Timothy B. Knopp, Associate Professor University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St

Timothy B. Knopp, Associate Professor University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St. Paul, MN

G. Ballman University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St. Paul, MN

L. C. Merriam University of Minnesota College of Forestry Department of Forest Resources 110 Green Hall 1530 North Cleveland Avenue St. Paul, MN

A &istic nrdel or frronwollc for the amlysis of recreation khviCD mst be both -ive ancl dynrmic. -t at- to explain -tion hehavim are sta+lc m that they cb mt allax for Chnges in the of an activity or the duticm of a participant's hlwsent. hVen-- pre dictive mdeU terd to ass- that relatiwhips remain constant wer time. A dynamic delis especially critical in the analysis of m, rapidly evo1~mm of.-tim.

-,recent, 4 gmth of ski tour- in Minnesota prwides an ideal ntyto &mmmt and analyze the dynanics of pxticipaticn. Ihe parallel grrwth of snamobiling is a basis fa-ism and the chance to examine the effect of altermtive £om of r-tian m participatiar. cjustionmire responses fma radm sanple of ski tanem

hypothessnreretestedby~~reoent~tsto~~i~ skzers.

Neweradhermts~~likelytobefenaleardksslikelytobe college qaduates. Carpansols of age and residslcy were inanclusive. Participation in other fopm of wine r-ticm relate to ski taping in a variety of ways. A gmwirg psrczn- of thDse ~.?~IKJ up ski taning have participated in smmmbiling. Ihe pursuit of exercise and the rn- emrj.Mmwnt have consistently been prirmry rm!%ns for taking up the qm.t. Ihe infl- of frierds appears to be an increasing f-. While self- rated skill level is directly axrelated with years of wience, there is only a slight terdency for new skiers to prefer WELL groared and wked trails, and a tendency to laM longer trails ard rerote areas mdesirable.

