is the stakeholder engagement, partnership successive climate change adaptation building among focal agencies, strategy that precedes the Second community participation and ownership National Communication. Hence the by the people of Maldives especially the NAPA goes beyond the policies and atoll population, multi-disciplinary measures in the FNC and the project analysis and synergy with national profiles included needs speedy development policies. implementation.

The procedures in the UNFCCC The NAPA project in the Maldives was Annotated Guidelines for the Preparation implemented as part of the Integrated of National Adaptation Programmes of Climate Change Strategy (ICCS) that Action was adapted and streamlined to included the Technology Needs suit the Maldives. The Maldives has Assessment for mitigation and already undertaken several studies on adaptation and, the National Capacity the vulnerability of the nation and the Self-Assessment. special adaptation needs of the country. The ICCS is also consistent with the policy The Maldives submitted its FNC in 2001 directive in the Sixth National that included National GHG Inventory, Development Plan to pursue a Mitigation Plan for GHG Emissions, programmatic as opposed to project- Vulnerability to Climate Change, based approach when implementing the Adaptation to Climate Change, Policies Government's policies and to create National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 138

meaningful and sustainable partnerships 4 Ministry of Transport and between the public and private sectors Communication and civil society, in order to achieve the 4 Ministry of Economic goals of national development. Development and Trade

4 Ministry of Housing and Urban Participatory process Development 4 Stakeholder engagement Ministry of Atolls Development 4 Ministry of Planning and National A multi-disciplinary team was established Development to formulate the NAPA. The CCTT was 4 Energy Section - Ministry of responsible for formulating the NAPA Environment, Energy and Water and, in the future, will be responsible for 4 coordinating the implementation of Water Section - Ministry of activities under the NAPA framework. The Environment, Energy and Water CCTT was appointed through an open 4 Department of Meteorology and flexible process that was inclusive 4 Environment Research Centre and transparent. At the inception 4 Educational Development Centre meeting of the project key stakeholders 4 had the opportunity to review Ministry of Health membership of the CCTT and propose 4 Maldives Fishermen's Association additional members. 4 Land and Marine Environmental Resources Group Pvt. Ltd. The CCTT comprises of representatives of 4 Ministry of Environment, Energy and Seamarc Water the lead agency, and other key 4 Banyan Tree Resort Maldives players including stakeholders such as members of relevant government Partnership building ministries and private sector. The Experience has shown that it takes stakeholders represented in the CCTT are: considerable time to enhance national 4 Ministry of Tourism and Civil and local capacity to implement Aviation adaptation measures. As such capacity 4 Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture enhancement activities were undertaken and Marine Resources as part of the NAPA formulation process.

4 Marine Research Centre The aim of capacity enhancement was to ensure that key partners play an 4 Ministry of Construction and appropriate, meaningful and productive Public Infrastructure role in the development and ultimate 4 Maldives Transport and implementation of the NAPA. In capacity Contracting Company building the focus was on addressing the 139 Annex 1 - Maldives NAPA processes and key steps

urgent need for (i) personnel who have 4 Male' Municipality

the technical understanding of 4 Ministry of Environment, Energy vulnerability to climate change and of and Water possible adaptive responses, who are 4 Maldives College of Higher competent in applying methodologies for Education vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) 4 Commerce, Development and assessments, who can translate their Environment Pvt Ltd technical knowledge and skills into recommendations for policy and 4 Haa Dhaalu Atoll Office

decision-makers and who can assist in 4 Gaafu Alifu Atoll Office providing longterm and continuous 4 Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll Office assistance towards implementing project 4 Seenu Atoll Office level adaptation activities; (ii) enhanced awareness for both political and Awareness raising community levels in relation to the current vulnerability of the Maldives to In addition to the training activities climate and sea level variability, to the undertaken to build technical knowledge potential increase in climate hazards and and skills of relevant individuals in the associated risks as a result of climate government and private sector climate change, and to the opportunities to change targeted public awareness raising reduce the vulnerabilities and risks was also undertaken. Awareness raising through adaptation. materials were prepared in both Dhivehi and English language taking into account The following ministries and agencies the capacities, needs and concerns of the benefitted from the partnership building stakeholders. Dedicated radio and TV activities. programmes were funded by the NAPA 4 Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture project. and Marine Resources Awareness raising sessions were held for 4 Ministry of Planning and National the students of Muhibbuddin School - Development Hithadhoo (Seenu Atoll), Seenu Atholhu 4 Marine Research Centre Madharusa -Hulhumeedhoo (Seenu 4 Department of Public Health Atoll), Gnaviyani Atoll Education Centre - 4 Ministry of Transport and Fuammulah, Majeediya School - Male', Communications English Preparatory and Secondary

