Movie-Induced Tourism. Analysis of Benefits and Challenges for Destination Marketing and Development

Institute of Hospitality Management in Prague

Daria Kireeva

Movie-induced tourism. Analysis of benefits and challenges for destination marketing and development

Bachelor dissertation

2018

Movie-induced Tourism. Analysis of Benefits and Challenges for Destination Marketing and Development

Bachelor dissertation

Daria Kireeva

Institute of Hospitality Management in Prague

Department of Marketing

Major field of study: Hospitality Management

Dissertation advisor: Ing. Štěpán Chalupa

Date of submission: 2018-04-25

Date of defence: June 2018

Email: [email protected]

Prague 2018

Oath

I swear that the bachelor dissertation titled “Movie-induced tourism. Analysis of benefits and challenges for destination marketing and development” was written by me independently, and that all literature and additional material used are cited in the bibliography and that this version is exactly the same as the work submitted electronically.

In accordance with §47b law no. 111/1998 coll. on higher education institutions, I agree to my dissertation being published in its complete form in the publicly accessible electronic database of the Institute of Hospitality Management in Prague.

Signature

……………………………………

Daria Kireeva

In Prague on 25.04.2018

Special acknowledgement to my grandfather, Yury Kireev, who taught me to never give up.

Abstract

KIREEVA, Daria. Movie-induced Tourism. Analysis of the Benefits and Challenges for Destination Marketing and Development. [Bachelor dissertation] Institute of Hospitality Management in Prague. Prague: 2018. 55 pages.

This bachelor dissertation considers the tourism niche of the movie-induced tourism within the broader area of the tourism industry. The aim of the dissertation was to define this phenomena, identify different types of film tourism and focus on its potential for the destinations‘ marketing and development. The paper puts attempts to examine if the movies and other visual representations of the various destinations are powerful enough to increase an interest in that destination therefore creating such a phenomenon as movie tourism. Furthermore, this dissertation looks into the positive and negative effects of the movie-induced tourism and examines New Zealand as a study case for the successful usage of the film tourism opportunities. The data for the research was collected from the secondary data sources, including statistical government reports and existing researches on the topic. The main findings indicate that film induced tourism is a growing trend and, if destinations take advantage of all the existing opportunities, can be used as a powerful marketing tool. Though, there exist several negative as well as positive effects of it that need to be considered. However, if managed effectively, even negative consequences can be turned into positive ones. New Zealand is believed to be an outstanding example of the marketing and developing of the destination through the movie-induced tourism which is based on the analysis of the collected data from different available sources. However, it has been found that there is still space for development in the Matamata region and country in general. Further recommendations for future Matamata region development and more productive use of the film tourism to the benefit of the country as a destination are given in the end of the dissertation.

Key words: destination – development – film – marketing – movie – tourism.

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ...... 7 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 9 1.1 MOVIE-INDUCED TOURISM ...... 9 1.1.1 HISTORY OF MOVIE TOURISM ...... 9 1.1.2 FORMS OF MOVIE TOURISM ...... 10 1.1.3 DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MOVIES AND TELEVISION SERIES ...... 14 1.2 MARKETING OF THE DESTINATIONS ...... 15 1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH ...... 20 1.4 METHODOLOGY ...... 21 2. IMPACTS OF THE MOVIE TOURISM ...... 21 2.1 POSITIVE IMPACTS ...... 22 2.2 NEGATIVE IMPACTS ...... 23 3. CASE STUDY: NEW ZEALAND ...... 26 3.1 KEY TOURISM STATISTICS ...... 26 3.2 FILM TOURISM IN THE COUNTRY ...... 29 3.2.1 FILM INCENTIVES ...... 30 3.2.2 THE ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF THE SCREEN INDUSTRY ...... 31 3.2.2.1 CONTRIBUTION TO THE GDP ...... 32 3.4 HOME OF MIDDLE-EARTH ...... 32 3.4.1 THE LORD OF THE RINGS AND THE HOBBIT ...... 34 3.4.2 THE HOBBITON MOVIE SET ...... 36 3.4.3 MARKETING ...... 36 3.4.4 ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION ...... 41 3.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 44 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 46 4.1 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 47 4.1.1 TANGIBLE REPRESENTATION ...... 47 4.1.2 TOURIST AREAS ...... 47 4.1.3 THEMED FESTIVALS ...... 48 4.1.4 NOMENCLATURE ...... 48 LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 50

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS, AND EXPLANATIONS

DMO – Destination Marketing Organization GDP – Gross Domestic Product NZ – New Zealand LBSPG – Large Budget Screen Production Grant LOTR – the Lord of the Rings MBIE – Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment NZIER – New Zealand Institute of Economic Research NZSPG – New Zealand Screen Production Grant pa – per annum RTO – Regional Tourism Organization

LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES, AND GRAPHS

Figure 1. The Scope of Movie Tourism Figure 2. The stages of the exhibition cycle Figure 3. International visitor spending in Matamata-Piako Figure 4. Hobbit trilogy tourism-related industry exports

Table 1. Emerging themes on film and tourism Table 2. Destination Marketing Activities and Opportunities Table 3. Literature on the movie-induced tourism Table 4. International visitor arrivals (year ending December 2017) Table 5. International visitor expenditure (year ending September 2017) Table 6. Regional Tourism Spend (year ending December 2017) Table 7. International tourism forecasts (forecast period 2017 to 2023) Table 8. National government money spent on The Lord of the Rings Table 9. Level of destination marketing material relating to LOTR and New Zealand

Graph 1. Total annual spend of International visitors in New Zealand Graph 2. The screen industry’s contribution to GDP Graph 3. Tourist arrivals to New Zealand 1998-2005 Graph 4. International visitors in Matamata – Piako District 1997-2009 Graph 5. International visitor growth in Matamata-Piako 2009-2017

Picture 1. Distribution of international and domestic tourism spend for the year ending December 2017

INTRODUCTION

Tourism industry nowadays is developing rapidly, tourists are becoming more experienced and picky in their choice of holiday destination. The hospitality industry itself is very competitive with many new destinations trying to attract the tourists. Today people need to be enticed, therefore destinations need to be marketed effectively to maintain the market share and attract new market segments. The emphasis therefore should be on positioning and differentiation. There is a rising number of tourists visiting places featured through movies and television series which are not directly related to tourism marketing campaigns. This phenomenon is called movie-induced tourism or film-induced tourism. The increasing popularity of movie-induced tourism is strongly connected to the rise of international travel and the growth of entertainment industry (Hudson & Ritchie, 2006). For destinations, movies do not only produce a short-term revenue but also long-term prosperity. Despite the growing interest in movie-induced tourism, it has received little attention from researches and practitioners. The rising awareness and discussion concerning movie-induced tourism in academic literature and the absence of the broad and structural studies on this subject is the primary reason the research is being conducted. On one hand, academics were interested in how movies serve as the factor of interest to visit a particular destination. On the other, studied about the tourists’ satisfaction in following movie tourism. However, the review of the previous studies shows that no one has ever studied the movie tourism as a tool for destination marketing and development. Furthermore, film-induced tourism was not considered as business in the literature. There is only a few articles, which state that movie tourism can be viewed as a long perspective business (see Ward and O’Regan, 2009). Hence, the aim of the research is to analyse the benefits and challenges for destination marketing and development through the movie-induced tourism by using New Zealand and the Hobbiton Movie Set as the case study and to fill in the gap between earlier studies in regard to this type of tourism. The paper puts attempts to examine if the movies and other visual representations of the various destinations are powerful enough to increase an interest in that destination therefore creating such a phenomenon as movie tourism.

The Lord of the Rings and New Zealand are inseparable. The movie was made using several locations in New Zealand. Based on the literature review, none of the studies have specifically examine this particular site. Despite the popularity of the Lord of the Ring trilogy and The Hobbit trilogy in movie- induced tourism literature, there is little emphasis on the discussion of the Hobbiton Movie Set and New Zealand in general in terms of the film tourism business. Therefore, this research will elaborate upon the connection between the Hobbiton Movie Set as a prime example of the movie tourism business and main attraction in Matamata region and in the whole country of New Zealand. In order to achieve this aim, several objectives were defined. Which include: 1. conduct a literature review to identify the nature of the movie-induced tourism, its influence on the tourism and familiarize with already existing studies on that subject; 2. collect quantitative and qualitative data from statistical bureaus and other available sources; 3. analyse the data; 4. analyse positive and negative impacts of the on-location movie-induced tourism; 5. consider New Zealand as an example of successful marketing of the destination through the movie-induced tourism; 6. produce conclusions and recommendations and make predictions for the future development of the industry and destinations.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW

The increasing number of researches on the movie-induced tourism is the main background for this study. Movie-induced tourism is a relatively new field of study that has recently emerged in the larger area of the tourism industry. Therefore, to engage in a study of film tourism, it is essential to prior explain several core definitions and concepts relevant to this research, which would be discussed further in this chapter.