INTRODUCTION

A good deal of research effort has been relations between participation rates and the directed toward predicting trends in the rate socio-economic characteristics of a population. of participation in various recreational activ- We are now beginning to take the next step, ities. To a large extent these have relied i.e., the identification of'mechanisms which on extrapolations or empirically derived cor- explain changes. Several individuals, including Christy in Minnesota to test some of the mechanisms (1970) and Meyersohn (1957), have described suggested in the first part. No data set can what they feel are the important determinants completely encompass the complexities of of "mass1' recreation or "fads". More recently recreation participation. It is critical that West (1977) developed an innovative "status any statistical analysis be proceeded by the group dynamic approach to predicting parti- development of a comprehensive framework so cipation rates". While the latter goes a that the data can be kept in perspective and long way toward explaining and quantifying we can avoid the temptation to adopt narrow, change, it relies heavily on the validity of self-contained explanations of behavior. the status concept and the symbolic function of recreation activities. A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS Motivational research has contributed a great deal to our understanding of why people This framework is derived from unstruc- participate in various activities. In par- tured and structured observation, the contri- ticular the recent models and scales butions of previous research, and anintuitive developed by Driver and Brown (Driver 1977); notion of recreation behavior. The framework (Driver and Brown 1975) have brought this consists of the various mechanisms which can approach to a high level of sophistication. influence recreation participation and the Tinsley (1977; 1978) has also contibuted a patterns of change over time. The growth and great deal to an understanding of motivations evolution of ski touring in Minnesota will and need satisfaction. However, many of the be used to illustrate the framework. In this concepts in motivational research are some- initial discussion no attempt will be made to what static in that they seldom allow for quantify the effect of any specific factor, changes within the individual or in the this will be left to an analysis of survey character of the activity. data. Some difficulties will be encountered where the same factor can influence different There is an obvious need for a compre- persons in dramatically opposite ways. hensive, dynamic framework which identifies factors and relationships effecting changes Defining Participation in recreation participation. We can begin by making unstructured, but detailed, obser- Before we can begin to describe the vations of specific activities over time. factors influencing participation we must Once a skeleton framework has been developed deal with the meaning of the term participa- we can fill it in with statistical analyses tion. Participation has both quality and of the linkages and mechanisms operating quantity dimensions. The latter can be ex- within the framework. pressed in terms of numbers of individuals, man-hours, visitor days, or miles skied. The recent, rapid growth in the popu- These measures must be defined still further larity of ski touring in Minnesota provides to be operationalized. If we are concerned an excellent opportunity for the approach with numbers it is necessary to list the cri- outlined above. Although ancient in origin, teria for inclusion; e-g., who do we consider the activity is relatively new in terms of a ski tourer? Anyone who has ever skied, mass participation in the United States. or those who have skied a minimum number of Some indication of the significance of this miles in the past season. For some purposes development can be ascertained by comparing "dollars invested" may be an appropriate the 1977-78 season Minnesota Department of criteria. Natural Resources (MDNR) estimate of 500,000 participants based on a statewide, random Man-hours also requries a more explicit survey, with the few hundred to a thousand definition. Do we include travel or resort ski tourers present in 1965. Current figures time, or only the hours on the trail? A show an annual growth rate of from 20 to 30 visitor day has been standardized by the U.S. percent (Ballman, 1979). Forest Service and the National Park Service as an expression of occupancy. Although We will begin by describing the various "visitor day" is a practical measure for mechanisms believed to be operating in the making some crude comparisons, it is generally evolution of ski touring in Minnesota. Many insensitive to subtle changes in the charact- of these mechanisms can be abstracted in the er of participation. sense that they probably operate to a greater or lesser extent in the history of any recre- The quality dimension pertains to both ational activity. As far as is possible the nature of the activity and the environ- these mechanisms will be systematically link- ment in which it takes place. Racing is a ed within a comprehensive framework. far differenet experience than casual touring or winter camping--all of which can take Next we will utilize recent data from a place in the same area. An urban park and a statewide survey of ski touring participants remote wilderness each provide a distinctly different experience even where the physical tally of costs and benefits. Costs may in- motions are the same. clude monetary investment, time, energy, inconvenience, negative image or stigma, and We will not elaborate further on a possible loss of social relationships. Vari- definition of participation. The importance ation contributes the most to the benefit of explicit definitions will become more side of the ledger. The value of a specific obvious as the discussion proceeds. Suffice benefit, however, will depend on individual it to say that any definition must be appro- and collective needs. priate for the change or comparison which is being described and the purpose to which Inherent appeal is most easily compre- the analysis will be applied. hended relative to alternative forms of recreation. All in all, ski touring probably Inherent Appeal rates quite high compared to the major winter outdoor alternatives currently available. Any analysis of participation dynamics must begin with a thorough familiarity with Sources of New Participants and Dropouts the inherent appeal of the activity(s) in question. There are three primary character- Participation in ski touring is often istics to consider: novelty, variation, and thought of in terms of the number of individ- efficiency. Novelty is a function of "new- uals who have skied during the current season. ness" or contrast with other pastimes. Our Generally, numbers fluctuate for one of two example, ski touring, has characteristics in reasons: 1) individuals enter or leave seg- common with a number of other forms of rec- ments of the population with varying rates of reation. It can provide some of the thrills participation, or 2) individuals are attract- of downhill skiing; it allows access to many ed to or repelled by the activity due to of the same environments as does snowmobil- changes, real or perceived, in its character. ing; it can offer health benefits similar to running. In part the "uniqueness" of ski The character of an activity is the pro- touring probably lies in the combination of duct of opportunities (facilities and natural benefits it can furnish. conditions), the commercial impetus and the behavior of those participating. But, in addition, ski touring has some subtle attributes which are revealed