4 Maldives Water and Sanitation School - Male' and Ghiyasuddeen School Authority - Male'. 4 State Electric Company A special public lecture was organised 4 Maldives Transport and with national NGO, Volunteers for Contracting Company Environment, Social Harmony and National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 140

Improvement (VESHI) to provide including the private sector participated information on the latest science of in the consultation. A follow-up climate change. The internationally consultation session was held on 01st recognized scientist Prof. John Hay October 2006. provided the public lecture. Multi-disciplinary approach Community awareness raising sessions were held for multi-sector In formulating the NAPA a multi- representatives from Haa Alifu, Haa disciplinary approach was adopted. The Dhaalu, Shaviyani, Gaafu Alifu, Gaafu NAPA framework was built upon key Dhaalu, Gnaviyani and Seenu Atoll. theories of sustainability, risks, capital Awareness raising sessions were held in deepening and institutions from ecology, Kulhudhuffushi (Haa Dhaalu Atoll), sociology, economics and political Hithadhoo (Seenu Atoll) and Fuammulah science literature. (Gnaviyani Atoll). Given the multi-disciplinary approach Stakeholder consultations adopted for NAPA it was necessary to bring expertise from a variety of sectors, Three stakeholder consultations were civil society and government. A working organised one at national level and two group was established to ensure that the at regional level. The consultations were NAPA was comprehensive and covers the organised to seek the views of key social, economic and environmental opinion leaders and representatives from aspects of sustainable development. The key sectors on critical vulnerabilities to NAPA Working Group also facilitated high climate change and priority adaptation standard for the project profiles and measures. The first regional consultation allowed CCTT to work closely with policy- was held in the North region at makers in relevant sectors and with Kulhudhuffushi (Haa Dhaalu Atoll) from officials from the Ministry of Planning 11th to 12th September 2006. and National Development and Ministry Altogether 28 participants from Haa Alif, of Finance and Treasury. The NAPA Haa Dhaal and Shaviyani Atoll attended Working Group consultative process the consultation. The second regional helped increase the knowledge base of consultation was held in South region at the CCTT and assisted them to carry out Hithadhoo (Seenu Atoll) from 16th to NAPA formulation. The NAPA Working 17th September 2006. Altogether 37 Group consisted of senior executives participants from Gaafu Alifu, Gaafu from key partner agencies and private Dhaalu, Gnaviyani and Seenu atoll sector. The following are the members of attended. The national consultation was the NAPA Working Group: held in Male' (Bandos Island Resort) from 13th to 14th September 2006. A total of 30 participants from 20 agencies 141 Annex 1 - Maldives NAPA processes and key steps

4 Dr. Mohamed Shiham Adam 4 Mr. Hussain Naeem Senior Executive Director, Marine Environment Analyst, Ministry of Research Centre Environment, Energy and Water

4 Dr. Abdulla Naseer - Executive 4 Ms. Lubna Moosa - National Director, Ministry of Fisheries, Project Manager, Integrated Agriculture and Marine Resources Climate Change Strategy Projects,

4 Dr. Sheena Moosa Director, Ministry of Environment, Energy Health Science, Ministry of and Water Health 4 Ms. Hafeeza Abdulla - NAPA