1.1 MOVIE-INDUCED TOURISM Movie-induced tourism has also been referred in various sources with the terms “film- induced tourism”, “film tourism”, or “media-induced tourism”, or “cinematographic tourism”. There is a wide range of definitions and explanations of movie-induced tourism: on-location tourism that follows the success of a movie made (or set) in a particular region. By using the term “film-induced tourism”, this can be expanded to include television, video and DVD (Beeton, 2016); this newly defined tourism niche refers to a post-modern experience of a place that has been depicted in some form of media presentation – an experience that is highly personalized and unique to each individual based on their own interpretation and consumption of media images. (Macionis, 2004) In that sense, the terms of film tourist and tourist film destinations need to be defined, as they are constituent segments of film tourism: film tourists are tourists whose travel motivation was film-induced; tourist film destinations are exclusively related to places, locations, events and characters promoted on the cinema screen. (Gjorgievki, et al., 2012)

1.1.1 HISTORY OF MOVIE TOURISM

History of the movie-induced tourism can be dated back to the year 1935, when The Mutiny on the Bounty was released. At that time, Tahiti became major tourist destination as it was featured in the movie. In the literature on the film tourism it is said that the movie was one of the pioneer movies which encouraged tourists to visit a film location (Roesch, 2009). In 1936, Rose-Marie brought tourists to Canada (Brégent-Heald, 2007). In 1949, a decade later, The Third Man became a main attraction for Vienna since tourists wanted to visit the locations featured in the movie. Similarly, in Salzburg, Austria, more than 300,000

9 tourists visited each year to experience the original locations of The Sound of Music movie which was aired in 1965 (Roesch, 2009). Between the 1970s and 1980s the world saw the growth in global movie-induced tourism, along with the development of mass tourism and increased film production. Morley and Robins (1995) added that this time period can be characterized as the development era of media such as Time Warner, Disney, etc. As a result of these developments, the movie industry became bigger and produced better quality movies. The 1980s and 1990s were noted as a period when promotional activity for motion pictures became more active. For example, the producers of Jurassic Park (1993), Kathleen Kennedy and Gerald R. Molen, spent US$ 68 million for advertisement of the movie alone. During this time, most producers were increasing the marketing budgets which led to the increase in the production costs of the movies (Roesch, 2009). In the early 2000s, several motion pictures were released, such as The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (2001), Gladiator (2000), The Beach (2000), etc. Among them, three could be identified as movies that induced the tourism. The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) increased tourism in New Zealand by up to 50% after the movie was first shown (Peaslee, 2010). Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (2001) was believed to bring more tourists to Great Britain, which was approximately a 50% increase of visitors in every filmed location (Rewtrakunphaiboon, 2009). Meanwhile, The Beach (2000), which was shot in Thailand and is believed to gain 22% increase in tourists’ arrivals to the country (Rewtrakunphaiboon, 2009). It was also stated that the movie contributed to the country’s economy in the amount of US$13 million (Law, Bunnell, and Ong, 2007). Nowadays, a lot of these locations remain main tourist attractions at the destinations they were filmed. As Harry Potter saga continues with the release of new movies and books, it keeps attracting visitors to Great Britain. Despite the fact that the production of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies is over, the fame of these movies keeps attracting tourists to New Zealand. New screen phenomena like Game of Thrones television series bring massive auditoria both to the screens and to the locations it has been filmed at (for example, the Republic of Ireland).

1.1.2 FORMS OF MOVIE TOURISM

The simplicity of the definitions does not represent the whole variety and complexity of movie-induced tourism. Tomala and Faber (2011) and Connell (2012) argue that movie

10 tourism is more than an activity to visit a particular location because it appeared in film or/and movies. They believe that the scope of movie-induced tourism is broader. Their view on the forms of movie tourism is represented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The Scope of Movie Tourism

Movie tourism

Film promotion Movie-induced tourism tourism

Film premiers, Marketing of the Visit to a festivals and location in location directly Film park, studio award relation to associated with ceremonies particular movie the movie

Subtitute Real location location: studio

Source: Adapted from Tomala and Faber (2011), and Connel (2012)

Film premiers, festivals and award ceremonies are things that have very close relation to the movie itself. After the post-production process, the movie is released, which is the film premiere. Later on, it could be nominated for various awards and can take part in the festival program. The common efforts of the movie representatives and the media can attract more tourists to the film location. A movie can be shot in different locations; however, the film makers may use a single city for it, such as for Breaking Bad, the TV series. Albuquerque, New Mexico is the city set as the location for the TV series. Due to the high popularity of the series, the city attracts visitors to travel there and have a tour around the filming sites (Ironside, 2014). One can

11 see the same effect in the city of Atlanta, Georgia, where the fans of the TV series The Walking Dead would travel to take the “zombie” tour (Hunter, 2015). In 1982 in the Victorian High Country, hundreds of kilometers from New South Wales, Australia, was produced a movie called The Man from Snowy River. Though the filming location was quite far from New South Wales, the Australian government created an advertisement to attract tourism in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales (Beeton, 2016). Taking in consideration this example, it can be concluded that governments are taking advantage of motion pictures as their way to promote tourism in their region. It is supported by a statement of Scotland’s national tourism organization that film tourism is a business to attract visitors through a place’s storyline in the film, video, and television (Roesch, 2009). Most of the time a lot of scenes from modern movies are manipulations from the production studio. Walt Disney, Warner Bros., 20th Century Fox, Universal, Sony, Paramount and Lionsgate are the seven major film production studios that produce US films (based on ComScore statistics). The vast majority of the movies they produce are action movies, such as, Harry Potter, James Bond and Batman. The Leavesden studios located in the UK was originally an aircraft factory, which was later turned into the shooting set for the movies mentioned above. Currently, the studio is open to the public and is one of several of must visit attractions for Harry Potter Fans. The studio is a part of the Harry Potter experience tour and according to the news, the tour helped the studio bring in more profit in 2013 (Sylt, 2014). Film theme parks or studios, such as, Disneyland and Universal Studios to name a few, remain as a part of film tourism. Disneyland was originally founded by Walt Disney because he wanted to show the reality version of his movies and nowadays there are several parks across the world with millions of visitors yearly (Allen, 2014). On the contrary, Universal Studio, founded in 1912 was not meant to be a theme park. It was a real studio used for production of movies produced by Warner Bros (Horak, 1999). Subsequently, the theme park was built for the same reason as Disneyland and currently is filled with characters not only from Warner Bros., but from Sony and the Fox Company as well. On the other hand, Beeton (2016) argues that movie-induced tourism should be divided according to the location as on-location and off-location tourism. The classification of the tourism according to its relation to the location is shown in the Table 1.

Table 1. Emerging themes on film and tourism

Form Characteristic Example On-Location The film site is an attraction Film tourism as a primary in its own right – strong Isle of Mull (Balamory) travel motivator enough to motivate visitation Visiting film locations (or Film tourism as a part of a studios) as an activity within holiday a larger holiday Visiting sites of films in Doune Castle (Monty order to “pay homage” to Film tourism pilgrimage Python); Lord of the Rings the film; possible re- sites enactments Homes of celebrities: film Celebrity film tourism locations that have taken on Hollywood homes celebrity status The Andy Griffith Show Visiting film locations that Nostalgic film tourism (1950s era); Heartbeat represent another era (1960s era) Commercial On-Location An attraction constructed Constructed film tourism Heartbeat Experience after the filming purely to attraction (Whitby, UK) attract/serve tourists Tours developed to various Film/movie tours On Location Tours film locations Guided tours at specific on- Tours of specific sites, often Hobbiton location set on private land Mistaken Identities Movies and TV series that are filmed in one place that Film tourism to places is created to look like Deliverance, Clayburn where the filming is only another; often in other County (movie filmed there, believed to have taken place countries for financial but set in Appalachia) reasons; known as “runaway productions” The films have raised Film tourism to places interest in a particular Braveheart, Scotland (movie where the film is set, but not country, region or place, filmed in Ireland) filmed where the story is based, not where it was actually filmed Commercial Off-Location Industrial tours of working film Film studio tours studios, where the actual Paramount Studios filming process can be viewed

Form Characteristic Example Usually adjacent to a studio, specifically build for Film studio theme park tourism with no actual Universal Studios filming or production taking place One-off or Recurring Events The Lord of the Rings: Particularly those outside Return of the King (New Movie premiers traditional sites such as Zealand); Mission Hollywood Impossible II (Sydney) Many cities hold film Film festivals festivals that attract film Cannes, Edinburgh buffs and fans for the event Often events where participants dress in character, meet the stars Fan-based events (both in and out of costume) Comic Con and purchase memorabilia. Based at convention sites, not filming sites or studios Armchair Travels The successor to travel Getaway, Pilot Guides, An Television travel programs guidebooks and written Idiot Abroad travelogues Many cooking shows take Cook’s Tour, Rick Stein’s Gastronomy programs the viewer to various places programs around the world While not focused on selling travel (as with many travel Documentaries (cultural and programs), these National Geographic; David natural) documentaries focus on the Attenborough programs exotic and unusual in the world

Source: Beeton (2016).

In the conducted research, the scope of movie-induced tourism is limited only to the number of tourists visiting a particular location. The Hobbiton Movie Set is an example of on-location tourist attraction in which the site is a real place, where the movie was made.

