<<

Free Inquiry In Creative Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 177

EGOISM, THE ' OF MAN' AND THE MOVEMENT

Gayle K. Berardi, University of Southern Colorado, and Thomas W. Segady, Stephen F. Austin State University

Time, events, or the unaided ac­ charismatic or even paternalistic patterns tion of the will sometimes undermine (Mitchell1974). In contrast to the private be­ or destroy an opinion without any outward liefs and practices of those belonging to the sign of change ... No conspiracy has been New Age, Jacobs (1989 5) has further ar­ formed to make war on it, but its followers gued that widespread membership in alter­ one by one noiselessly secede. As its oppo­ native represents • ... the desire to nents remain mute or only interchange their ei

tion is impossible, since it transcends the ing the entirety of beliefs under a single con­ power of human conception ... (2) The Eter­ ceptual category, in the manner of Troeltsch's nity of the Universe in toto as a boundless -denomination typology. Additionally, plane ... (3) The fundamental identity of all there are problems in classifying New Age with the Universal Over-, the lat­ beliefs as essentially a 'formal' or 'informal' ter being itself an aspect of the Unknown . Contrary to the definition of informal Root; and the obligatory pilgrimage for ev­ religion, many of the adherents to New Age ery soul. beliefs see these beliefs (such as alterna­ tive medicine or reincarnation) as central to Those who are familiar with contempo­ their and that they are not tangen­ rary beliefs or writings of the New Age would tial or transitory convictions. The direction of find that these ideas are not unfamiliar. With influence, in fact, appears to be reversed. its movement into America, the Theosophi­ Instead of New Age beliefs becoming formal­ cal Society divided into three groups (Ellwood ized as a new religion, several of these be­ 1973). The most important of these was liefs are increasingly being adopted by prac­ headed by , who founded the Ar­ titioners of various formal religions, particu­ cane School in New York, with its Full Moon larly among those holding more liberal theo­ groups. In the writings of Ameri­ logical beliefs (Donahue 1993). More Ameri­ can Theosophy, it is possible to detect in­ cans, in fact, are discovering increasing com­ creasing strains of and eschato­ patibility between more traditional and New logical beliefs consistent with those of cur­ Age beliefs. Wuthnow (1998), quoting an Au­ rent New Age beliefs. Bailey was the first ex­ gust 5, 1990 Gallup poll, found that 15 per­ plicitly to mention the advent of a •new age" cent of those polled described themselves in her book Discipleship in the New Age as holding New Age beliefs, and another 12 (1944), and it was Bailey's channeling of an percent expressed interest in learning more entity who prophesied the imminent coming about New Age beliefs. of a great spirit (called Maitrya), who in turn Thus, these same beliefs do not often find was destined to issue in a new world order. expression in formal settings with accom­ However, the number of adherents to the panying hierarchies and patterned . As various branches of the Theosophical Soci­ a result, there have been several attempts to ety has not grown appreciably since the end find an adequate means to categorize these of the Second World War (Ellwood 1973). beliefs. Groothius (1986), for example, has Since that time, the beliefs espoused by argued that there are several basic beliefs these groups have become more diffuse. held by adherents to the New Age Movement: Many of those who hold these beliefs are not that 'all' is 'one,' and this 'one' is ; all likely to claim allegiance to or even have religions are thus essentially one; a change of these early spiritual associa­ in consciousness is not only possible but tions. It was not until the upheaval of the necessary to apprehend this oneness; and 1960's that religious beliefs, tinged with that the cosmos is steadily evolving toward scientism and , again found this consciousness. Associated with these a significant audience (Hess 1993). Many of abstract beliefs, there are a number of con­ these now belong to a category often referred crete convictions, including reincarnation, to in sociology as , beings existing beyond the known world, or more commonly as NRM's (Chalfant, practices involving meditation or other con­ Beckley & Palmer 1994; Roberts 1995; John­ sciousness-changing techniques, and ho­ ston 2001; McGuire 2002). The 'New Age' is, listic health practices. Olds (1989 62-69) has by contrast, less capable of definition be­ identified central New Age beliefs as: ­ cause its boundaries are less like those of authenticating ; the immanence of traditional religions. ·There is," as Barker God; emphasis of the metaphysical teach­ (1989 189) succinctly remarks of the new ings of ; a unification of age, •no central organization." 'masculine' logic and 'feminine' sensitivity, This further expansion of beliefs and ad­ and a reliance on the evolution of scientific herents, however, has not resulted in a uni­ knowledge as a means of revealing the new fied organization or leadership. From a so­ world order. The New Age body of knowledge ciological perspective, the diffuse nature of may extend from highly technical writings, the New Age has led to difficulties in captur- such as Capra's two works The Turning Point Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 179

