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Timothy B. Knopp, Associate Professor University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St

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Timothy B. Knopp, Associate Professor University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St Timothy B. Knopp, Associate Professor University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St. Paul, MN G. Ballman University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St. Paul, MN L. C. Merriam University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St. Paul, MN A &istic nrdel or frronwollc for the amlysis of recreation khviCD mst be both -ive ancl dynrmic. -t at- to explain -tion hehavim are sta+lc m that they cb mt allax for Chnges in the of an activity or the duticm of a participant's hlwsent. hVen-- pre dictive mdeU terd to ass- that relatiwhips remain constant wer time. A dynamic delis especially critical in the analysis of m, rapidly evo1~mm of.-tim. -,recent, 4 gmth of ski tour- in Minnesota prwides an ideal ntyto &mmmt and analyze the dynanics of pxticipaticn. Ihe parallel grrwth of snamobiling is a basis fa-ism and the chance to examine the effect of altermtive £om of r-tian m participatiar. cjustionmire responses fma radm sanple of ski tanem a hypothessnreretestedby~~reoent~tsto~~i~ skzers. Neweradhermts~~likelytobefenaleardksslikelytobe college qaduates. Carpansols of age and residslcy were inanclusive. Participation in other fopm of wine r-ticm relate to ski taping in a variety of ways. A gmwirg psrczn- of thDse ~.?~IKJ up ski taning have participated in smmmbiling. Ihe pursuit of exercise and the rn- emrj.Mmwnt have consistently been prirmry rm!%ns for taking up the qm.t. Ihe infl- of frierds appears to be an increasing f-. While self- rated skill level is directly axrelated with years of wience, there is only a slight terdency for new skiers to prefer WELL groared and wked trails, and a tendency to laM longer trails ard rerote areas mdesirable. INTRODUCTION A good deal of research effort has been relations between participation rates and the directed toward predicting trends in the rate socio-economic characteristics of a population. of participation in various recreational activ- We are now beginning to take the next step, ities. To a large extent these have relied i.e., the identification of'mechanisms which on extrapolations or empirically derived cor- explain changes. Several individuals, including Christy in Minnesota to test some of the mechanisms (1970) and Meyersohn (1957), have described suggested in the first part. No data set can what they feel are the important determinants completely encompass the complexities of of "mass1' recreation or "fads". More recently recreation participation. It is critical that West (1977) developed an innovative "status any statistical analysis be proceeded by the group dynamic approach to predicting parti- development of a comprehensive framework so cipation rates". While the latter goes a that the data can be kept in perspective and long way toward explaining and quantifying we can avoid the temptation to adopt narrow, change, it relies heavily on the validity of self-contained explanations of behavior. the status concept and the symbolic function of recreation activities. A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS Motivational research has contributed a great deal to our understanding of why people This framework is derived from unstruc- participate in various activities. In par- tured and structured observation, the contri- ticular the recent models and scales butions of previous research, and anintuitive developed by Driver and Brown (Driver 1977); notion of recreation behavior. The framework (Driver and Brown 1975) have brought this consists of the various mechanisms which can approach to a high level of sophistication. influence recreation participation and the Tinsley (1977; 1978) has also contibuted a patterns of change over time. The growth and great deal to an understanding of motivations evolution of ski touring in Minnesota will and need satisfaction. However, many of the be used to illustrate the framework. In this concepts in motivational research are some- initial discussion no attempt will be made to what static in that they seldom allow for quantify the effect of any specific factor, changes within the individual or in the this will be left to an analysis of survey character of the activity. data. Some difficulties will be encountered where the same factor can influence different There is an obvious need for a compre- persons in dramatically opposite ways. hensive, dynamic framework which identifies factors and relationships effecting changes Defining Participation in recreation participation. We can begin by making unstructured, but detailed, obser- Before we can begin to describe the vations of specific activities over time. factors influencing participation we must Once a skeleton framework has been developed deal with the meaning of the term participa- we can fill it in with statistical analyses tion. Participation has both quality and of the linkages and