only by The first mechanism can be understood a more intimate acquaintance with the fairly easily by examining the correlation activity. Ski touring is a form of exercise of participation with traditional socio- that can be performed with "grace" and economic cohorts. For example, certain in- "dignity". By comparison, jogging is of ten dividuals will begin to participate at a associated with smelly sweat clothes and an minimum age and drop out when they consider ungainly shuffle. Another alternative, the themselves to old. Position in the family or bicycle, still has connotations of a child's career cycle also affects participation in toy for many adults. Ski touring provides somewhat predictable ways. Although these the means to ease gently into an exercise mechanisms are always operating, they can be routine; the transition from a leisurely used to explain or predict change only when stroll to a strenuous workout is gradual an activity has stabilized in respect to the and without the distinct change of gait which kinds of opportunities available and the separates walking from running. These, and image it presents; this is definitely not the other characteristics which are not obvious case with ski touring during its recent evol- to a casual observer, may be important deter- ution. minants of the activity's appeal. Ski touring began as a relativelyobscure Variation refers to the range of ex- form of recreation often confused with down- periences possible within the scope of an hillskiing. It was, and to some extent activity. Ski touring can vary from a still is, perceived as the blind men described leisurely stroll to strenuous competitive an elephant. Some thought it was cross- racing. Access to different environments country racing; others viewed it as bushwack- also contributes to variation. Ski touring, ing through remote, untracked wilderness. Few because it is relatively unobtrusive, is people understood the full range of opportuni- tolerated in residential areas and fragile ties the activity could provide. wilderness areas. A ski tourer can choose between solitude and the mayhem of a mass At the same time real changes were start tour-race. Complementary facilities occurring. The sport grew more visible--via also add to variety. Lodging may consist of word of mouth, popularized articles and de- a hole in a snow drift or a luxury resort. liberate promotions on the part of organizations such as the United States Ski Associ- Efficiency is simply the net result of a ation and local ski touring clubs. Later the commercial establishment joined the efforts Participants often cite low cost as a motivat- to promote ski touring. While all segments ing factor. It is interesting to note that of the population are affected by the increase ski touring experienced an earlier resurgence in visibility, we cannot expect the effect during the depression years. to be equal in magnitude across the population. The better informed individuals are Value trends affect the image associated the first to become aware of any new oppor- with a form of recreation. To the extent tunity. As an activity becomes generally that people are really concerned about the well known other segments of the population environment, the energy crisis and the con- may account for an increasing portion of new sumption of resources they may adopt forms of participants. recreation which they perceive as consistent with their beliefs. The choice of recreation Opportunities in the form of areas and may be in part a genuine effort, and in part physical facilitieshavealso changed. Marked a symbolic gesture. Ski touring is consider- and groomed trails became more plentiful. ed to have a relatively low impact on the Beginning in the early 1970's "citizens' environment and a beneficial effect on health; tour races" were organized and promoted. In- thus the magnitude of these trends can be creases in trails and areas did not keep expected to influence participation. pace with growing numbers; consequently skiers confronted crowds which weren't ex- Ski touring may also be considered con- perienced by their predecessors. The image sistent with current efforts on the part of of ski touring as a social event became more some to become independent of complex, inter- pronounced. dependent socio-economic systems. Some feel less vulnerable if their recreation does not Ski touring equipment has also evolved. depend on foreign oil and highly technical Tough, easily maintained fiber-glass skis machines. became gnerally available in the mid to late 1970's. Waxless skis appealed to the casual There is considerable evidence that the participant. Lightweight poles and bindings environmental setting of the home and work- added to the array of choices. For some the place has an influence on the selection of a refinements in equipment make the activity recreational activity (Knopp, 1972). Defi- easier; for others the equipment itself may ciences in these settings might be expected be an attraction. to create needs; compensation may be sought in the recreation experience. It isdifficult All of these changes meant that ski tour- to document this influence because it is al- ing was not the same activity it was during most impossible to control for visibility and the earlier stages of its development. means which may mask its effect. Some would find the activity more appealing because large numbers of participants had The growth in ski touring may be asso- demonstrated that it is "acceptable" and ciated with a growth in confinement and beneficial. The enthusiasm of others may restraints imposed by urbanization and winter have waned because it is no longer as exclu- itself. Ski touring provides access to a sive and uncrowded trails are more difficult vast resource of open space, nature, and free- to find. The net effect has obviously been dom. positive. In spite of any dominant image, the full range of experiences is still avail- Alternative forms of recreation may com- able. plement and reinforce participation, or they may compete for time and other resources. External Factors The latter can occur in two ways: first, a direct competition for participants; and Recreation behavior does not exist in second, they can preempt space and resources, a vacuum. Independent changes occurring thus reducing opportunities. No discussion in society can act to discourage or encour- of ski touring would be complete without age participation. These include economic reference to the parallel growth in snow- trends, value sets, the environmental setting mobiling. and alternative forms of recreation. In a practical sense, snowmobiling made An affluent society can afford more ex- its appearance a few years before ski touring pensive playthings; conversely, hard times (major growth took place in the late 1960's). may stimulate interest in less costly acti- For this reason the activity gained a large vities. Ski touring requires a smaller number of adherents who may have chosen ski monetary investment than some of the com- touring if that alternative had been equally peting outdoor winter recreation activities visible. Furthermore, large areas of land and therefore may be relatively favored by a and financial resources were allocated to general reduction in per capita buying power. snowmobiling, thus affecting theopportunities for ski touring experiences. Another possible behavior of those already participating can relationship is that the confidence and skills bring about significant shifts in demand. learned from snowmobiling provided a pool of winter acclimated personswhocould easily Experience can affect some participants transfer into ski touring. The extent of very differently. These individuals will these effects may be impossible to