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Rainfed Agriculture in a Semi-Arid Tropical Climate : Aspects of Land

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Rainfed Agriculture in a Semi-Arid Tropical Climate : Aspects of Land RAINFEDAGRICULTUR E INA SEMI-ARIDTROPICA LCLIMAT E Aspectso fland -an dwatermanagemen t forre d soils inIndi a India'sgrea tpotentia l formor e foodproductio n isi nit sdrylands . Ch.Krishnamoorthy ,S.L .Chowdhur yan dE.D .Sprat t (1974) 0000007 8 Promotoren: ir.L .Horst ,hoogleraa r ind e irrigatie dr.ir.W.H .va nde rMolen , hoogleraar ind e agrohydrologie (^fO©^\, L02i F. P. Huibers RAINFED AGRICULTURE INASEMI-ARID TROPICAL CLIMATE Aspects of land-and watermanagement for red soils in India LAîOw.'.-JV » KOt;» .-.iCliOGL WAGENIf «GE N PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor in de landbouwwetenschappen, op gezag van de rector magniticus, dr. C.C.Oosterlee , in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 22 maart 1985 des namiddags te vier uur in de aula van de Landbouwhogeschool te Wageningen \&il' ^<U OM^-^3 Voor Ingrid, Loeke nStefa n HNOf^O^iT)«^ 3 ROPOSITIONS Theconclusio n that "55- 70%o f the seasonal rainfall onAlfisol s eitherrun sof fo rdrain s todeepe r layers"i sincorrect . S.A. El-Swaify, T.S. Walker and S.M. Virmani (1984). Dryland management alternatives and research needs for Alfisols in the semi-arid tropics: 14. By including seederswit hprecisio nmeterin g asattachment s toth e bullockdrawnwheele d toolcarrier ,a ssuggeste d by ICRISAT,a n unnecessary,troublesom e and expensive element isadde d toa n otherwise practicalunit . Systems indicated as"reduce d tillage"an d "no-tillage",a sdevelope d inNorth-America n agriculture,sugges tbein g simple and energy saving compared to"conventiona l tillage".I nrealit y theybelon g toth emos t highlydevelope d and capital intensive agricultural systems andar e ofver y limited use todevelopin gcountries . Inth espher e of applied research,th ecollection ,adaptatio nan d combinationo favailabl eknow-ho wma y often lead toa faster ,cheaper , better andmor ewidel y applicable result,compare d toth einitiatio n ofne wexperimentation . Inthi srespec t international agricultural research institutes have animportan t role toplay . Considering the largenumbe r ofwidel y differing interpretations of theterm s "farming system"an d "farming systems research"i ti sclea r that theus eo f such terms ismor e oftenbase d onopportunis m thano n a scientific approach. Insituation swher e thecro p coverdoe sno texten d over theentir esoi l surface it isnecessar y tomode l separately theprocesse s of transpiration and evaporation. Jury, W.A. (1979). Water transport through soil, plant and atmosphere. In A.E. Hall, G.H. Cannell and H.W. Lawton (eds.): Agriculture in semi- arid environments. Inth e semi-arid tropics,probabl ymor e than inothe r climaticregions , irrigationwate rdoe sno thav e the scarcityvalu e itshoul dhav eo nth e basis of socio-economic considerations.Distortion sma yb ecause db y technical reasons,a swel l asb y local elitism andpolitica linterests . Inlow-inpu tagricultur e small-holders are,i ngeneral ,th emos t efficient users ofresources .Developmen t plans should takemor enot e ofthis . Ingeneral ,energ yca nb esupplie dmor e efficiently and at lowercost s when iti sdecentrall y generated. It isi nth e interest ofman y developing countries ifth e involved technology,require d by such a strategy,i sfurthe rdevelope d and adapted. 10. Inkomende telefoongesprekken krijgenvaa k tenonrecht e eenvoorkeurs ­ behandeling. P.Huibers .Rainfe d agriculture ina semi-ari d tropical climate.Aspect s of land-an dwatermanagemen t forre d soils inIndia .Wageningen ,2 2Marc h 1985. PREFACE On the basis of an agreement between the Government of the Netherlands (Directorate General for International Co-operation, DGIS)an d the Inter­ national Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), I worked as an associate expert within the Farming Systems Research Program of ICRISAT inHyderabad , India, for aperio do ffou ryears .Thi sha sgive n me the opportunity to get acquainted with the semi-arid region of India, its people, the institute and the research on land- andwatermanagement . After this period, both DGIS and theAgricultura lUniversit y ofWageninge n enabled me to proceed with the subjecto fland -an dwatermanagemen t andt o compile and complete my research with thewritin g of this thesis.Fo r all thissuppor t Ia mver ythankful . The idea to write this thesis was conceived during the early part ofm y research work at ICRISAT. It started as an initiative ofDr .B.A .Krantz , at that time the head of the Farming Systems Research Program, and was supported by Dr.J .Kampen , then leader of the Land- and Watermanagement Subprogram. At that moment, the decision to proceed was