1.1.3 DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MOVIES AND TELEVISION SERIES

Most of the academic literature on film-induced tourism is focused on movies. While they can be significant cultural representations and motivators, movies tend to be a one-off or limited experience, for both the producers and the majority of spectators, whereas

14 television series have a longer screening and filming period, with a greater and more complex story line. Therefore, the viewer’s empathetic relationship with the story, characters and setting is developed and maintained over a period of time. This not only keeps the region where the series is filmed in people’s minds, building on and reinforcing the desire to visit, but also sees the film crews spending extended periods of time at the on- location sites over many years. Unless the movie proves to be enormously popular, television series tend to have more long-term impacts. Beeton (2016) examined the movie-induced tourism from the wide angle, using this term for defining the visitation to the locations where movies and television programs have been filmed as well as tours to movie-making studios and film-related theme parks. She states that there are several forms of movie-induced tourism. These include visits on- location and off-location. On-location tourism includes tourists visiting specific movie sets used in the film. Meanwhile, visiting a movie premiere or academy award can be categorized as off-location movie-induced tourism. More than 40,000 visitors attended the Edinburgh International Film festival in 2012 (ETAG, 2012). Over 100,000 people were expected to visit the premier of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey in 2014 in Wellington (Barnes and Cieply, 2012). A visit to theme parks such as Disneyland Paris also belongs to off-location movie tourism. Due to the huge number of visitors (in 2016, the park welcomed 13.4 million people), the existence of the business brings benefits to the local community, therefore, the park has been labelled as a “flagship attraction” by Kruczek (2011). Flagship attractions refer to any natural or man-made attraction which must be important in a particular area.

1.2 MARKETING OF THE DESTINATIONS

A significant element that determines the success and sustainability of the on-location movie tourism is marketing. By means of acting as push and pull factors films are ideal destination marketing tools. They provide a massive amount of exposure to destinations at little cost to the Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) (Roesch, 2009). Various destinations have actively used the benefits and DMOs have “used the success of film- induced attractions to promote their region to visitors” (O’Connor, Flanagan & Gilbert, 2010). In 1986, ‘media fiction’ was firstly mentioned as a promotional tool that could be successfully employed for tourism purposes (Beeton, 2016). Therefore, “placing a destination in film is the ultimate in tourism product placement”, as films are significant in

15 portraying the image of a destination (O’Connor, Flanagan and Gilbert, 2010). Roesch argues that especially in a post-modern world the influence of visual media has been recognized in shaping travel patterns of tourists to particular destinations by means of image creation and distribution. Film media such as commercials, travel documentaries, feature films, series and television programs have been utilized as promotional tools. These days, visual media are the most powerful instruments in generating images of a place, as people “place more importance on visual information sources than on written ones”. (Roesch, 2009) Therefore, one cannot be surprised that movies have become a valuable promotion tool. The tourism industry has made films to promote destinations and various travel products. Movie as a mass medium is able to manipulate and sway audiences and may even encourage them to travel. While films strictly speaking are “non-marketer controlled, in that the tourism bodies have no control over the film production”, DMOs can make use of motion pictures to showcase a destination. Therefore, films remain unofficial marketing tool as it is not their primary purpose to act as advertisements (Roesch, 2009). Nevertheless, various countries and government organizations have come to understand the benefits of movie-induced tourism and the exposure provided by visual media. Therefore, destinations are trying to market their countries or regions as “film friendly”. By “developing relationships with major film studies, international and local PR companies and advertising agencies” they encourage film organizations to produce films at their localities (Beeton, 2016). Once destinations are able to secure contracts for on-location filming, the various planning and film production stages provide opportunities for the promotion of the tourist destination to the public. Generally, the film exhibition cycle for one cinematic production lasts up to 36 months. However, in the case of movie series such as the Star Wars films, The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies or the Harry Potter movie series, this cycle may be expanded to up to six or ever eight years (Roesch, 2009). On the other hand, in case of television series such as Downton Abbey, Supernatural, Friends, Sex and the City, Dallas or Game of Thrones, the exhibition cycle may even extend to ten years or more. Tourism and marketing stakeholder must ensure that audiences draw a lasting connection between the film and the destination to ensure the success and sustainability of tourism to the sites where filming occurred. This mental connection between the film and the film locations must be established during the film exhibition cycle, as shown in Table 2 below. The stages of the cycle are shown in the Figure 2.

Table 2. Destination Marketing Activities and Opportunities

Windows of Exhibition for DMOs Steps in Film Tourism Marketing Before location filming Appoint an executive or public relations specialist to deal with film studios/production companies directly. Actively promote the destination to film studios/production companies. Offer grants and tax credits to encourage studios/production companies to use the location. Be actively involved in location scouting and familiarization with the planned film locations. Plan carefully to maximize the impacts of post-production exposure. Carefully assess a film’s merit in terms of its promotional value. Negotiate end credits for the destination. Negotiating and/or producing a ‘making the film’ feature. Engage the film’s stars to promote film location. Copyright negotiations with the production company about the use of image material and access to script or storyline for media or tour operators to use in promotions (on CD Rom or website). 17 Ensure media coverage of the film mentions the film location. Invite travel media to film location. Sponsor the film directly. Plan activities to promote other tourism sectors such as art crafts, food, wine, music and fashion. During location filming Take photos of the location shooting. Production of a documentary about the location shooting (= making of). Press releases about the location shooting. Commentaries from actors/director on the location shooting with a direct connection to the destination. Press conference on set. Web blogs reposting form the film sites. After location filming Ongoing press releases. Production and sale of merchandise with a film connection (film memorabilia/tie-in souvenirs).

Windows of Exhibition for DMOs Steps in Film Tourism Marketing Distribution of destination marketing material (flyer, press kits, special website features). Installation of signage, plaques, etc. at and interpretation of the film location. Replicate or maintain film icons/sites/scenes/sets to maintain authenticity. Invite (travel) media to a special release of the film. Host events that continue the pull of the film beyond its natural audience peak. Develop a dedicated website for potential tourists. Post links on website to film tours run by local film operators. Engage in joint promotional activity with inbound tour operators. Package additional attractions to lengthen tourist stay. Work collectively with other public organizations and tourist authorities to promote film locations. Promote hotels and guest houses that were used in films/for the stay of the film cast and crew. Engage in joint promotional activity with film companies. Create electronic links to the destination on the film website. Have guided tours and/or film walks.

Produce film/movie maps and site maps for tourists. Publication of location guidebooks for tourists and mention of film locations in conventional travel guides. Create exhibitions or displays of memorabilia from the film. Attract continuous media attention at each release window (DVD/BluRay, television, etc.) Cinema release Cinema advertisements with a concrete reference to the destination. Film trailers and destination commercials on television. Competitions featuring on the websites of the involved tourism stakeholders. Insert or mention location information in the end-credit acknowledgments. Display of destination marketing brochures in participating cinemas. Integration of film tourism marketing material in the marketing mix of the film distribution company. Target group-specific destination advertisements in magazines and fanzine.

Windows of Exhibition for DMOs Steps in Film Tourism Marketing Local film premiere, press screening and related after-parties at the destination. Organization of a press tour with journalists to the destination. Before the film’s release on Negotiations with the film distributor regarding the integration of film tourism marketing material Video/DVD/BluRay (DVD-inlays, competitions, destination features on the DVD). Before first public television Special premiere at the destination. screening Production of a travel show to the destination, and specifically film location, for television. Television commercials of the film and commercials highlighting the film locations. Organization of a press tour with journalists to the destination. During first public television Screening of the television travel documentaries and television commercials highlighting the film screening locations. Television advertisements for the destination/the film locations. Re-screening of films & reruns of Usually occurs on television during public holidays or annual holiday periods – creates and 19 television series on television and reinforces a mental link between the film, the film location(s) and holidays. on Video/DVD/BluRay Continued exposure of film locations as making-of documentaries may accompany the television screenings or available as a special feature on DVD/BluRay.

Source: Table is adapted from Table 2.1 in Roesch (2009), and from Figure 2.4 in O’Connor, Flanagan and Gilbert (2010).

Figure 2. The stages of the exhibition cycle

• before location filming • during location filming I • after location filming

• cinema release II • before the film's release on Video/DVD/BluRay

• before first public television screening • during first public television screening • re-screening and reruns of television series on television and on III Video/DVD/BluRay

Source: adapted from Roesch (2009); O’Connor, Flanagan and Gilbert (2010).

As can be seen, destination marketing initiatives play an important role in rising awareness of movie locations. Whether or not destinations take advantage of the opportunities for promotion determines the success and sustainability of tourist arrivals to the screened places.

1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH

The scope of the study of the movie-induced tourism is very diverse. Some researchers examine the information related to its definition. Others study the link between movies and tourism, and the impact movies have on tourism industry. A selected list of the literature on the subject is provided in the Table 3. As mentioned before, very few articles are focusing on the movie-induced tourism as a prospective business (see Ward and O’Regan, 2009).