measure, become "saturated" with the opportunities but the example does serve to illustrate the provided by an activity and drop out alto- importance of timing and the sequence of ex- gether in order to seek an even more con- posure to alternative forms of recreation. trasting experience. A similar, but quicker, response can be expected from those who Other forms of recreation have had a simply discover after a trial period that less dramatic relationship. Downhill skiing the activity is not to their liking. The also competes for participants and their time; net effect of these countervailing responses at the same time it also furnishes new ad- is dependent on the inherent appeal and herents who convert entirely or partially to variation within an activity. ski touring because of cost, crowded lift lines or threat of physical injury. The When an individual elects to take up an popularity of running contributes to a activity he or she is making an investment population which is physically better able in dollars, time, energy, and social alli- to enjoy ski touring and is likely to seek ances. These investments will tent to a winter supplement to their training pro- perpetuate involvement. In some instances gram. On the other hand, heavily committed the social benefits or obligations may be- runners may be reluctant to devote any effort come the primary motivation for continuing to an activity which doesn't directly benefit the activity. The same can be said, of their running ability. course, for competing alternatives. Many of those who became involved in snowmobiling We have discussed only a few of the most before they were aware of ski touring will obviously related alternatives. Every other have a difficult time switching to ski form of recreation will have some effect on touring, even if they perceived the activity participation. To cite one more example. itself as more desirable. Television may be considered a direct competitor-andy yet, some have argued that cov- The accumulative effect of internal erage of the winter olympics stimulated many changes may be more important than changes to take up ski touring. in total numbers of participants. In a rapidly evolving activity, such as ski Internal Dynamics touring, this effect is probably even more significant, It may be a mistake to predict So far we have focused on factors which demand on the basis of current preferences determine whether an individual participates when a future ski touring population will in a given form of recreation. Profound be much more experienced and skilled. changes also occur after an individual joins the ranks of participants. Some of these The Role of the Commercial Sector changes occur independently of participation and were included in our reference to sources It is probably safe to assume that there of new participants and dropouts resulting is no perceived human need that someone won't from transfer from one socio-economic seg- attempt to "capture" in the economic sense. ment of the population to another. Here we, Recreational benefits vary tremendously in will point out changes brought about by par- their susceptibility to capture. Ski tour- ticipation itself. ing, relative to its main rivals snowmobiling and downhill skiing, is more difficult to One change is an increase in skill, package. The equipment is relatively less knowledge and confidence. Ski tourers, for expensive and the activity is not asrestrict- example, might be expected to seek more de- ed to specially developed facilities. For manding experiences or to increase the rate these reasons ski touring was largely ignored at which they utilize trails and areas. A by the commercial sector during its early closely correlated effect of increased ex- years of evolution in the United States. In perience may be a demand for variation, fact, the downhill ski industry may have de- either in terms of the activity or new and liberately tried to subdue the public's ex- different environments. Ski tourers who posure to a competing activity (Fishman, begin on the local golf course may end up in 1978). competitive racing or wilderness treking. Increased specialization or an intensified Ski touring (running provides a similar interest in a narrow segment of an activity parallel) continued to grow because of its is typical of the individual's involvement inherent appeal. The commercial sector in any form of recreation. Changes in the joined the "bandwagon" and has since developed innovative ways to package and sell the about by the climatic requirements of ski ski touring experience. The primary approach touring may serve to prolong interestoverthe has been an effort to convince skiers that long term by forestalling saturation. they need more refined, and often more expensive, equipment in order to fully enjoy Summary of Framework the potentials of the sport. Gadgets also proliferate as any activity becomes popular. One is tempted to describe the changes Appeals to the fashion conscious are preva- in participation as "phases" in a predictable lent. Resorts are providing groomed trails pattern of change. First, there is a pioneer and elaborate lodging facilities. Organized phase led by a small cadre of individuals tours to exotic environments are being made willing to explore and risk disappointment. available. These people may seek out, or even develop, a form of recreation which fulfills well de- There is little doubt that the commercial fined needs. In Stanley Plog's (1974) terms sector has added tremendously to the array these are the "alocentrics ," while those who of opportunities within the sport of ski follow can be labeled "psychocentrics". Sec- touring and thus has helped to perpetuate in- ond, others, with similar motivations, take terest in the activity. The success of these up the activity as it becomes more generally innovations is probably assured by the much visible. In the third phase, followers join broader range of persons now participating when there is an ample demonstration of in ski touring. Whereas the early "pioneers" acceptability and benefits. During thefourth often prided themselves in their resourceful- phase the activity stabilizes when it is ness and spartan demands, the broader spectrum generally well known to the total population of recent adherents are more likely to include and there are few changes in the nature of those seeking comfort and convenience. This the opportunities available. A fifth phase is not to say that the old hands won't also may or may not occur. This last phase is a take advantage of the new opportunities decline in participation because of external provided! factors or simply because the novelty of the experiencewears off. Other events may Rate of Change and Cycles disrupt a long period of stability. For example, a major breakthrough in equipment may It is relatively easy to predict the make participation easier or more enjoyable. direction of change; somewhat more difficult Stynes (1980) and others, have postulated a to predict the ultimate potential; and nearly "product life cycle" concept which implies impossible to predict the rate of change in a predictable decline in participation. It participation in a recreation activity. Ski is hazardous to impose a standard pattern on touring grew slowly during its initial stages all recreation participation phenomena. because it lacked a strong commercial impetus. Although this sort of description can help to The flow of information was largely dependent organize our thinking, it is no substihute on word of mouth, organizations, and magazine for an understanding of the specific mechan- articles. Television and billboard exposure isms at work. was minimal. IlHEREMT YPEAL OF ACTIVIN: -1ty. rarl.tlon and afflclsnw