(1982) and The Tao of Physics (2000; first place practitioners of the New Age well within published in 1975), and Goswami's The the boundaries of what is defined as reli­ Self-Aware Universe (1995) to popularized gion.3 quasi-scientific technologies such as astrol­ Geertz places the essence of religion at ogy and crystal healing. Melton (1990) has the level of meaning, and quotes Santaya­ stressed the importance of individual and na's (1905) essay entitled " in Reli­ social transformation within New Age beliefs, gion" as capturing the essence of what a while Hargrove (1989 96) has asserted that religion is: the New Age Movement " ... is concerned with personal renewal and identity formation, and The vistas it opens and the mysteries it pro­ hence has an appeal to persons pounds are another world to live in; and from psychic deprivation." Lewis and Melton another world to live in-whether we ex­ (1992) have also noted the emphasis on pect ever to pass wholly over into it or no­ transpersonal . For example, is what we mean by having a religion. Groothius has remarked that: (Geertz 1966 3)

A wholly new school of psychology is Based on this understanding, Geertz devel­ struggling to emerge as the dominant path ops a carefully constructed definition of reli­ to human understanding. This new school gion that has four basic components: is called 'transpersonal psychology' and is a logical extension of the humanistic school. A religion is ( 1) a system of symbols which Anthony Sutich in the first issue of the Jour­ acts (2) to· establish powerful, pervasive, nat of Transpersonat Psychology (Spring and long-lasting moods and ... by 1969) described transpersonal psychology (3) formulating conceptions of a general or­ (or 'fourth force psychology') as an emerg­ der of existence and (4) clothing these con­ ing force interested in 'ultimate human ex­ ceptions with such an aura of factuality pectancies' not incorporated into behavior­ that (5) the moods and motivations seem ism (first force), classical psychoanalysis uniquely realistic. (Geertz 1966 4) (second force), or humanistic psychology (third force). Among those capacities listed With every point in this definition, the New are unitive consciousness, peak experi­ Age takes on an increasing reality as a reli­ ences, mystical experience, self-actualiza­ gion. The symbols may be borrowed from tion, oneness, cosmic awareness, and tran­ other religions or come even from civil reli­ scendental phenomena. (1986 79-80) gion-Shakti Gawain's comments regard­ ing political life in her book Living in the Light IS THE NEW AGE A REUGION? (1998) reflect this-but the wealth of sym­ Much has been made of the 'New Age' bolism is clearly present. These 'moods or being a "false religion," or even being more motivations' are indeed long-lasting-cer­ akin to "" (Roberts 1995). The 'New tainly more so than in most cults, which are Age'-a misnomer to begin with, and clearly reflexively referred to by sociologists as reli­ incapable of any easy classification-can be gious cults. The 'general order of existence' easily dismissed in this way. However, an­ can also be along a number of organizing other possibility exists, and that is to con­ principles that are clothed in an aura of fac­ sider members of the New Age as religious tuality, and this increasingly included , practitioners, and there is very reason such as new scientific developments such for proceeding in adopting this approach. Two as quantum physics (Hess 1993; Capra broad categories of definitions or religion 2000). To those who subscribe to these be­ have been traditionally recognized-sub­ liefs, they are no less •real,",one can safely stantive and functional (Roberts 1995; assert, than beliefs held by those in more McGuire 2002). Of these two categories, a traditional religions-in fact, it appears that substantive definition-both broader in increasing numbers of persons still involved scope and allowing for a more diffuse princi­ in traditional religions are holding beliefs and ple of organization-is capable of capturing having spiritual experiences that are highly the variety and nuances of the New Age. Thus, similar to those of New Age practitioners a functional definition modeled on Geertz's (Wuthnow 1998 123). (1966) understanding of religion serves to 180 Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology

Figure 1: Levels of Commitment to New Age Beliefs

t-t-t---Religious beliefs em­ braced, non-systematic

Religious beliefs em­ braced, systematic

CHARACTE~SnCSOFNSWAGE less points to the need for recognizing the PRACTITIONERS differing kinds and levels of commitment of Describing the New Age, providing a his­ to beliefs commonly included in torical background, and defining the New Age the New Age. One way of conceptualizing this as a religion by utilizing Geertz's (1966) per­ is to distinguish not only "New Age" mem­ spective helps to circumscribe the bound­ bers from "non-New Age" members, but to aries of the New Age. However, less atten­ differentiate between those individuals who tion has been given to the characteristics of are peripheral to the New Age from those those who adhere to these beliefs. Many who have fashioned New Age beliefs into a analyzers, as a result, have recognized the personal cosmology, and for whom these diffuse nature of New Age beliefs, while treat­ beliefs constitute a central life interest. Fig­ ing the believers as essentially unified in ure 1 depicts this continuum. At the outer­ holding these beliefs. This problem stems most, or peripheral position are those who partly from the sheer number and range of are 'externally' committed to the New Age, beliefs, and partly from the reluctance of many often displaying their commitment in the form to identify themselves and members of the of "identity kits" (Goffman 1973). Ironically, New Age. Lewis and Melton have noted that although these are often the least commit­ a result of this is that: ted members of the New Age, they are the most readily identifiable. It is possible that .... [because) individuals, , and this is a central source of cynicism regard­ periodicals who formerly referred to them­ ing the sincerity of those identified as "New as 'New Age' no longer identify them­ Agers" by those in the larger society. At the selves as such, studies built around a dis­ second level are those who hold many of the tinction between New Age and non-New New Age beliefs, but do not see these be­ Age ... become more complex. In particular, liefs as essentially religious or spiritual. This one can no longer simply ask respondents "secular" level includes those who believe in a straightforward manner whether they in aspects of the New Age such as environ­ consider themselves part of the New Age. mentalism, planetary consciousness, and One must instead rely on more indirect possibly and reincarnation, while not types of questions-such as assent to be­ tying these beliefs in any significant way to a liefs in reincarnation, planetary conscious­ force, either personal or imper­ ness, holistic healing methods, et cetera­ sonal. Approaching the core level of commit­ to determine whether respondents belong ment of the New Age are those adherents to the movement. (1992 2) who view these beliefs as a central life inter­ est, although not having formulated them into While asking indirect questions such as any systematic hierarchy. Thus, one might these may also be problematic,' it neverthe- include beliefs associated with channeling Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 181