Table 3. Literature on the movie-induced tourism

Title Year Author The movie as tourism Roger W. Riley, Carlton S. promotion: A “pull” factor 1992 Van Doren in a “push” location. Riley, R., Baker, D., & Movie induced tourism. 1998 Doren, C. S. V. Tourists’ Experiences of Carl, D., Kindon, S., & Film Locations: New 2007 Zealand as “Middle Earth”. Smith, K.

Title Year Author Movie tourism – A new 2008 Jewell, B., & McKinnon, S. form of cultural landscape. The experiences of film 2009 Roesch, S. location tourists. A Film Marketing Action Plan for Film Induced O’Connor, N., Flanagan, S. Tourism Destinations: 2010 & Gilbert, D. Using Yorkshire as a case study. Planning and Development in Film Tourism: Insights 2010 Buchmann, A. into the Experience of Lord of the Rings Film Guides. Planning for Film Tourism: Active Destination Image 2010 Croy, W. G. Management. Film tourism: The Answer to becoming part of your 2011 Tomala, K. & Faber, F. favorite movie? Film Tourism – Evolution, 2012 Conell, J. progress, and prospects. Film-induced Tourism. 2016 Beeton, S.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

In order to achieve the aim of the research, the data was collected from the secondary sources due to inability to conduct interviews and visit the locations physically; therefore, the secondary data informs the primary data collection. It allowed to organize the knowledge from the previous literature on movie-induced tourism. The movie-induced tourism in New Zealand, specifically The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogy filming locations were chosen as a single case study. The Hobbiton Movie Set has been chosen due to its uniqueness as it is the only film tourism attraction in the world that was built based on the fictional story and had not been demolished after the end of the filming. The data on movie tourism in New Zealand was collected from the up to date government reports.

2. IMPACTS OF THE MOVIE TOURISM All types of tourism impact positively or negatively on the national and local community and environment. In the case of on-location movie-induced tourism, this type of tourism is believed to “exert a series of effects on destinations that are unique to this form of

visitation” (Smith, MacLeod and Hart Robertson 2010). However, Croy and Heitmann state that “many of the negative impacts appear to be afterthoughts” and “most impacts attributed to film tourism (both positive and negative) reflect the impacts generally attributed to tourism” (Croy and Heitmann, 2011). Several of the most frequently observed effects of the on-location movie-induced tourism will be discussed further in this chapter.

2.1 POSITIVE IMPACTS

First and most notable positive impact is the increased tourist arrivals in the destination. This occurs as a result of the extended visitor market for a destination due to the presence of film locations as additional attractions. (Beeton, 2001) In this case, seasonality of the tourism extends and in some cases may be completely eliminated. This means that the tourist arrivals figures are not dependent to a specific time of the year anymore, but that it extends further. Tourists are coming to visit film locations all year-round and thus enhance the sustainability of the destination. (Beeton, 2008) This impact can be noticed in the example of the television series Downton Abbey, which boosted tourism to the United Kingdom and more precisely to its film location at Highclere Castle in Berkshire and the town of Bampton in Oxfordshire. There has been a clear increase in the visitors’ arrivals to Highclere Castle: “About 50,000 people came to see the house last year, compared to about 30,000 who visited before the series began airing in the U.K. in fall 2010” (CNN Travel, 2012). The all year-round tourist arrivals have significant positive economic consequences for a region. Due to the presence of film-induced tourism at the destination, new business opportunities can be created which boosts the local economy. (Croy and Heitmann, 2011) Thus, the development of products and services related to the on-location movie-induced tourism results in new jobs creation. (CNN Travel, 2012) The rise in employment levels is also reflected in the need for well-trained tour guides at film locations. There also arises a need in transportation to and from the locations which gives tour operators an opportunity to offer specialized services and packages to meet the tourists’ needs. In addition, the hospitality industry may develop or gain a boost and require additional personnel. Another positive economic impact is the growth in regional income and revenues as a result of tourist spending, in particular the sale of souvenirs or film-related merchandise. (Smith, MacLeod and Hart Robertson, 2010) This may also result in the introduction of organized film location tours. Travelers then spend money on related services such as

guided location tours, specialized activities and themed tour packages. In order to accommodate them, new amenities are becoming necessary. This causes in introduction of new facilities and the upgrading of existing ones. (Beeton, 2001) Filming locations can also serve to extend the available tourism products and activities that are offered to the visitors and result into the diversification of the tourism product. The town of Bovec in Slovenia, or more specifically the River Soca, recently featured in the Disney movie The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian (2008). Filming of the final decisive battle in the film occurred at the Soca River in 2007. The filmic legacy of the region now contributes to the existing heritage sites left after World War I and World War II, thereby enhancing the attractiveness of the destination to tourists. Another positive effect of the movie-induced tourism is the fact that scenic beauty of a location raises environmental awareness in both visitors and residents (Beeton, 2008) as well as understanding about the necessity of protecting and preserving the natural and cultural environment of a region and thus guarantees its continued survival. Due to the featuring in the movie or television series awareness of a destination can be raised. Therefore, films can assist a certain country or region in its destination marketing. Specifically, in the case of The Lord of the Rings and New Zealand, the New Zealand government took advantage of the situation and used the movie trilogy in national campaigns to gain greater exposure for New Zealand as tourist destination. In addition, Beeton states that destination being a film location also results in “community pride and cohesiveness” (Smith, MacLeod and Hart Robertson, 2010). However, there are not only positive impacts of on-location movie-induced tourism.

2.2 NEGATIVE IMPACTS

Destination marketing organizations (DMOs) do not always understand marketing opportunities of on-location movie tourism and do not realize their “pulling power”. As a result, various locations, where filming takes place, are physically unprepared for the rising number of tourist arrivals. At this stage many destinations then face unsustainable number of tourists (crowding/overcrowding), which may result in “environmental damage, loss of privacy for the host community or an unwelcome change to the traditional visitor base” (Smith, MacLeod and Hart Robertson, 2010). Harmful environmental impacts are also occurring as a result of the film-making process. As an outcome of film productions, the “natural and cultural environment within a

destination is subject to pressure from both the film industry and the resulting increase of tourism activity” (Croy and Heitmann, 2011). One example is the filming of the latest movie in the Mad Max series. Mad Max: Fury Road, the fourth movie in the series which has been filmed in South Africa and Namibia in addition to Australia. During the filming process in Namib Desert of Southern Africa, multiple reports of the film crew damaging the fragile ecosystem were filed. (Wired, 2013) Reportedly, the Namibian government was delighted when the Namib Desert was chosen as a film location for the movie as this would boost the economy with foreign currency, generate taxes and result in extensive employment for locals, as well as global marketing. However, insufficient consultation occurred with the local communities and no environmental impact assessments were presented to inform people of possible consequences. (The Guardian, 2013) As a result of on-location movie tourism, unacceptable behaviour of tourists may be an issue as well. This brings negative impacts on and damage to the cultural and natural heritage. An example of this is the iconic temple of Ta Prohm, overgrown with fig trees, at the World Heritage Site of Angkor Wat, which is located in the Siem Reap region of Cambodia. It prominently featured as a film location in the movie Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. (Middle Savagery, 2013) Due to the viewing the film, various film location tourists were “found to be climbing on the ancient temple walls in an attempt to emulate Lara Croft”. Another form of inappropriate behaviour is the “actual removal of part of a site for souvenirs”. In various cases, the repeated removal of iconic items that featured prominently in film was noted. (Smith, MacLeod and Hart Robertson, 2010) Public funds redistribution “away from basics of health and education” and therefore away from the needs of the local residents of an area (Beeton, 2008) is also named among the negative impacts of on-location movie-induced tourism. In addition, due to the raised profile of the location property values rise and with the increase of tourism, prices for local products and services will also increase to allow further financial gain from the visitors. On the other hand, it results in the fact that local residents also have to pay higher prices. In addition, the cost of local labour will rise and locals may no longer be able to afford the higher living costs. This is a possible cause of contention. (O’Connor, Flanagan and Gilbert, 2010) Another negative impact is the negative reputation or a negative impression of the actual location as compared to what it appears to be in the film as tourists expect the film location to be similar. This also means that they expect the local residents to be friendly and

welcoming. The issue of authenticity is faced by film locations and may further result in the dissatisfaction and disappointment of the visitors. Frequently, local community residents have also complained about the changing of the area ambience. Either there is a sudden drastic increase in the tourist arrivals or the type of tourists is different to what the locals are used to. As a result, there occur concerns about the increase of the noise levels, overcrowding and pollution (Beeton, 2008) which leads to the conflict between hosts and guests. The town of Goathland in Yorkshire, where both the British television series Heartbeat (1992-2010) and scenes featuring the “Hogsmeade” railways station from the Harry Potter movie series were filmed, is a great example. (Mordue, 2001) Due to the increase in the tourist arrivals the identity of the town changed from a quite area into a “major day tourist attraction”, with the town of 200 inhabitants needing to accommodate 1.1 million tourists annually. This change resulted into the conflict between the residents and the visitors leading to the complete intolerance of the local community to the tourists. In addition, in the existing researches it has been argued that featuring in movies may cause a negative impact on a destination as a result of “off-putting destination images” and “unfavourable imagery” due to “pessimistic storylines” (O’Connor, Flanagan and Gilbert, 2010). Featured topics include drugs, arms and human trafficking, the depiction of slums or townships, war, crime, prostitution and other concerns. This may lead to the destination being imagined in a bad light or as a dangerous environment to visit. However, that is not always the case. This is evident with the award-winning crime drama Breaking Bad (2008- 2013). Despite expectations, one could observe an increase in tourist arrivals in Albuquerque, New Mexico. As a result of the television series fame and popularity of the film locations as tourist attractions a number of on-location tours have developed. (Albuquerque Convention & Visitors Bureau, 2018)

While taking in consideration the high number of the negative impacts faced at filming locations, one still needs to keep in mind that there are indeed positive consequences as well. As has been discussed, these are quite extensive and may benefit the destinations. Therefore, as long as film production studios, DMOs, local communities and tourists are aware of the negative consequences of the on-location movie-induced tourism and it does not lead to devastation, this form of tourism will continue to develop.