Inherent characteristics would indicate EXTERNAL FACTORS I 1 -acomnlc condltlonr a potential for rapid growth once the visibility barrier was overcome. The sport requires a relatively small investment in money and time to learn special skills; therefore a person can quickly become a par- PARTICIPANTS OYNWICS OF DEPAND FOR PARTICIPANTS Iltransfcr of 1k111 AND VARIEN OF ticipant. lndlvlduals to different doftnltl~nl sqmcnt. of dctarnins For simplicity's sake our discussion has population who are the parctstpantr 2)attractlon ."d degree of implied a linear, one-way pattern of change. or rcpcllence ln~lr-nt The same mechanisms, and others yet unidenti- due to changer fied, may bring about short or long term In character cycles. For example, an individual may tire -rlrlbfllty of ski touring, drop out temporarily and join again at a later time. When this Figure 1. A sch-tl~ rcpresntatlon of the factors whish Influence the mechanism affects a large number of persons quantity .nd qvlllty of partlclpatlon. Sbrt tern and Imgar cycles my at the same time we can expect larger cycles occur wlthln tkcontut of this fr-rk. in the total number of participan~s. Even shorter, day to day or minute to minute, Figure 1 provides a graphic sununary of cycles are probably operating--although these the mechanisms and patterns described earlier. are less important in a discussion of long As is true of any attempt to organize reality term trends. The seasonal cycle brought it is somewhat arbitrary and simplistic. It does serve the purpose of aiding researchers but very little since. Given the rapid rate in their efforts to systematically deal with of increase in participation during the past the complexities of participation dynamics. 10 to 12 years the latter probably account Modifications and refinements can occur as for a very small portion of the sample. our knowledge and experience increases. Table 1: Level of education and first season of cross-country The ultimate output of any analysis con- skiing ducted within the context of this framework YEARS OF EDUCATION, RELATIVE FREQUENCY (PERCENT) Flrst is a better estimate of the demand for exper- 1-8 9-12 13-16 17+ (N)% iences, both the quantity and quality dimen- Season sions. prior to (2) (10) (25) (23) (60) 1972-73 3 17 42 9 100