4 Dr. Simad Saeed - Project National Consultant Manager, Atoll Ecosystem-based A hazard-vulnerability-impact matrix was Conservation project, Baa Atoll developed from a multi-disciplinary 4 Mr. Amjad Abdhulla Director, perspective to gauge the critical Ministry of Environment, Energy vulnerabilities and impacts on the and Water Maldives. Based on the results of the 4 Mr. Ahmed Jameel Director, interactive cause and effect matrix Ministry of Environment, Energy detailed V&A assessments were and Water conducted for fisheries, coral reef

4 Ms. Mariyam Saleem - Senior biodiversity, human health, land, beach Research Officer, Marine and human settlements, and critical Research Centre infrastructure. 4 Mr. Ibrahim Shaheen Director, A series of climate policy research papers Maldives Transport and were prepared for discussion and Contracting Company advocacy. These papers were 4 Ms. Fathmath Shafeega - disseminated widely for feedback, Assistant Director, Ministry of presented at a national consultation and Planning and National made available for public review on the Development website of the Ministry of Environment,

4 Dr. Ahmed Jamsheed Mohamed - Energy and Water. These papers will be Senior Medical Officer, published in the future as official policy Department of Public Health research reports.

4 Mr. Ahmed Shaig PhD Candidate, Method James Cook University, Australia 4 Mohamed Aslam - Director, In the NAPA six steps were followed in Surveying, Land and Marine sequence each feeding its output as input Environmental Resources Group to the next step. Pvt. Ltd 1. Development of criteria for prioritization National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 142

2. Identification of priority vulnerable (beach, vegetation, water, coral sectors reefs and related ecosystems) is

3. Detailed V&A for priority sectors reduced.

4. Identification of adaptation 2. Degree to which adverse effects of activities climate change to produced capital (public infrastructure, 5. Prioritization of adaptation utilities such as power, water activities supply and telecommunications)

6. Development of project proposals is reduced. 3. Degree to which adverse effects of 1. Development of criteria for climate change to human capital prioritization (loss of life, human health) is reduced. The criteria for prioritization were developed by the NAPA Working Group. Objective 2: Reduce poverty and promote The criteria and the process for equality to enhance adaptive capacity. prioritization were pilot-tested in 4. Degree to which disparity between Gn.Fuammulah in June 2006. Based on Male' and the atolls is reduced. the pilot-testing the method was refined 5. Degree to which empowerment of and improved. women is achieved.

Two broad objectives were used to 6. Degree to which food security is prioritize the development sectors that increased. are vulnerable to climate change. These Objective 3: Achieve synergy with objectives are: national development goals and MEAs. 1. Relevance to national development 7. Degree to which the economy can be strengthened and diversified. 2. Degree of climate impact 8. Degree to which employment Four broad objectives were selected as opportunities can be increased the basis for prioritization of adaptation particularly for youth and activities and criteria were developed to women. assess adaptation activities against each 9. Degree to which the natural objective. The objectives and the environment will be protected. respective criteria are: 10. Degree to which people and

Objective 1: Reduce the degree of adverse property can be made safer from damage caused by natural effects of climate change. disasters. 1. Degree to which adverse effects of climate change to natural capital 143 Annex 1 - Maldives NAPA processes and key steps

Objective 4: Cost-effectiveness. impact matrix are:

11. Degree to which adaptation 1. Land, beach and human measure is socially accepted. settlement

12. Degree to which the adaptation 2. Critical infrastructure;

measure is financial feasible. 3. Tourism;

13. Degree to which the measure is 4. Fisheries; technically feasible. 5. Human health;

2. Identification of priority vulnerable 6. Water resources; sectors 7. Agriculture and food security and, 8. Coral reef biodiversity. In order to list the sectors that are vulnerable to predicted climate change a Detailed V&A assessments were carried review of (1) the latest global climate out by national consultants for coral reef scenarios predicted by the IPCC, (2) local biodiversity, fisheries, human health, climate trends estimated in the Climate land, beach and human settlement and Risk Profile for the Maldives, (3) FNC, (4) critical infrastructure. It was not possible IPCC Third Assessment Report; and (5) to undertake detailed V&A assessments other relevant international studies on for tourism, water resources and, the impact of climate change on small agriculture and food security due to lack island states was undertaken. of local capacity and time constraints.