3. CASE STUDY: NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand, with its diverse and spectacular landscapes, continues to take the movie making world by storm. Surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and Tasman Sea, with a population of just over 4.5 million, New Zealand provides backdrops that are authentic and real. It also boasts world class production facilities and top creative minds. The New Zealand screen industry has matured and continues to maintain a competitive position as a global export industry. The country’s international success provides more than direct economic benefits through spin-off benefits for other industries such as tourism, the technology sector and the domestic screen industry. The industry is in the good shape but has proven very difficult to measure and track due to rapidly evolving technology and business practices in the financing, production, distribution and consumption of screen industry outputs worldwide.

3.1 KEY TOURISM STATISTICS

A wide range of tourism statistics are produced for New Zealand, released on a monthly, quarterly or annual basis. The following data provides a quick summary of the most up to date results for each of the key tourism statistics for NZ as of March 12, 2018. The full report is provided in the appendices of the dissertation.

Table 4. International visitor arrivals (year ending January 2018)

% of arrivals Visits Growth (pa) Annual international arrivals: 3,732,000 5% Australia (incl. Norfolk Island) 40% 1,476,000 4% China 11% 401,000 -5% USA 9% 334,000 13% UK 7% 251,000 14% Germany 3% 105,000 5% Japan 3% 102,000 1%

Combined, these markets provided 71.7% of international visits to New Zealand for the year ended January 2018.

Purpose of visit Visits Growth (pa) Holiday/Vacation 1,953,000 6% Visit Friends/Relatives 1,074,000 4% Business 303,000 4% Other 392,000 6%

Days Growth (pa) Average intended length of stay: 18 -3%

Source: Statistics New Zealand: International Travel and Migrations. “Business” excludes conferences.

Table 5. International visitor expenditure (year ending December 2017) (NZ$) Growth (pa) Total expenditure ($ millions) $10,563 5% Average expenditure per person per trip $3,190 -1% Median expenditure per person per trip $2,130 1%

Key international markets ($ millions) Current year Growth (pa) Australia $2,557 3% China $1,464 -11% USA $1,294 18% UK $1,039 12% Germany $500 -13% Japan $271 -6%

Total spend by purpose of visit ($ millions) Current year Growth (pa) Holiday/ Vacation $6,755 6% Visiting Friends//Relatives $2,096 1% Business $816 14% Other $897 -2%

Source: MBIE: International Visitor Survey. Excludes International airfares and individuals whose purpose of visit to New Zealand was to attend a recognized educational institute and are foreign-fee paying students. “Business” excludes conferences.

Graph 1. Total annual spend of International visitors in New Zealand

Source: Statistics New Zealand: International Travel and Migrations. “Business” excludes conferences.

As can be seen from the table and the graph above, spending by international visitors reached a record NZ$10.4 billion, in the year ended September 2017, a three per cent increase when compared to the year ended September 2016. International visitor numbers continued to climb over the last year, however total visitor spending did not grow at the same rate. One of the main reasons for this was a fall in average spend per visitor, down from NZ$3,300 in the year ended September 2016 to NZ$3,180 in the year ended September 2017, although this fall is not statistically significant. (MBIE, 2018)

Table 6. Regional Tourism Spend (year ending January 2018) (NZ$) RTO ($ millions) Domestic International Total Market Share Auckland 3,942 4,344 8,286 30% Otago 1,694 1,953 3,646 13% Canterbury 2,225 1,366 3,591 13% Waikato 1,902 651 2,553 9% Wellington 1,705 789 2,495 9% Bay of Plenty 1,263 578 1,841 7% Northland 851 262 1,112 4%

Source: MBIE: Monthly Regional Tourism Estimates. RTO (Regional Tourism Organi– zation).

Table 7. International tourism forecasts (forecast period 2017 to 2023) (NZ$)

2023 Growth (pa) Total visitor arrivals (millions) 4.9 4.8% Total visitor days (millions) 93.6 4.9% Total visitor expenditure ($ billions) 15.3 6.2%

Key international markets in 2023 Visits Spend ($m) Australia 1,759,000 3,073 China 913,000 4,348 USA 440,000 1,715 UK 268,000 1,106 Germany 144,000 873 Japan 140,000 448

Source: MBIE: New Zealand Tourism Forecasts 2017 to 2023. Expenditure forecasts based on International Visitor Survey data.

Overall, the highest number of visitors and expenditures keep coming from Australia, which is understandable due to their close location. However, the number of visitors from other countries keeps rising over the years and will continue to do so in the future.

Another factor that has contributed to the change in the economic situation, specifically in spend per visitor, is the fact that the value of the New Zealand dollar increased relatively to the most other countries’ currencies compared to the previous year. As can be examined in Table 5 the “Holiday/Vacation” option still remains as one of the main purposes of the visit to New Zealand. Significant part of those visitors is attracted by the fact that one or several of their favourite movies or TV shows were filmed in NZ. When analysing Table 6 and Picture 1, it could be noticed that the highest amount of expenditures is given to the regions of Auckland and Waikato, located in the northern part of the country, where most of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit locations are situated.

Picture 1. Distribution of international and domestic tourism spend for the year ending December 2017

Source: MBIE – Monthly Regional Tourism Estimates.

3.2 FILM TOURISM IN THE COUNTRY

Films have a powerful influence over tourists choosing where they want to travel. Because the locations used in films like The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit are real, many film enthusiasts can immerse themselves in them, follow in the footsteps of their favourite stars, and eat, drink and explore the same places as they did. New Zealand was voted the number one film tourism destination in the world by HBO viewers in 2015, ahead of New York (Sex and the City) and Northern Ireland (Game of Thrones).

The same survey found one in four adults now choose where to go on their next holiday based on filming locations used in their favourite TV shows or films. Britain’s Daily Mail cited a survey by “Travelation” which found that in the UK 27% of travellers said movies and books inspire them to go on holiday. This was led by Mamma Mia in Greece 17%, with New Zealand and Middle Earth in second place at 16%. The Hobbit trilogy continues to have a massive impact on film tourism in New Zealand. Nearly one in five (18%) holiday visitors cite The Hobbit trilogy as the reason for their interest in New Zealand. 94% of visitors are aware of The Hobbit Trilogy being filmed in New Zealand. 29% of tourists have a “Hobbit” visitor experience while in New Zealand.

New Zealand’s Top 10 film locations: 1. Cathedral Cove (Chronicles of Narnia) 2. Hobbiton Movie Set (The Lord of the Rings & The Hobbit trilogies) 3. Mount Taranaki (The Last Samurai) 4. Paradise (Wolverine & The Hobbit Trilogy) 5. Aoraki, Mount Cook (Vertical Limit) 6. Flock Hill (Chronicles of Narnia) 7. Kaitoke regional Park (The Lord of the Rings & The Hobbit trilogies) 8. Karekare beach (The Piano) 9. Oreti Beach (The World’s Fastest Indian) 10. Lyall Bay (King Kong) Source: Media New Zealand, 2018.

3.2.1 FILM INCENTIVES

Film-making incentives like tax rebates or grants, are instruments that sustain the promotions and marketing. Because the New Zealand government has recognized the benefits of these incentives, they extended the tax incentives for large scale productions. For these purposes the Large Budget Screen Production Grant (LBSPG) was introduced. In 2007, the Economic Development Minister Trevor Mallard took measures to assure New Zealand will remain an attractive and competitive location for movie producers. Therefore, improvements to the LBSPG were made.

These changes were: increasing the grant to 15% of the New Zealand expenditure for the production from the current 12.5%; removing the current requirement for at least 70% of the production expenditure to be spent in New Zealand for productions between the NZ$15 million and NZ$50 million range; allowing several productions costing a minimum of NZ$3 million each to “bundle” together to qualify for the grant by meeting the requirement for qualifying expenditure of NZ$30 million; adding an incentive to use New Zealand-based post-production digital and visual effects services with qualifying expenditure of between NZ$3 million and NZ$15 million; allowing a production or bundle of productions to pre-qualify for the grant; allowing very large productions to access their grant each time their expenditure goes over the NZ$50 million mark. (Swire, 2017) In April 2014 the New Zealand Screen Production Grant (NZSPG) was introduced to support the further development of New Zealand’s screen industry. The NZSPG combines the former LBSPG and the Screen Production Incentive Fund for New Zealand productions. Through this incentive international productions can access a 20% baseline grant. A further 5% is available for those that demonstrate wider economic benefits to New Zealand. Marketing, promoting and showcasing New Zealand as a tourism destination is part of the assessment criteria for wider benefits. The grant is managed by the New Zealand Film Commission. (Tourism New Zealand, 2018) Few industry assistance programs remain in the country. Results from the NZIER research show that the New Zealand Screen Production Grant (NZSPG) scheme increases exports and GDP more than if the funding was directed elsewhere. The visual overview of the New Zealand Grant can be found in the Appendix 2. However, the promotional activity of the New Zealand government has started way before the launch of this incentive. The government has been using promotional videos since the 1900s.

