Choice, Responsibility, Justice: Work and Family in Australia Mary Leahy
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Choice, responsibility, justice: Work and family in Australia Mary Leahy BA (Hons) (Melb.); Grad. Dip. (Asian Studies) (Monash) Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Faculty of Business and Law, Victoria University Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2012 Abstract We all start life needy, dependent on adults for our survival. Many of us will rely on the care of others during the final stages of our lives. Between these two periods we may draw on intensive support to help us cope with illness, disability or tragedy. Our dependence is a core characteristic of our humanity, yet it is ignored or denied by dominant political and economic theories. In Australia, as in every other country, it is mostly women who provide the care of children as well as people who are sick, disabled or aged. Although there are often intrinsic rewards, unpaid care work is time consuming and limits the carer's ability to engage in other types of activities, including paid employment. The majority of employed carers are women, with their work attracting low levels of pay. Characterised by an uneven distribution of both care work and resources, the dynamics of work and family life in Australia raise important questions of justice. While the Australian work and family literature is rich in detail, it tends to be under theorised. My research helps fill this gap, providing theoretical depth and greater conceptual clarity to an ongoing and often heated public debate. Using philosophical inquiry I examine the nature of the problem of care, the way it is framed and the implications for social policy. Rejecting dominant choice and preference theories and aspects of care ethics, I find that Martha Nussbaum's capabilities approach provides a more promising theory for thinking about care and gender equality. However, I raise a number of questions concerning care, responsibilities, the appropriate political goal and the ontology of capabilities. To address these issues I propose an extended and restructured capabilities list, which I test by evaluating three contentious policy issues: extended parental leave, carer's payment and shared care. I find that my revised capabilities approach provides a stronger support for justice in the way care is provided. Student Declaration I, Mary Leahy, declare that the PhD thesis entitled Choice, responsibility, justice: work and family in Australia is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Signature Date I '^- A^-A 5-°^ Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor James Doughney for his patience, encouragement and, most of all, for our many stimulating debates and discussions. It has been a real pleasure. I also appreciate the support and thoughtful advice of my co-supervisor Marty Grace. There are many colleagues, fellow conference participants, friends and family members who, at different times, listened, challenged my ideas and provided encouragement and much needed distraction. In particular, I would like to thank Joanne Pyke and Leesa Wheelahan. Of course, the responsibility for the errors, omissions and inadequacies that remain in this work is mine alone. This project would not have been possible without the love and support of Fred Ritman and our two daughters Niamh and Saskia. I am deeply grateful. Girls, this is for you, in the hope that the circumstances under which your generation provides care will be just and humane. v Table of contents List of Figures ix Glossary of abbreviations xi Chapter 1 The problem of care 1 Chapter 2 Work and family in contemporary Australia 7 Chapter 3 Philosophical perspective 25 Chapter 4 Work and family in Australia - literature and policy 57 Chapter 5 Choice and preferences theories 81 Chapter 6 Ethics of Care 103 Chapter 7 Care and the capabilities approach 135 Chapter 8 An extended and restructured list 159 Chapter 9 Care and justice 183 References 199 Appendices 243 vii List of Figures Figure 1 Structure of reality 50 Figure 2 A vicious cycle: barriers to participating in paid employment and to taking responsibility for the care of family members 99 Figure 3 The relationship between capabilities and flourishing 171 Figure 4 The relationship between capabilities and flourishing. 177 Figure 5 The links between groups of capabilities and underlying structures 177 IX Glossary of abbreviations ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics AIRC Australian Industrial Relations Commission AIHW Australian Institute of Health and Welfare CCB Child Care Benefit CCR Child Care Rebate DEEWR Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations FaHCSIA Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs DFACS Department of Family and Community Services EMTR Effective marginal tax rate EOWA Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency FTB Family Tax Benefit FTBA Family Tax Benefit part A FTBB Family Tax Benefit part A GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product NES National Employment Standards OECECC Office of Early Childhood Education and Child Care OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PI Participation Income PPL Paid Parental Leave RCT Rational Choice Theory TLM Transitional Labour Market TFR Total Fertility Rate UBI Universal Basic Income UNDP United Nations Development Programme xi Chapter 1 The problem of care 1.1 Introduction In 2004, a Melbourne playwright and novelist Joanna Murray-Smith (2004) raised a question she claimed we are too scared to hear - Is a working mother good for the child? She followed this with another question - How can we challenge the wisdom of pursuing a career without seeming to push women back into traditional roles? Needless to say, Murray-Smith's article provoked a strong response. It was pointed out that she focused on mothers and ignored the role of fathers (Bantick 2004; Conor 2004; Croggon 2004; Donahoo 2004; Porter 2004), failed to understand feminism (Conor 2004; Ross 2004), neglected the effects of class (Porter 2004) and did not challenge conventional ideas about mothering (Croggon 2004; Porter 2004). However, the real problem is that Murray-Smith asked the wrong questions. She focused on the decisions made by individual mothers and failed to scrutinise the social, economic and political conditions under which mothers live. The issue is not the selfishness of educated mothers but the unfair allocation of responsibilities. The injustice is captured in the feminist economist Nancy Folbre's delightful retelling of the Australian artist Norman Lindsay's (1970 (1918)) story for children called The Magic Pudding: According to Norman Lindsay's classic tale, a lovable but rather clueless group of males come into possession of a walking, talking pudding that provides a limitless supply of food. The pudding in question is rather cranky, and occasionally tries to run away. In the end, however, it is fenced into its own little paddock, firmly in the possession of the Society of Puddin' Owners. Times have changed since the story was published in 1918, though you might not guess this from the recent cartoon film version. We know now that the pudding is not really named Albert. Its real name is Mother. It represents the supply of feminine altruism that has been the major provider of care not just for children, the sick and the elderly, but also for many working-age adults. This supply of altruism remains magical in its ability to meet the needs of its loved ones. But it is not (and never has been) inexhaustible. And there are many signs that it is wearing thin. Furthermore, consider who you would like to be when you grow up: Bunyip Bluegum, a cute little koala free to venture into the world with nothing but a walking stick, or Magic Pudding, a captive in a cookpot available to meet everyone else's needs. (Folbre 2002)1 1.2 The nature of this study This thesis is primarily a philosophical inquiry into the problem of care. Women and men in contemporary Australia tend to have different types of responsibilities, opportunities and 1 The Australian artist Norman Lindsay wrote The Magic Pudding, in part, to settle an argument with a friend who claimed that children liked stories about fairies. Lindsay disagreed, stating that children liked to read about food (Norman Lindsay Gallery 2011). 1 rewards. I argue that a just society is not possible if some members receive inadequate care or if the conditions under which care is provided are exploitative. Care for those who need it is central to social and economic sustainability. It shapes our sense of well-being. The way we organise, support and reward care and other types of work is a moral or ethical matter. It concerns values and beliefs about our entitlements and responsibilities. It is not possible to devise a just model for the social organisation of care without addressing moral questions. The Australian literature on work and family is extensive and rich in detail. However it tends to be under-theorised. This thesis aims to help fill this gap by offering theoretical depth and greater conceptual clarity to an ongoing, and often heated, public debate. There are four main aspects to the original contribution made by my work. First, I provide a specification of the ethical problem of care, demonstrating that it is a question of justice. Secondly, I provide a critical evaluation of the Australian research, an evaluation grounded in the philosophical literature. Thirdly, I show that we have a responsibility to provide care as well as an entitlement to receive care. This has profound implications for both theory and social policy.