Based on the literature review a 4. Identification of adaptation activities summary matrix of the global and local trends in climate change, key In order to identify adaptation activities vulnerabilities of the Maldives to the three stakeholder consultations were predicted climate change hazards and held. The stakeholders were informed the impacts on the different about climate hazards, specific development sectors was drawn up. The vulnerabilities of the islands' ecosystem, matrix was used as a guide to produce economy and people to the identified the list of vulnerable sectors that needed hazards and about the impacts of climate further assessment. change. These stakeholders were also informed about the adaptation measures A national workshop was held to recommended in the V&A assessments. prioritise sectors. Following the provision of background information the stakeholders were asked 3. Detailed V&A assessment for priority to identify sectors 4 what are the key

The priority sectors based on the vulnerabilities/impacts to climate objectives and the hazard-vulnerability- change? National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 144

4 what are the existing measures circulated for feedback and input from that reduce the vulnerability of respective government agencies who will systems and groups to climate have primary responsibility for their change? implementation. The profiles were also

4 what are the existing circulated widely for comments and development policies and presented to the CCTT and a national measures that increase the workshop for endorsement. vulnerability of systems and groups to climate change? Country-drivenness

4 what are the new adaptation The NAPA of the Maldives was developed policies and measures required to through a country-driven process. As an address critical vulnerabilities and important element of the NAPA the impacts? Maldives Adaptation Policy Framework was developed. This Framework captures The answers to these questions were from a national perspective the used to identify adaptation activities. important interactions that would lead to Group discussions were held to agree on adaptation to climate change in the the key adaptation activities. Maldives. 5. Prioritization of adaptation activities The key sectors assessed in the NAPA

Once the adaptation activities were reflect specific geographic and economic identified by the regional and national characteristics of the country. Maldives is level consultative process, analytical a coral reef based small island hierarchy process was used to prioritize developing state made up of 1190 small adaptation activities. The multi-criteria tropical islands. As such fisheries, decision tool pair-wise ranking was used tourism, coral reef and beaches play a by the stakeholders to first give weights critical role in the economic agenda of to the criteria for prioritization. Next the the country. stakeholders were asked to provide a The Maldives is divided into 20 score from 0-10 for each activity against administrative regions called atolls. Since each criterion. The scores were then there are no significant variations in summed based on the weight for the environmental features across the atolls criteria. the impact of climate change on all the 6. Development of project proposals atolls is likely to be similar. Specific islands may be more vulnerable to The project profiles for priority different hazards than others but a adaptation activities were initially regional analysis was not warranted. developed by the members of the NAPA Working Group. The profiles were 145 Annex 1 - Maldives NAPA processes and key steps

the public consultations held a very high policies and measures are integrated into level of enthusiasm was shown by the 7NDP. Most of the NAPA policies and community leaders which augers well for measures are cross-cutting in nature and the implementation of the NAPA. In the contribute to several important aftermath of the tsunami there is a very development sectors. The NAPA policies high level of realisation of the also contribute to the protection of vulnerability of the country and the need important environmental resources such for risk reduction. as water, soils, land and biological diversity. The criteria for prioritization of adaptation activities were determined The adaptation measures in the NAPA are based on national development directly relevant to the guiding principles, priorities. A tailor-made analytical goals and strategies of the 7NDP. The framework based on how the adaptation 7NDP identifies the vulnerable low lying measures affect the level and quality of islands and fragile reef environment as a capital assets natural, human and key challenge to sustainable produced capital was used to evaluate development in the Maldives and adaptation activities. endorses the NAPA as a means to address the challenge posed by global warming Contribution to overall sustainable and sea level rise. The policies and development goals measures in the NAPA are integrated into the national development policies on The Maldives NAPA will contribute to macroeconomic and financial national sustainable development goals. management, tourism, fisheries, The national Vision 2020 envisions that agriculture, construction, transport, land protective measures will be taken to development, environmental combat global environmental threats and management, natural disaster environment friendly lifestyles will be preparedness and mitigation, water adopted in the Maldives. NAPA is resources management, healthcare and dedicated to adapt to the threats posed housing. In order to integrate the policies by global climate change. into the 7NDP the NAPA Team worked closely with the officials of Ministry of The seventh millennium development Planning and National Development, goal is to ensure environmental Ministry of Finance and Treasury, sustainability. Target nine of MDGs is to Ministry of Health, Ministry of FIsheries , integrate the principles of sustainable Agriculture and Marine Resources and development into country policies and Ministry of Environment, Energy and programmes and reverse the loss of Water. environmental resources. NAPA identifies policies and measures required to adapt to global climate change and these National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 146