3.2.2 THE ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF THE SCREEN INDUSTRY

This part of the thesis will look at the overall effects of the screen industry on the economy of New Zealand. Currently in the country it is common for screen industry statistics to be 31

produced by individual agencies, and in some instances without adequate reference to the industry. The screen industry is broadly defined as the combination of the production, distribution and exhibition of film, television, online and digital content. The economic contribution from the screen industry has a wide scope. It includes different factors, such as movies, television, online productions and software-based entertainment. There are also spillovers to tourism and cultural activities. Due to the many different skills, roles and productions, it is hard to generalize about the economic contribution of the industry without understanding the underlying dynamic in it. For example, the high tech post-production sub-industry is international, fast moving and is characterized by high productivity, while other parts of the industry such as television production are more connected to domestic economic activity. (NZIER, 2017)

3.2.2.1 CONTRIBUTION TO THE GDP

The contribution to GDP from the screen industry was NZ$1.015 billion in 2015, which was 2.8% higher than the previous year. The industry is estimated to have directly contributed NZ$6.04 billion to GDP from 2010 to 2015 (see Graph 2).

Graph 2. The screen industry’s contribution to GDP (NZ$)

Source: Statistics New Zealand and NZIER analysis.

3.4 HOME OF MIDDLE-EARTH

Tourism New Zealand has successfully marketed New Zealand as the home of Middle- earth for the past 15 years.

In what may be considered an action of great foresight, when the filming in New Zealand of The Lord of the Rings trilogy was announced, the New Zealand government appointed a ‘Minister of the Rings’. The Minister’s remit was to maximize the benefits from the trilogy for the entire country, both in terms of filming employment and film-induced tourism. Since the screening of The Fellowship of the Ring, the first movie in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, New Zealand claims to have experienced an increase in international tourism as a direct result of the movies. However, when measuring tourist behaviour and changes on a large scale such as that of a country or nation, the effects of movie-induced tourism may not be as visible as on a local level. One of the reasons for that might be that most international visitors may have planned to visit the country anyway, and the film provides another activity of interest, but was not necessarily a prime motivator. This fact has been noted quite a while ago in a report to the New Zealand Film Commission on the lasting effects of The Lord of the Rings (2002). However, only one page out of the 59 is dedicated to the movie-induced tourism, which is an indication of the lack of research and information on the topic. In an interview taken by the Forbes Magazine in 2012, the general manager of Western Long Haul Markets for Tourism New Zealand, Gregg Anderson, stated that there has been a 50% increase in arrivals to New Zealand since the first movie from the trilogy Lord of the Rings came up in 2001. According to a research carried out by New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, the Hobbit related marketing campaign for promoting the country as the Middle Earth has had an important impact on visitor growth from Western markets. The survey showed that a mean of 10.5% tourists say The Hobbit films influenced their decision to travel to New Zealand. Graph 3 shows the effectiveness of the marketing campaign, by counting the visitors that chose New Zealand as a holiday destination because The Hobbit was filmed there. The US, the UK and Germany occupied the first places. The results also showed that people from UK spend more in New Zealand than in any other destination; hence, the country can be considered a premium destination. Tourist chiefs say an urge in spending by tourists from premium markets such as Germany, the US and UK can only be explained by film tourism. One in five visitors took part in some form of film-related tourism over the year 2014. (NZIER, 2014)

Graph 3. Was the Hobbit a factor in your consideration of visiting New Zealand?

Source: NZIER (2014).

In fact, tourism is not the only industry that has had a boost from Jackson’s movies. Other jobs have been created as a result of the studios co-created or co-owned by Jackson, which include Weta Workshop, Stone Street Studios, and others. The government of New Zealand recognized the importance of the industry, specifically the contribution of Jackson’s upcoming The Hobbit when the New Zealand postal service issued stamps with the faces of characters from the movies, as well as uncirculated commemorative coins. Entertainingly, the New Zealand Custom Service currently stamps visitor’s passports with a “Welcome to Middle Earth” stamp. It is not just the government who is influenced by the magical atmosphere. Air New Zealand had not one but two 777 airplanes decorated in a Tolkienesque theme, they also have issued their clever Middle Earth-themed safety video. And to celebrate the release of The Hobbit in New Zealand, a Kiwi weather reporter gave his forecast in Elvish. (Forbes, 2012)

3.4.1 THE LORD OF THE RINGS AND THE HOBBIT

In the modern world it is probably hard to find a person who had never heard about the LOTR movies which are originally an adaptation of a book written by J.R.R. Tolkien. The whole trilogy was finished in the year 1943, however, due to its sheer magnitude, it was decided to separate it and publish it as three self-standing books. All the books were published with the short intervals and the last one, The Return of the King, saw the world in October 1955. However, not less than twenty years before it, Tolkien published another book, The Hobbit, which cannot be separated from the trilogy as it has a strong connection with it and was later included in the story.

Long before the release of Peter Jackson’s movies, there were other attempts to put the story on the screens. The first movie, The Hobbit, was shown on ABC-TV in 1977 followed by the animated version of The Lord of the Rings and became very popular. Twenty years later, in 1998, Hollywood movie productions decided to bring out The Lord of the Rings again. New Line Cinema productions was chosen as a producer for the movies and Peter Jackson has become its director. It is important to notice that he is originally from Wellington, New Zealand, and therefore, familiar with its nature and possibilities, has chosen New Zealand as the location for the movies. All three movies were shot at the same time starting in 1998 which took in total fifteen months. The Fellowship of the Ring, the first movie, was released in December 2001 and became a huge success in the American market, earning US$47 million, and in New Zealand market with NZ$6 million, and overall the movie earned more than US$871 million (Box Office Mojo, 2018). The second movie of the trilogy, The Two Towers, saw the world a year later and earned about one and half the amount as the first movie in the American market, and about the same amount in the New Zealand market, overall the motion picture earned around US$926 million worldwide (Box Office Mojo, 2018). The Return of the King, the last movie, was aired in December 2003 and received total US$1.1 billion, including UA$72.6 million from the American market and increased share in New Zealand market of NZ$8.8 million (Box Office Mojo, 2018). Overall, by estimated calculation, all three pictures had drawn around US$3 billion worldwide. However, the success of The Lord of the Rings franchise did not end with the release of the last movie. In 2012, Peter Jackson has begun his work on another trilogy based on The Hobbit book which is the prequel for The Lord of the Rings story. At the time, vast majority of the movie critics were arguing about the necessity of the new trilogy and its doubtful success. Nevertheless, The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, the first movie, earned US$1 billion (Box Office Mojo, 2018). The second motion picture, The Hobbit: the Desolation of Smaug, released in 2013, achieved US$960 million (Box Office Mojo, 2018). Finally, the third movie, The Hobbit: The Battle of Five Armies earned US$956 million (Box Office Mojo, 2018). In total, the trilogy earned about the same amount of money as the Lord of the Rings one, repeating its success. The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies are examples of successful movies that turned the country of their production into the top travel destination. Various surveys

conducted by different sources, including The Guardian online journal and USA Today newspaper as well as HBO, placed New Zealand at the top among other destinations.

3.4.2 THE HOBBITON MOVIE SET

The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit movies were shot throughout New Zealand in more than 170 locations (Peaslee, 2010). According to the agreement between the government of the country and New Line Cinema, the production company was to demolish every movie related property after the filming had finished. However, one place remains untouched, The Hobbiton. The location which is generally known as the Hobbiton Movie Set is situated in the region of Matamata, a small town in the North Island, is an example of movie-induced tourism attraction. It is the only attraction in the world which was used in the movie and remains the same until today (Barker & Mathijs, 2008). Although the Hobbiton is located in Matamata, it is not situated in the town centre but inside the farm owned by the Alexander family, which operates a commercial farm. The tour around the Hobbiton Movie Set is owned independently and operated by the Alexander family and Peter Jackson, the director of the movies. The aim of the business is stated to “give the real visitor experience based on the fictional village of Hobbiton in the original location where the movie was created” (Gardner, 2014). Despite the Hobbiton Movie Set being already internationally well-known, it still keeps conducting promotional activities on the international level. The management is thinking of expanding the business and has optimistic prospects for the number of tourists to increase in the future. In addition, the maintaining of the movie set benefits the Matamata community by changing the infrastructure and renovation of the information centre.