A PARTIAL TEST OF THE FRAMEWORK

Methods

A statewide, random telephone survey of Minnesota residents conducted by the Minne- sota Department of Natural Resources in 1978 provided a representative sample of state ski tourers. Anyone over 14 years of age who had "cross-country skied sometime during their life" was included in the sample. Our study The most pronounced changes have ocurred utilized a four page questionnaire mailed to in the level of education and the sex of the sample. A 75 percent response rate pro- participants (Tables 1 and 2). College grad- duced a sample of 597 completed questionnaires. uates have become a smaller percent of new The survey instrument solicited four categories adherents while the proportion of those with of information: 1) patterns of participation; some high school education has increased. 2) reasons or motivations for participation; This is consistent with West's notion of 3)environmental preferences; and 4) demo- "status group diffussion". The change can graphic characteristics. Although the also be accounted for by increased visibility questionnaire was not designed primarily to and the role of the media. study the dynamics of participation, one Su distributton and first season of cross-country skiing question, "In which season did you first go Table 2: cross-country skiing?", enables us to examine First FENALES HALES the changes over time. Season %

prior to (25) (35) (60) For the purposes of this report several 1972-73 42 58 100 variables were cross-tabulated with the year an individual first took up the activity. While this sort of data does not lend itself well to statistical tests it does allow us to look for patterns of change and to speculate on the mechanisms at work.

Two broad questions will be addressed: 1) Are recent adherents motivated differently than those who took up the sport early in its development? and 2) Do more experienced skiers prefer more challenging areas and/or more var- Females are increasbg their involvement iation in opportunities? in many forms of recreation once considered primarily for men. Changes in the image of ski touring from a very demanding, physical Changes Over Time in the Characteristics and type of sport to a more casual, social pas- Motivations of New Adherents time with complementary facilities may also have contributed to the increased participa- Tables 1 through 6 show some of the tion by women. characteristics of participants according to the year they first took up the sport. In Changes in age structure (Table 3) are examining these tables it is critical to re- more difficult to interpret. There is an member that the first category contains all apparent decrease in the percentage of "older" of those who had skied prior to the 1972-73 (40-54 and 55+) skiers and an increase in the season. This could include some elderly in- 25-39 category; although the latter accounts dividuals who had skied early in the century for a large percent of those who took up ski touring prior to 1972. At least some of the more rural areas. The relative stability in change is an artifact of the tabulation it- our data may indicate that differences in self, i.e., younger persons are less likely visibility weren't as great as suspected. An- to have taken up ski touring at an earlier other possibility is that snowmobiling has date. had a secure hold on the rural population and fndividuals are reluctant to give up an Table 3: Age distribution of participants and first season of cross-country skiing investment with known benefits for a (to them) new activity. AGE CATEGORIES, RELATIVE FREQUENCY (PERCENT)