positively in­ fluenced by the conception that it could result in the incorporation of aspects of rainfed agriculture into the study "tropische cultuurtechniek" at the Agricultural University Wageningen, which was historically almost exclusively oriented towards irrigated agriculture. Ia mgla dt onot etha t indeed the interest for and activities on this subject have increased tremendously in recent years.T o a large extent this should be attributed to the activities of agrou p ofstudent swh o suggested theintroductio no f acours eelemen to nrainfe dagriculture . I appreciate the role ofm y promotors.A ta nearl y stage,contac twa smad e withprof .ir .L .Horst ,wh oshowe dgrea tinteres t inm ywor kan dsinc ethe n has continued to support me, also by enabling me to work athi sdepart ­ ment.Hi ssuggestio nt oreques tprof .dr .ir .W.H .va nde rMole nt otak epar t as promotor proved to be very valuable. Vande rMolen' s interest in the VI subject and his long-standing experience aspromoto rha shelpe dm emuc ht o improveo nearlie rdraft so fthi sthesis . During the period of experimentation, Ihav edepende d onman yperson s (too many to name individually)wh o Iwoul d like to thank for their collabora­ tion.Amon gth escientist s ofth eLand -an dWatermanagemen t Subprogram Ia m especially obliged to Mr.K.L .Srivastava , who for all years since 1981 functioned as a pleasant and efficient contact person. Iwoul d like to thank all field assistants Iworke d with, especially Mr.P .Kistaiah ,th e late Mr.Y .Buch iRedd y and Mr.L .Nageshwar a Rao. My appreciation also goes to Dr.M.B .Russell , with whom I had extended discussions on the subject. I am grateful to Dr.S.M . Miranda, head of the Land- andWater - management Subprogram between 1980 and 1982, for his support andhospita ­ litydurin gm y latervisi tt oICRISAT . I further acknowledge the technical support and adviceso fMr .S.K . Sharma and his crew, the co-operation of Mr.S.R . Patel,wh o worked with me for some time and the experimental work done by ir.S.J . Weststeyn during the 1982rain yseaso no nwhic hresult s Ials odraw . While writing this thesis I have made fruitful use of comments and help given by ir.N.V .Vink , prof.dr .ir .H .Luning , ir.W.B .Hoogmoe d and others. Ia mthankfu l tothem . Much technical work is to be done before the final printing of athesis . Mrs. F.Jacobs-Wie n did a seemingly endless job in typing most of the drafts, Mrs.J . Millican took care of the English correction, while Mr.F .va nErns t drew the figures. My thanks toal lo fthem .Fo rth efina l typing I am obliged to Mrs.M . van Hunen who worked hard to finish in time. I feel grateful tom y mother andm ylat e fatherwh ovalue deducatio nhigh ­ ly- Ihav eappreciate d theinteres tshow nb ymany . Particularly I am indebted to Ingrid for her continuing encouragement and help. VII CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2 RAINFED AGRICULTURE: ITS OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT 2.1. Agriculture: Its Early Development 7 2.2. Agricultural Development in Modern Times 8 2.3. Soil and Water 9 2.4. Irrigated Agriculture 10 2.5. Irrigated versus Rainfed Agriculture 10 2.6. Rainfed Agriculture and Erosion 12 2.7. Land- and Watermanagement in Rainfed Agriculture 13 2.8. The Watershed Approach 13 CHAPTER 3 THE SEMI-ARID TROPICS AND ITS AGRICULTURE 15 3.1. Definition of the Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT) 15 3.2. Description of the Red Soils 19 3.3. Common Cropping Systems 21 3.4. The Water Component: Availability, Drainage, Irrigation 26 CHAPTER 4 WATER-MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS INARID - AND SEMI-ARID AREAS 28 4.1. General 28 4.2. Systems of Water Diversion and -Collection 29 4.2.1. Water Harvesting 31 4.2.2. Agricultural Water Harvesting 32 4.2.3. Runoff Farming 33 4.2.4. Runoff Collection 34 4.3. Techniques of in situ Water Conservation 35 VIII CONTENTS (cont.) PAGE 4.4. Crop Management in Semi-Arid Tropical Agri­ culture 36 4.5. Appraisal ofWatermanagemen t Systems for Red Soils 37 CHAPTER 5 THE WATER MOVEMENT IN RAINFED AGRICULTURE 43 5.1. A Flow Chart for Water Movement 43 5.2. Rainfall Characteristics of Hyderabad, India 48 5.2.1. The Rainfall Distribution 49 5.2.2. Intensities of Rainstorms 52 5.3. The Profile Water 53 5.3.1. Infiltration of Red Soils 53 5.3.2. Evapotranspiration 58 5.3.3. Crop-Available Profile Moisture 60 5.4. Excess Rainfall and Depression Storage 62 5.4.1. Micro-Depressions 64 5.4.2. Mini-Depressions 66 5.4.3. Macro-Depressions 67 CHAPTER 6 APPROACHES TO INFLUENCE THE WATER-BALANCE AND THEIR EFFECTS 68 6.1. Influencing the Profile Water Balance 68 6.1.1. Infiltration Inducement 69 6.1.1.1. Primary Tillage and its Effect on Infiltration 70 6.1.1.2. Secondary Tillage and its Effect on Infiltration 73 6.1.1.3.
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