Government endorsement and sector representatives on the priority commitment vulnerabilities and adaptation measures. The NAPA Working Group contributed to

NAPA is endorsed at the highest level of the operational management of the government and in his foreword to the NAPA process and provided continuing NAPA the President called for all feedback to improve the NAPA. government agencies to extend their full The draft methods, reports and working cooperation to implement the NAPA. papers were circulated for comments and

In addition to the inclusion of NAPA in feedback. The draft text of the NAPA was the 7NDP the Third National distributed to all the members of the Environment Action Plan contains a CCTT and key agencies of the dedicated chapter for addressing global government for comments and feedback. climate change based on The NAPA was endorsed by the recommendations of the NAPA. The government at a national workshop held Ministry of Environment, Energy and on [date]. Water has developed an implementation strategy to ensure the successful implementation of NAPA. The National Commission for the Protection of Environment (NCPE) will oversee the implementation of NAPA and a special interagency task force is envisaged to ensure the respective agencies of the government mobilise international financial assistance and allocate public financing to the priority project profiles in the NAPA.

Transparency

The NAPA was formulated through a transparent and open process. New ideas and differing opinions were encouraged from the beginning and consultative process was adhered to. The CCTT were informed about all the decisions taken and methods adopted. National and regional level consultations were held to seek the views of community and key 147 Annex 2 - List of participants in the national and regional workshops

Annex 2 List of participants in the national and regional workshops

NAPA Nation Workshop on Identifying and Prioritisation of Adaptation Measures

1 Hawwa Nizma (Department of Public Health) 2 Dr.Sheena Moosa (Ministry of Health) 3 Shazly Shafeeq (Ministry of Economic Development & Trade) 4 Thomas le Berre (Seamarc Pvt.Ltd) 5 Marie Saleem (Marine Research Centre) 6 Ahmed Adham (Ministry of Transport & Communication) 7 Man B. Thapa (UNDP) 8 Gulfishan Safeeq (Education Development Centre) 9 Aishath Niyaz (Water Solutions Pvt. Ltd) 10 Mohamed Ali Janah (Maldives Association for Construction Industry) 11 Mohamed Latheef (Ministry of Transport & Communication) 12 Mohamed Azim (Ministry of Housing & Urban Development) 13 Azim Musthag (Maldivers Diving Center) 14 Aminath Haifa Naeem (Ministry of Planning and National Development) 15 Abdul Azeez Abdul Hakeem (Banyan Tree Maldives) National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 148

16 Ahmed Zuhoor Mohamed Hussein (State Trading Organization) 17 Zahid (Department of Meteorology) 18 Aishath Shahida (Maldives Food and drug Authority) 19 Dr. Ahmed Jamsheed Mohamed (Department of Public Health) 20 Mohamed Fayaz (Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure) 21 Ismail Raheed (Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure) 22 Ahmed Musid (Waste Management Section) 23 Azzam Ibrahim (State Electric Company) 24 Mohamed Fizan Ahmed (Waste Management Section) 25 Dr. Mohamed Shareef (Ministry of Planning and National Development) 27 Abdul Azeez Jamal Aboobakuru (Ministry of atolls Development) 26 Aiminath Haifa (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water) 28 Ahmed Jameel (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water) 29 Aishath Aileen Niyaz (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water) 30 Dr.Simad Saeed (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water)

NAPA North Regional Workshop on Identifying and Prioritisation of Adaptation Measures