mechanisms operating quantity dimensions. The latter can be ex- within the framework. pressed in terms of numbers of individuals, man-hours, visitor days, or miles skied. The recent, rapid growth in the popu- These measures must be defined still further larity of ski touring in Minnesota provides to be operationalized. If we are concerned an excellent opportunity for the approach with numbers it is necessary to list the cri- outlined above. Although ancient in origin, teria for inclusion; e-g., who do we consider the activity is relatively new in terms of a ski tourer? Anyone who has ever skied, mass participation in the United States. or those who have skied a minimum number of Some indication of the significance of this miles in the past season. For some purposes development can be ascertained by comparing "dollars invested" may be an appropriate the 1977-78 season Minnesota Department of criteria. Natural Resources (MDNR) estimate of 500,000 participants based on a statewide, random Man-hours also requries a more explicit survey, with the few hundred to a thousand definition. Do we include travel or resort ski tourers present in 1965. Current figures time, or only the hours on the trail? A show an annual growth rate of from 20 to 30 visitor day has been standardized by the U.S. percent (Ballman, 1979). Forest Service and the National Park Service as an expression of occupancy. Although We will begin by describing the various "visitor day" is a practical measure for mechanisms believed to be operating in the making some crude comparisons, it is generally evolution of ski touring in Minnesota. Many insensitive to subtle changes in the charact- of these mechanisms can be abstracted in the er of participation. sense that they probably operate to a greater or lesser extent in the history of any recre- The quality dimension pertains to both ational activity. As far as is possible the nature of the activity and the environ- these mechanisms will be systematically link- ment in which it takes place. Racing is a ed within a comprehensive framework. far differenet experience than casual touring or winter camping--all of which can take Next we will utilize recent data from a place in the same area. An urban park and a statewide survey of ski touring participants remote wilderness each provide a distinctly different experience even where the physical tally of costs and benefits. Costs may in- motions are the same. clude monetary investment, time, energy, inconvenience, negative image or stigma, and We will not elaborate further on a possible loss of social relationships. Vari- definition of participation. The importance ation contributes the most to the benefit of explicit definitions will become more side of the ledger. The value of a specific obvious as the discussion proceeds. Suffice benefit, however, will depend on individual it to say that any definition must be appro- and collective needs. priate for the change or comparison which is being described and the purpose to which Inherent appeal is most easily compre- the analysis will be applied. hended relative to alternative forms of recreation. All in all, ski touring probably Inherent Appeal rates quite high compared to the major winter outdoor alternatives currently available. Any analysis of participation dynamics must begin with a thorough familiarity with Sources of New Participants and Dropouts the inherent appeal of the activity(s) in question. There are three primary character- Participation in ski touring is often istics to consider: novelty, variation, and thought of in terms of the number of individ- efficiency. Novelty is a function of "new- uals who have skied during the current season. ness" or contrast with other pastimes. Our Generally, numbers fluctuate for one of two example, ski touring, has characteristics in reasons: 1) individuals enter or leave seg- common with a number of other forms of rec- ments of the population with varying rates of reation. It can provide some of the thrills participation, or 2) individuals are attract- of downhill skiing; it allows access to many ed to or repelled by the activity due to of the same environments as does snowmobil- changes, real or perceived, in its character. ing; it can offer health benefits similar to running. In part the "uniqueness" of ski The character of an activity is the pro- touring probably lies in the combination of duct of opportunities (facilities and natural benefits it can furnish. conditions), the commercial impetus and the behavior of those participating. But, in addition, ski touring has some subtle attributes which are revealed only by The first mechanism can be understood a more intimate acquaintance with the fairly easily by examining the correlation activity. Ski touring is a form of exercise of participation with traditional socio- that can be performed with "grace" and economic cohorts. For example, certain in- "dignity". By comparison, jogging is of ten dividuals will begin to participate at a associated with smelly sweat clothes and an minimum age and drop out when they consider ungainly shuffle.
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