Figure 2: Central Beliefs ofthe New Age

1) Ecology (least exclusive) 2) Karma 3) Reincarnation 4) Healing 5) Chakras 6) Channeling 7) Guidance 8) Ascendance (most1 exclusive) or guidance, but not be able to articulate the or unofficial religion), but may be highly priva­ relationship of these to karma and reincar­ tized, in the sense that they are 'stylized' to nation. Finally, those at the core level have conform to the individual needs of the practi­ embraced the major beliefs of the New Age, tioner. Thus, the New Age is essentially a and are able to express them in systematic private religion, although there are few or no form as a worldview that their ac­ proscriptive rules that prohibit public prac­ tions in the world. tice. Moreover, the New Age is privatized in Moving from periphery to core, one is less the respect that each adherent to a central likely to discover those who readily identify body of beliefs may nevertheless utilize highly themselves as subscribing to the New Age unique practices. Even the most purely 'spiri­ movement, or to New Age beliefs, as Lewis tual' , that of ascendance, may entail a and Melton (1992) have noted. While these relationship with either a personal or imper­ beliefs are highly diffuse, it is possible to sonal entity that is uniquely envisioned. There posit an type that encompasses the may be public ceremonies and speakers, central beliefs of the New Age, ordering them but the central aspect of the New Age is its in Gutman-scale fashion, from least exclu­ emergence as a privatized religion. sive to most exclusive, as depicted in Figure 2. Each of these categories, of course, may SOC~CONSEQUENCESOFAPRWA~D hold a range of interpretive meanings. Ecol­ REUGION ogy may consist of a straightforward respon­ Thus, the "New Age Movemenr is doubly sibility to be environmentally aware, or it may misnamed. Adherents to New Age beliefs involve a complex of beliefs about global har­ draw on a number of traditional religious, monics and ley lines (Aubyn 1990). The East­ psychological, scientific and quasi-scientific ern beliefs of karma and reincarnation are beliefs and practices, but they do not incor­ closely connected, but can be linked in so­ porate these into a formally organized body phisticated ways to beliefs and practices re­ of beliefs. However, the truly unique quality lated to healing and chakras (psychological of the New Age is that each individual's inter­ techniques such as transpersonal psychol­ pretation of these practices serves to isolate ogy or physical methods such as crystal heal­ the individual from others, rather than ing and reiki). The final three categories ne­ strengthening relations between individuals. cessitate a orientation toward an un­ This runs counter to Durkheim's assertion seen world. Further, the belief in ascendance of a central function of religion, which is to implies a final connection between one's self increase the sense of belonging among in­ and a spiritual realm that might be referred dividuals, and forms the basis of their at­ to as God, the Universe, the Higher Self, I tachment to their society: Am, or in a number of other ways (Gawain 1986). Those in the core of the New Age are ... religion derives from a double source: not only likely to believe in ascendance, but it firstly, the need to understand; and second- is also probable that they will be able to inte­ ly, from sociability... [However], these fac­ grate the other beliefs into a well-articulated tors should be inverted, & sociability should cosmology, often accompanied with sophis­ be made the determining cause of religious ticated rituals and routines. sentiment. (Durkheim 1965 [1912]12) The rituals and routines associated with these beliefs, however, may not only be prac­ However, the advent and growth of New ticed in private (a characteristic of common Age beliefs as essentially a private religion 182 Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology affirms a second Durkheimian thesis: that exercises, becoming more general and ab­ religion reflects the values and beliefs of the stract, leaves more place to the free play of society which, in turn, forges the identities of human forces. The individual...becomes individuals more a source of spontaneous activity. (Durkheim 1965 143-144) .. .it is society which, fashioning us in its image, fills us with religious, political, and In addition to this situation of "moral medioc­ moral beliefs that control our actions. (Durk­ rity," then, Durkheim envisioned an increas­ heim 1951 212) ing distance of the individual from the reli­ Durkheim's central thesis, then, is that the gious normative constraints that in turn pro­ religious beliefs of a society reflect the char­ duced what he termed a " con­ acter of the society itself. Conversely, char­ science." With the rise of egoism, or the indi­ acteristics of a society could be discerned vidual's (perceived) self-reliance, Durkheim from an examination of its religious beliefs posited the further decline of the importance and practices. Traditional societal beliefs, of the religious (if not religion it­ rituals, and practices in Western self). are being replaced by a growing egoism re­ In his masterful analysis of the question sulting in what Durkheim termed the "cult of of egoism vis-a-vis normative constraints in man," in which the need of the individual be­ Book II of , Durkheim further noted a came predominant over the needs of the central underlying consequence of egoism society. Durkheim's remarks often presage to be the isolation of the individual from the the work of Campbell, who commented in society, coupled with a " of free inquiry" The Power of that that is unleashed by the weakening force of formal religion: ... ritual has lost its force. The ritual that once conveyed an inner reality is now merely The more weakened the groups to which form. [This is] true in the rituals of society [the individual] belongs, the less he depends and the person rituals of and reli­ on them, the more he consequenUy depends gion. (1988 7) only on himself and recognizes no other rules of conduct than what are founded on The extemalization of ritual and its transition his private interests ... in which the individual to form devoid of significant content may re­ asserts itself to excess in the face of the sult in a general sense of . Thus, in social ego and at its expense ... (Durkheim the Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 1951 209) Durkheim remarked that: For Durkheim, then, the decline of religion If we find some difficulty today in imagining represented a danger to the solidarity of the what the feasts and ceremonies of the fu­ society, as well as causing the individual to ture would consist in, it is because we are forfeit a sense of identity and purpose. The going through a stage of transition and moral "" of identity, as a result, could not mediocrity. The great events of the past be found either in society or within the estab­ which filled our fathers with enthusiasm do lished religions that were the reflections of not excite the same ardour in us, either be­ the society. Durkheim found this condition to cause they have come into common usage be "pathological" and referred to it as giving to such an extent that we are unconscious rise to misplace , centering the sac­ of them, or else because they no longer red not in the social, but in the individual, in answer to our present aspirations; but as the "cult of man." yet there is nothing to replace them. (Durk­ heim in Giddens 1972 610) ... society cannot disintegrate without the individual simultaneously detaching himself Durkheim further asserted that, as a so­ from social life, without his own goals be­ cial institution, formal, structured religion coming predominant over those of the com­ would decline in influence as the society munity, in a word without his personality gained in complexity: tending to surmount the collective person­ ality. (Durkheim 1951 209) ... the power which [the force of religion) Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 183