1 Ahmed Naseem Kelaa-Haa Alifu 2 Najma Najeeb Kelaa-Haa Alifu 3 Mohamed Hassan Maarandhoo-Haa Alifu 4 Adam Naseer Dhidhdhoo-Haa Alifu 5 Ibrahim Khaleel Ihavandhoo-Haa Alifu 6 Abdulla Saeed Hoarafushi-Haa Alifu 7 Fathimath Zahira Hoarafushi-Haa Alifu 8 Mohamed Zahir Baarah-Haa Alifu 9 Sifla Shakir Utheemu-Haa Alifu 10 Afra Ibrahim Muraidhoo-Haa Alifu 11 Mohamed Zahir Baarah-Haa Alifu 12 Abdul Razzaq Hanimaadhoo-Haa Dhaalu 13 Idhrees Abdulla Hanimaadhoo-Haa Dhaalu 14 Abdul Rahman Ismail Kulhudhuffushi-Haa Dhaalu 15 Khadeeja Ali Kulhudhuffushi-Haa Dhaalu 16 Ibrahim Hassan Kulhudhuffushi-Haa Dhaalu 17 Musthafa Hussein Nolhivaran-Haa Dhaalu 18 Ali Mahir Nolhivaran-Haa Dhaalu 149 Annex 2 - List of participants in the national and regional workshops

19 Shareefa Ahmed Kulhudhuffushi-Haa Dhaalu 20 Mohamed Zahir Vaikaradhioo-Haa Dhaalu 21 Adam Mohamed Vaikaradhioo-Haa Dhaalu 22 Hassan Shiham Neykurendhoo-Haa Dhaalu 23 Mohamed Arif Kanditheemu-Shaviyani 24 Ahmed Shareef Goidhoo-Shaviyani 25 Hathim Moosa Feydhoo-Shaviyani 26 Mohamed Abdul Rahman Maroshi-Shaviyani 27 Ismail Ibrahim Komandoo-Shaviyani

NAPA South Regional Workshop on Identifying and Prioritisation of Adaptation Measures

1 Mohamed Zaeem Villingili-Gaafu Alifu 2 Musthafa Mohamed Villingili-Gaafu Alifu 3 Ali Zubeir Villingili-Gaafu Alifu 4 Masood Ahmed Villingili-Gaafu Alifu 5 Ahmed Zareer Gemanafushi-Gaafu Alifu 6 Nasrulla Gemanafushi-Gaafu Alifu 7 Mohamed Didi Kandu Hulhudhoo-Gaafu Alifu 9 Thagiyyu Ibrahim Kolamaafushi-Gaafu Alifu 10 Amjad Musthafa Maamendhoo-Gaafu Alifu 11 Athir Ibrahim Thinadhoo-Gaafu Dhaalu 13 Mohamed Nasih Rasheed Thinadhoo-Gaafu Dhaalu 15 Mohamed Manik Hoadedhdhoo-Gaafu Dhaalu 16 Layagath Ali Fares-Gaafu Dhaalu 17 Ibrahim Riyaz Gadhdhoo-Gaafu Dhaalu 18 Mohamed Shaheedh Gadhdhoo-Gaafu Dhaalu 19 Mohamed Igbal Fiyoree-Gaafu Dhaalu 20 Ashraf Rasheed Maathodaa-Gaafu Dhaalu 21 Ahmed Waheed Mohamed Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 23 Ali Nafiz Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 25 Ibrahim Abdulla Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 26 Thoriq Ahmed Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 27 Mohamed Ahmed Didi Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 28 Mohamed Musthafa AhmedFuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 29 Eenaas Ali Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 30 Khadeeja Ahmed Fuvahmulah-Gnaviyani 31 Shabana Waheed 32 Ibrahim Shiyam National Adaptation Programme of Action - Maldives 150

33 Ahmed Haneef 34 Mohamed Zahid 35 Ibrahim Rasheed Hithadhoo-Seenu 36 Mohamed Rasheed Moosa 37 Aishath Zuhaira Hithadhoo-Seenu 38 Fathmath Shifaza Hulhudhoo-Seenu 39 Mohamed Shimaz 40 Saudulla Hameed Hithadhoo-Seenu 41 Aminath Mohamed Hithadhoo-Seenu

Ministry of Environment Energy and Water