First 15-24 , 25-39 40-54 55+ (N) In speculating on the growth of an acti- Season % vity it may be valuable to know to what extent prlor to (4) (26) (14) (14) (58) participants in similar activities are pro- 1972-73 7 45 24 24 100 viding a reservior of potential adherents. 1972-73 (17) (11) (10) (2) (40) Table 5 shows the extent to which cross-country 42 28 25 5 100 skiers have participated in other forms of 1973-74 (27) (17) (13) (3) (60) 45 28 22 5 100 winter recreation. 1974-75 (23) (31) (12) (2) (68) 34 45 18 3 100 Table 5: Participation in other winter activities and first season of cross-country ski ing 1975-76 (40) (37) (13) (3) (93) IN OTHER WINTER ACTlVlTlES 43 40 14 3 100 DlSTRiBUTlON OF PARTICIPATION First snow- downhlll snow winter no o() 1976-77 (39)41 (41)43 (12)12 () 100(96) Season shoeing skiing mbillng camplng other % (56) (52) (19) (3) (132) 1977-78 43 40 15 2 100- prior to (30) (36) (38) (22) (8) (60) 1272-73 50 60 63 37 Responses to the question of residency (Table 4) are also difficult to analyze. We can't be sure what an individual thought was meant by "rural area," nor can we be certain whether a suburbanite would consider himself or herself a resident of a suburb or the Twin Cities Metro Area. It is probably safest to lump both ends of the spectrum for the basis of comparison. Still, at least a few of those who think of their residence as "rural" probably live on the Earlier participants were more likely to fringe of the metro area and have a more have engaged in snowshoeing. Changes in rela- urban lifestyle. This interpretation may tive visibility may explain some of this trend, help to reconcile our data with the results i.e., snowshoeing probably had nearly the a statewide Department of Natural Resources same level of visibility during the early survey (1979) conducted in 1978 which pro- stages of the growth of ski touring. The vided an estimate of the number of persons trend is also consistent with the idea that who had cross-country skied during that season. earlier adherents were more likely to be Sixty-three percent of the skiers were from "pioneers" who were exploring a number of the seven-county metro area. different forms of recreation.

Table 4: Dlstribution of residency and ffrst season of cross-country skiing Downhill skiing is a natural complement to cross-country skiing. On the other hand Dl STRlBUTlON OF RESIDENCY. RELATIVE FREQUENCY (PERCENT) it is camon for individuals to state that First over 25,000- 10,000- less than (N) Season 250.000 250,000 25,000 10,000 rural % they have switched to touring because of increased costs, crowding or concern for poss- ~riorto (10) (8) (10) (14) (17) (59) ible injuries. Our data is inconclusive in that it is also possible for a person to begin as a cross-country skier and switch to downhill as they gain confidence and seek a wider range of experiences.

There has been a great deal of specula- tion about the relationship between snow- () (23) (12) (21) (25) (97) 1976-77 mobiling and cross-country skiing. Our data 24 12 22 26 100 show a slight increase in the number of new 1977-78 (22) (21) (26) (23) (39) (131) 17 16 20 17 30 100 skiers who have participated in snowmobiling. We can expect that as the number of ski Residency is an important factor is that tourers increase it will draw upon a large it allows us to monitor the diffusion of ski existing population of snowmobilers. The touring from the urban areas (where the current gradual decline in snowmobiling since 1976 resurgence has been most pronounced) to the (as indicated by the registration of machines) reinforces the probability that some snowmo- importance of peer influence may be an indi- bilers are turning to ski touring as an cation of the type of visibility cross- alternative form of winter recreation; it country skiing had at the time. There was also tends to reduce the probability of an little media exposure and most persons heard alternative explanation, i.e., that a greater about ski touring from people they knew. percentage of new skiers are taking up snow- Currently, given the high level of visibility mobiling simultaneously. ski touring is experiencing, peer influence becomes more of a factor as participants are Winter camping is more complementary than drawn from the marginally interested popula- competitive in its relation to ski touring tion and the "psychocentrics" or followers. and appears to be related to experience. It seems reasonable to assume (and the data lend The Effect of Experience on the Individual's some support) that a cross-country skier needs Demand for Opportunities to acquire a certain level of skill and confidence in the winter environment before he Our data is not ideally suited to test or she becomes involved in winter camping. this relationship. Nevertheless it can provide some insights. We have inferred something of the motivations of cross-country skiers from behavioral There is a clear relationship between patterns and demographic characteristics. years of experience and self-rated skill Table 6 provides a more direct measure of the level as shown in Table 7. We might expect reasons skiers took up the sport. The respon- a similar correlation with the demand for ses were given to an open ended question and more challenging types of opportunities. more than one reason may have been offered. Table 8 presents relative preferences for specific environmental characteristics, some Table 6: Original reason participants thought they might enjoy cross-country skiing and first season of cross-country of which may indicate a desire for more de- ski Ing manding opportunities. RELATIVE FREQUENCY (PERCENT) OF REASONS GIVEN Table 7: Distribution of self-rated skill level and ffrst reason of cross-uruntw skiing b, First 2 Z1 U Season L - -u -" SELF-RATED SKILL LEVEL, RELATIVE FREQUENCY (PERCENT) - - (M) :,"i E -2 (N) First novice advanced inter- advancad advanced upert - - novice mediate inter e c, : Je sa :=" r ac % seam t 5u ;o ua a ghmm :=-x 2; 2 i 2 ~5 mediate to (9) (11) (1.3) (14) (5) (1) (5.3) 1972-73 I5 19 31 24 2 100 prior to (41)(4) (18)(3) (6) (8) (3) (4) (2) (5) (3) (61) 1972-73 17) (14) (9) (1) () (40) 1972-73 677 30 5 10 13 5 7 3 8 5 I;) 35 22 100 (21)(2) (11)(6) (4) (4) (:) (3) (1) (2) (3) (41) (14) (11) (23) (9) (41 (0) (61) 0 1W 1972-73 51 5 27 15 10 10 7257 1973-74 23 18 38 15