3.4.3 MARKETING

It is interesting to note, that expanding the country’s worldwide name through the film promotion is not the first time that New Zealand can claim foresight in terms of developing and promoting tourism. As far back as 1901, a government tourism development, Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, was established – arguably the first in the world (Tourism New Zealand, 2003). However, the country did not have a global brand marketing campaign until the launch of the 100% Pure New Zealand campaign in 1999. Being a relatively small country, New Zealand has generally taken a whole-of-country approach to promoting inbound tourism. While there are distinct differences between the North and South Islands, with the North having thermal activities such as pools and

geysers and the South with glacial formations and an Antarctic climate, tourism promotion has primarily been handled nationally. The country does not have a division by states or territories as an additional level of government with their own funds for destination marketing and tourism promotion. At a more local level, various regions market their differences, and city and district councils have a more local remit in terms of destination marketing. Furthermore, around 30% of New Zealand is protected in parks and reserves, with significant use of its hiking trails, which has contributed to the outdoors adventure image of the country. The national air carriers of many countries are their country’s primary international marketing agents due to the clear economic benefit they receive from encouraging people to travel to that country. New Zealand’s carrier, Air New Zealand, promotes New Zealand both domestically and internationally. The methods used by it would be described later. The government of the country has invested significant funds to leveraging the effects of film on tourism. While it is difficult to accurately estimate the funding related specifically to movie-induced tourism, Table 8 outlines the expenses committed as stated in government reports and media releases related to the release of the original trilogy of the Lord of the Rings.

Table 8. National government money spent on The Lord of the Rings Tourism Date Purpose Actual related 2001/2 Promotional campaign for America’s Cup 2003 & LOTR  6,000,000 2002/3 Various initiatives around America’s Cup 2003 & LOTR  10,395,000 2003/4 Various initiatives around LOTR World Premiere: Total: 4,000,000 World Premiere event support & visiting media  2,000,000 Offshore premieres/openings  240,000 Promotional goods  80,000 Pre-Oscar Events  150,000 Promotional Video/DVD  60,000 Film NZ Internet Portal LOTR Refresh  30,000 Film Trade Magazine Advertising  180,000 Film Trade Markets 250,000 Inward Mission from the US & Canada  160,000 Australia Inward Film Mission 50,000 LOTR Marketing & Production Guides 100,000 LOTR Te Pepa Touring Exhibition  100,000 Research on LOTR effect on tourism in key markets  20,000 Tourism NZ video: NZ & The Return of the King  30,000

Tourism Date Purpose Actual related 2003/4 Post 2004 Oscars advertising for The Return of the King  350,000 Film and Music Initiative 120,000 Postproduction Group Initiative 160,000

Sources: Beeton (2016).

It is difficult to isolate all tourism-related expenditure as any imaging process will affect tourism. There are some questions arising as to the justification for the expenditure on the world premiere. It is hard to put into figures the returns on film and movie-induced tourism owing to the long-term effect that imaging may have, and the power (positive and negative) that careless media may also play. Trying to recognize the economic benefits of film-induced tourism such as The Lord of the Rings on a national level is connected with complications. For example, if there is a significant shift in visitation to a film site from another site, then there can be significant local effects, including the failure of some businesses at the expense of others. The individual economic contribution of these businesses can also differ, particularly in terms of induced expenditure and leakages. From a domestic point of view, shifts from one local destination to another are common. Concern has also been voiced over the tax breaks that the New Zealand government has given filmmakers in order to attract them to the country. Such revenue losses need to be balanced against all of the economic benefits of filming, including tourism-related benefits. They also need to be considered in terms of opportunity costs. Finally, measuring the non-economic effects of all tourism, not just movie-induced tourism, is extremely complex. Those issues raise questions as to who should be promoting tourism and to what extent. The methods used to promote/image New Zealand through The Lord of the Rings movies, are outlined in the following Table 9.

Table 9. Level of destination marketing material relating to LOTR and New Zealand

National Local Individual Media Tourism Local, Tourism New Air New City/district operators & state, Zealand Zealand councils commercial national businesses Numerous press Reports on releases on events. Articles & Press releases & leveraging the Articles on reports media kits. tourism potential tour sites, of filming. etc.

National Local Individual Media Specialized tour LOTR poster brochures, series Air New Brochures “The film is Zealand & posters fictional, the poster location isn’t” series in all travel agents. Air New Special LOTR Zealand. LOTR material tourism site. Link Lord of the and links on Internet to the movie site. Rings the company’s Link to LOTR official website. tour operators. movie site. Fan sites. Guidebook s produced by private In-flight authors: Stories on magazine for Books & LOTR locations December magazines Location in various features LOTR Guide. magazines. stories. Rough Guide to LOTR. Film- related (but Souvenirs NZ stamp series. not locational). LOTR costumes & sets at Wellington airport. Enormous Gollum over Film sets Hobbiton the & near Wellington costumes Matamata. airport terminal. Dragons and black riders on buildings in Wellington. Window Competition Window Shop displays at Air in paintings in displays New Zealand Wellington Matamata

National Local Individual Media offices around for the “best shops. the country & shop internationally. window Air New display”. Zealand posters & related images at travel agents. Street in The Real Middle “Airline to the Paraparaum Naming Earth. Middle Earth”. u renamed “Gendalf”. Four Air New “Welcome Hobbiton Zealand jets to Middle sign at Signage painted with Earth” signs Matamata. banners & LOTR scenes at billboards Banners “Flying Wellington produced billboards”. airport by NZ post.

Source: Beeton (2016).

Interestingly, all of the film sites apart from Hobbiton, which is located on private land, have been returned to their original state, primarily because this was a requirement of filming in national parks and reserves as well as a commercial decision by the film company, New Line Cinema. Air New Zealand is promoting the country through the movie not only by utilizing the traditional form of media advertisements, but also through their travel centres, in-flight media, their Internet site (www.airnewzealand.co.nz) and also promoting to the general media through media kits, press releases and others. Specifically, for the duration of the premier celebration, as later on with the premier of The Hobbit Trilogy, the airline’s pilots were welcoming passengers to Middle Earth when they land in Wellington. In addition, the company has taken to using its aircraft themselves as promotional vehicles by decorating them not just with national emblems, but also in this instance with The Lord of the Rings, and later The Hobbit, characters and scenes. The only remaining “authentic” Lord of the Rings site (Hobbiton) is in private hands; however, there has been a positive flow-on to the community of the nearby town of Matamata (population 6000). The Matamata public relations and businesses association

has subsidized the costs of painting the shop windows in the town with Hobbit themes, particularly “Hobbit holes” through which the shop’s traditional merchandise is displayed.

3.4.4 ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION

The filming of the both trilogies had a positive economic impact on the economy of the state. This impact could be noticed by analysing the statistical data available on the tourist arrivals for the years prior to the start of the movies production and for the years after. Graph 4 shows the positive growth of the tourist arrivals since 1999 up to 2005 when all The Lord of the Rings movies were filmed. The data on the economical contribution of The Hobbit trilogy and the development of the Waikato region would be provided further.

Graph 4. Tourist arrivals to New Zealand 1998-2005

Source: Graph is adapted from Yearbook of Tourism Statistics’s data on New Zealand, World Tourism Organization (2008).

The data analysis shows that since 2001, the year of the release of the first movie in The Lord of the Rings trilogy and up to 2005, when the last one was aired, the number of the tourist arrivals to New Zealand has increased dramatically. To be precise, the overall growth amounted to 25% comparing to the year 2001 and to 59.5% comparing to the year 1998, when film industry only started to develop in the country.

The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies have left an enduring film tourism in Waikato. Nowhere is this clearer than in the Matamata-Piako District, and agricultural area, that has been transformed into a major tourist attraction.

Graph 5. International visitors in Matamata – Piako District 1997-2009

Source: Statistic New Zealand.

Obtained data on the region from 1997 till 2009 shows that the trend tends to fluctuate. There are, however, some interesting points that could be highlighted as observed from the data. From 1998 to 2001, the number of tourist arrivals decreased. Yet, in the following year the numbers have increased dramatically, it was almost seven times higher. As can be seen from Graph 6 the numbers kept increasing in the following years.

Graph 6. International visitor growth in Matamata-Piako 2009-2017

Source: NZIER, Statistics New Zealand (2017). 42

The success of Hobbiton near Matamata shows that the addition of a new and relevant tourist attraction can stimulate a relatively large amount of new international tourism expenditure. That activity spills over to additional spending in other areas such as transport, retail, and dining out. Figure 3 shows the dramatic effect that the release of three Hobbit films and the revitalization of Hobbiton had on visitor spending in Matamata. Total international spending in the Matamata-Piako District in 2009 was $9 million. Spending on cultural activities contributed around $1 million. Spending on cultural activities grew strongly from 2011 to 2015. It contributed $26 million in 2015. Spending in other areas correspondingly increased by $10 million. Total spending by international visitors increased from $9 million in 2010, to $45 million in 2015.

Figure 3. International visitor spending in Matamata-Piako

Source: MBIE regional tourism expenditure estimates (2017).