Somewhat paradoxically, many of those Capra F 1982 The Turning Point: Science, Soci­ who identify with New Age beliefs have taken ety, and the Rising Culture NY: Simon & these beliefs from the fully-developed cos­ Schuster. mology of Eastern religions, in which the "col­ ___ 2000 The Tao of Physics 4th ed NY: Put­ lective personality" is a transcendental ­ nam. Carlson RW & LL Motsenbocker 1989 The New nad, universal force that finds expression in Age: an attempt to understand and respond the concrete lives of individuals 0JVon 1989). Covenant Qtrty 47 Nov 34-46. This is an otherworldly orientation that serves Chalfant HP, RE Beckley & CE Palmer 1994 Reli­ to unite believers through collective, public gion in Contemporary Society 3111 ed. Itasca, IL: ritual and through spiritual leaders, whether FE Peacock. these are Brahmin priests, yogic , or Donahue M 1993 Prevalence and correlates of Buddhist Bodhisattvas. Members of the New New Age beliefs in six protestant denomina­ Age, however, have largely eschewed both tions J Scientific Study Religion 32 2 177-184. the otherworldly orientation of Eastern cos­ Durkheim E 1951 [1897] Suicide NY: Free Press. -=--:-- 1965 [1912] Elementary Forms of the mology and rejected the importance of fol­ Religious Life NY: Free Press. lowing any given religious leader, taking a Ellwood RS Jr 1973 Religions and Spiritual Groups more eclectic approach to the variety of teach­ in America Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ings. Ferguson M 1980 The Aquarian Conspiracy: Per­ It is consistent with Durkheim's observa­ sonal Growth and Social Transformation in the tions regarding the increase in egoism in 1980's Los Angeles: JP Tarcher. the West, however, that this trend would find Frost WP 1992 What is the New Age? Defining expression in privatized religious practices Third Millennium Consciousness NY: E Mellen in which emphasis on individual personality Press. Gawain S 1986 Living in the Light San Rafael, supercedes a collective orientation. Indeed, CA: New World Library. as Beckford (1994) has noted, the sacred Geertz C 1966 Agricultural Involution: The Pro­ and the social realms have become increas­ cess of Ecological Change in Indonesia Ber­ ingly divorced from each other, and what so­ keley: U California Press. cial solidarity that remains in postmodern Geisler NL 1987 The New Age movement Biblio­ societies now rests on technical-rational theca Sacra 144 January-March 302-320. foundations. However, the moral component Giddens A 1972 Emile Durkheim: Selected Writ­ to this solidarity appears to be shifting from ings Cambridge: Cambridge U Press. public ritual to private meanings in which the Gottman E 1973 The Presentation of Self in Every­ day Life NY: Overlook Press. "iron cage" of Weber's (1958) brooding has Goswami A 1995 The Self-Aware Universe NY: JP now become something less dramatic: a Tarcher. "postmodern" age which is not so much Groothius DR 1986 Unmasking the New Age Down­ "new" as indeterminate and without any final ers Grove, IL: lneNarsity Press. mooring. Hargrove B 1989 : Classi­ cal and Contemporary Approaches Arlington REFERENCES Heights,IL: Harlan Davidson. Aubyn A 1990 The New Age in a Nutshell London: Hess OJ 1993 Science in the New Age Madison: U Alcock Books. Wisconsin Press. Bailey A 1944 Discipleship in the New Age NY: Jacobs J 1989 Divine Disenchantment Blooming­ Lauis Trust. ton: U Indiana Press. Barker E 1989 New Religious Movements: A Prac­ Johnston RL 2001 Religion in Society: A Sociol­ tical Introduction London: Her Majesty's Sta­ ogy of Religion 6th ed Upper Saddle River, NJ: tionery Office. Prentice-Hall. Basil R 1988 Not Necessarily the New Age Buf­ Jones M 1989 'Convergence' at the bookstore Pub­ falo: . lisher's Weekly Nov 3 32-34. Beckford JA 1994 Religion, self help and privati­ Lewis JR & JG Melton 1992 Perspectives on the zation. Pp. 318-341 in Sprondel ed. Objektivi­ New Age Albany: SUNY Press. taet der Ordnungen under ihre kommunikativ McGuire M 2002 Sociology of Religion 5th ed Bel­ Konstruktion Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. mont, CA: Wadsworth. Blavatsky HP 1989 [1888] The Secret Doctrine: Melton JG 1988 A of the New Age move­ The Synthesis of Science, Religion, and Phi­ ment. Pp. 304-318 in R Basil ed Not Necessar­ losophy NY: Press. ily the New Age Buffalo, NY: Prometheus. Campbell J 1988 The Power of Myth NY: Doubleday. -=-- 1990 New Age Encyclopedia Detroit: Gale Research Inc. 184 Volume 30 No. 2 November 2002 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology

Mitchell J 1974 Psychoanalysis and Feminism Lon­ ENDNOTES don: Allen Lane. 1.Melton (1988) the New Age Movement Olds GA 1989 The New Age: historical and meta­ to be a genuine "movement, • but defines this physical. Pp. 24-42 in OS Ferguson ed New movement only in terms of the collective trans­ Age : An Assessment Louisville: formative vision of its practitioners, rather than Westminster/John Knox. identifying any organizational coherence or per­ Roberts KA 1995 Religion in Sociological Per­ manent leadership. spective 3"' ed Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 2.This individuation of beliefs is also a reason, at Roof WC 1999 Spiritual Marketplace: Baby Boom­ least in part, for the lack of empirical investiga­ ers and the Remaking of American Religion tion of the New Age (Melton & Lewis 1992). Princeton: Princeton U Press. 3.1t may well be, as Roof (1999 88) asserts (quot­ Santayana G 1905 Reason in religion. The Ufe of ing Harold Blum) that one significant aspect of Reason, or the Phases of Human , the in America is "the per­ volume 2 NY: Scribner's. petual shock of the individual discovering yet Sebald H 1984 New-Age romanticism: the quest again what he or she always has known." for an alternative as a force for social This is also a point made by Tipton ( 1984) in his change Humboldt J Social Relations 11 2 Getting Saved from the 60's (1984). If this is Spring/Summer 106-127. so, then Geertz's definition retains still greater Smelser NJ 1963 Theory of Collective Behavior relevance for defining the New Age, and place NY: Free Press. practitioners of the New Age even more in the Tipton SM 1984 Getting Straight from the 60's traditional light of more established religions. Berkeley: U California Press. 4.For example, 25% of all Americans now believe Weber M 1958 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit in reincarnation, according to a recent Gallup of (trans T Parsons) NY: Scribner's. poll. However, this does not indicate a wide­ Wuthnow R 1998 After Heaven: Spirituality in spread increase in those holding to related New America Since the 1950's Berkeley: U Califor­ Age beliefs, such as a belief in karma. Nor nia Press. does this increasing belief in reincarnation by Won Y J 1989 Challenge of Eastern to itself indicate a growing interest in Eastern re­ the West Concordia J April128-140. ligions.