The economic impact of film tourism from the Hobbit trilogy was assessed by Li et al. (2017). They estimated that The Hobbit trilogy resulted in an additional 214,811 international visitors in 2013 and 2014 to the district. They also found that The Hobbit trilogy had positive effects on the tourism industry that spilled over to an increase in societal welfare.

The economic impact of The Hobbit trilogy was estimated to: increase household welfare by $268.2 million; increase international visitor spending by $1.11 billion; increase tourism-related industry exports by $861.3 million. Figure 4 shows the estimated industry level impacts of The Hobbit trilogy for the tourism- related industries.

Figure 4. Hobbit trilogy tourism-related industry exports

Source: Li, et al., 2017. Values converted to New Zealand dollars by NZIER.

The impact of The Hobbit trilogy was more significant than The Lord of the Rings due to more strategic use of promotional initiatives associated with the film, including linking New Zealand as a destination to depictions of Middle Earth. Such limited remaining tangible evidence as Hobbiton is a challenge to destination marketers and is a common element of film-induced tourism, especially with movies.

3.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In summary, movie-induced tourism in New Zealand is highly affected by the development of the industry in the country. The New Zealand government has acknowledged that motion pictures have more potential to positively influence tourism because of its greater ability of gathering large audiences and transferring the information through the audio- visual medium.

Additionally, movies promote more significant New Zealand’s attractions – its breath- taking landscapes, which results in more and more people becoming aware of the country and ultimately wanting to visit it. It is obvious that motion pictures work really well in enhancing tourism in New Zealand. The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies are examples of the movies that succeeded in encouraging tourism to the country. These movies have also been recognized as outstanding achievements which is supported by winning a number of Oscars. However, though the popularity of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit brought significant number of tourists in the region, the benefit to the community from the existence of the Hobbiton Movie Set is still far from what is ideally imagined and the condition of tourism in Matamata still could be improved. Additionally, based on the observation, despite the increasing tourist arrivals during the past ten years, tourism condition in Matamata has not really changed much, except for the fluctuating number of tourist arrivals. Therefore, some development programs are thought to be necessary: improvement of the connectivity between places and towns. The government can provide public transportation for tourists to be able to commute from one attraction to another which will significantly influence tourism activities within the area (Musa & Ndawayo, 2011); management work with the community to organize special mutual events or occasions, in order to give tourists an opportunity to have the real experience to visit Middle Earth; Hobbiton Movie Set work with the local residents to create a culinary experience related to The Lord of the Rings, such as for example Hobbit Pie. Matamata and the Hobbiton could create something extra in order to attract more tourists; redecoration of the accommodation places in Matamata so they look similar to various particular sets in the movies. Though, it might require a special permission from New Line Cinema, it is believed to provide a more live and outstanding experience for the tourists during their stay. The researcher believes that those recommendations for the Hobbiton Movie Set can help it to keep running the business and ensure the increasing tourist arrivals in the Matamata region in the future.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Throughout the thesis a number of success factors were identified and discussed defining the success and sustainability of the movie-induced tourism. As has been found, film tourism is not always sustainable or successful, however, there are several destinations that took advantage of the film locations and turned them into popular tourist attractions. One of those is amongst others New Zealand as Middle Earth, where all factors seem to function together in harmony to contribute to a long-lasting attractiveness of film locations regarding The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies. The potential of the films to induce tourism to its film locations also depends on the quality and the intended audience of the film. This determines the success and longevity of the places as tourist attractions. There is a definite need for more better-quality local productions that are able to reach a wider audience and to extend beyond local borders. On the other hand, more international film productions need to be encouraged. In addition, destination marketing needs to take advantage of the opportunities during the production and release stages of a film to promote the filmed locations for tourism. Nevertheless, it is evident that while movie-induced tourism is a comparatively new niche of tourism and becomes extremely popular and growing interest internationally, its success and sustainability depend on the number of factors. It seems that “as long as film exists, the film tourism industry also will. Despite the fact that movies and therefore destinations might die over time, new movies will emerge and ensure that there will always be a potential for that tourism niche” (Tomala and Faber, 2011). In general, movie-induced tourism has evolved into a persisting trend. It does not only appeal to an exclusive and specific target market but extends beyond. Along with globalization and technological developments, such a trend will continue to grow and will remain profitable. Thus, as K. Tomala and F. Faber claim, movie-induced tourism is an “ever-growing tourism sector” that, similar to other specific niches, is “gaining around against mainstream offers” (Tomala and Faber, 2011). Therefore, film tourism has much potential for the future destinations’ development internationally and locally, and also has the potential for future research. This thesis has thus outlined the origin, development and positive and negative effects of the movie-induced tourism and examined its benefits, challenges and prospects for the future marketing and development of the destinations. Several recommendations will be outlined further that are believed to be successful marketing tools for the destinations.

4.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

Destinations are taking different approaches in terms of the destination marketing, depending very much on the marketing responsibilities and imperatives at each destination. A further difference is the actual structure of the film sites in terms of being in a national park or on other types of public land compared with private land. However, some generic and specialized destination marketing strategies for movie-induced tourism could be developed. Destination marketing strategies that movie-induced tourism can contribute to include festivals, community visioning and tangible representations of the motion picture.

4.1.1 TANGIBLE REPRESENTATION

Another possibility is to attract visitors is by providing a tangible representation of the movie or TV series, such as the Braveheart statue in Stirling. Such a representation provides a focusing point for visitors and can move them to a specific area. In Wellington, New Zealand, besides some sets and costumes displayed at the airport, also many giant- sized characters inhabited the buildings around the town, from the character, Gollum with the Ring at the airport terminal to dragons, orcs and arrows on the roofs and walls of city buildings. These were temporary installations, but they have provided outstanding opportunities for the images themselves to be used in the future. Furthermore, signage, museums, interpretation centres and even individual collections could be used. The other form of the tangible representation which appears to be very successful is the publication of guidebooks. Independent travellers use guidebooks as film tourist sites are usually hard to find without guidance. The style of the books can vary, and some focus primarily on the sites, while others focus on the story of the film and its background, or on the story associated with the subject matter of the film, or even on the other things that can be done while visiting the region. Guidebooks have significant influence on the image of a destination, so it is important that various interest groups such as tourist agencies work together with guidebook writers and publishers.

4.1.2 TOURIST AREAS

While for many regions, increasing visitor numbers is a high priority, community concerns regarding crowding and loss of privacy are significant, and must be considered alongside any marketing decisions. One way to approach this issue is to create specialized non- 47

residential tourist areas. This may not be so easy for the areas that involve fragile environments such as in Ireland’s and New Zealand’s national parks. However, New Zealand has certainly made use of its hardened sites, such as the city of Wellington, which was the “headquarters” for The Lord of the Rings movies. Though those recommendations are considered to be useful tool for attracting new tourists to the destinations through the movie-induce tourism there are still some concerns. Some agencies are over-promoting the region which may result in significant social and environmental problems. This is the case of tourism authorities chasing increasing numbers of visitors, while not working closely with the management agencies who have to deal with their “success”. Though the production sites of The Lord of the Rings movies are spread throughout the entire country, thanks to the foresight of New Zealand producer, Peter Jackson, who used locations from many different regions, the production base was the major city. Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, can cope far more easily with increased visitation than small, rural communities and national parks.

4.1.3 THEMED FESTIVALS

Festivals, based on the movie/s or on the TV series filmed in the region could reaffirm the community’s vision as well as bring visitors in low seasons. One of the benefits of running a festival that would have a community base through its movie-induced tourism is that it provides the opportunity to bring people together under a common theme and to improve the negative community attitudes towards filming. Nevertheless, Wellington, New Zealand conducted a successful, and in many ways unusual, movie premier event. An exceptional case of the accomplishment of a TV-arrangement themed celebration can be found at Mount Airy, which has been glad to introduce itself as a dream town from a period that never existed. What is noteworthy about the case of The Andy Griffith Show is that the town of Mount Airy has not needed to change drastically, as guests tend to focus on the main street, and the celebration keeps running for just two days of the year – in the slower visitor month of September.

4.1.4 NOMENCLATURE

Another somewhat significant destination marketing tool that has been suggested at many studied sites, was changing of the names of the towns. While such suggestions met with considerable resistance from local communities, New Zealand managed to re-name the

region around Wellington to Middle Earth, at least for the duration of the world premiere. “Welcome to Middle Earth” signage at the main entry point to the city as well as verbal announcements from pilots on Air New Zealand when landing at Wellington created a sense of actually “being there”. A further way to boost the imaging power of film without actually changing the name of the towns is to develop a regional title, such as “Heart-beat Country”, which has been done in many regions. However, such nomenclature must be supported by product and other promotional activities, otherwise it will fail.

The issue of who controls the destination marketing tools is also affecting the relevance, effectiveness and even the possibility of enacting some of the above recommendations. “Image development” is a complex phenomenon. Simplifying it into manageable destination marketing elements is problematic and can either enhance the tourism experiences as well as ruin them and the communities they depend on.

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APPENDIX 1. UP TO DATE KEY TOURISM STATISTICS ON NEW ZEALAND

APPENDIX 2. VISUAL OVERVIEW OF THE NEW ZEALAND GRANT

APPENDIX 3. HOBBITON MOVIE SET

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