1973-74 (20) (2) (25)(5) (6) (i) (4) (3) (3) (2) (7) (61) 30 14 0 100 33 3 41 8 10 7 55312 1975-76 (18) (371 (271 (10) (3) (0) (951 (22)(1) (25)(7) (5) (9) (0) (2) (5) (5) (7) (71) 3 39 28 11 0 100 1974-75 31 I 3510 7 13 0 3 7 7 10 197b77 (38) (29) (23) (7) (2) (0) (99) ( 1975-76 (22) (2) (34) (5) (12) (11) (9) (3) (6) (6) (9) (96) 232 355 12 11 9 3669 1977-78 (71)53 (35)26 (22)16 (3)2 (1) (2) (131i) 100

There appears to be a slight tendency for the newer skiers to have a higher pre- ference for groomed, well marked trails. Exercise and access to the outdoor envi- They are also more likely to find longer ronment have always been important motivations. trails and remote areas undesirable. On the The importance of exercise appears to be some- other hand they don't appear to be too much what less than during the early years. The different in their attitudes toward breaking early association may have resulted from the trail (i.e., making tracks in new, unpacked dominant image of cross-country skiing as a snow) or trails requiring a high level of physically demanding activity. skill. Perception of difficulty is, of course, quite subjective. We might expect some con- Our data show little change during the sistency with self-rated skill level however. past five years in the importance of the "outdoors" as an attractor to cross-country Our data is inconclusive on the question skiing. This may reflect a stability in our of how experience affects the desire for society's attitudes toward the natural envi- challenging opportunities. A number of other ronment and the need to complement daily factors are probably involved. For example, routines associated with the urban setting. groomed, well marked trails are much more prevalent nowthan in the past; thus newer The influence of friends and relatives skiers have been conditioned to accept these shows an interesting pattern; a slight decline characteristics as "standard" and a dominant from its importance prior to 1972 and then an aspect of their image of cross-country skiing. increase during the past few years. The early It should be quite obvious that there is Table 8: Preferences for selected envlronnrntal characteristics no substitute for a thorough familiarity with and flrst season of cross-country skiing the activity(s) under consideration. An FREPUENCY DISTRIBUTION (PERCENT) OF PREFERENCES understanding FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS of participation dynamics does not lend itself to simplistic formuli or fit a standardized pattern of change. Survey instruments can be designed to answerspecific questions within a comprehensive framework. Valid inferences are impossible if the re- L First c - U 0 U YU -1- searcher is not aware of the numerous vari- u-uI)c Season Bet:='Y 1 ables which cannot be incorporated into the ma* questionnaire or interview schedule. prlor to 1972-73 (N-61) Often we can supplement our internal undesirable 9 22 0 7 29 27 36 11 analysis with a comparison to other times and neutral 42 25 33 44 55 40 34 39 deslrable 49 53 67 49 16 33 30 50 places. Norway, a country similar in size, 1972-73 (N-41) population, and climate to Minnesota, has a

undesirable I5 30 5 12 34 32 44 20 well established tradition of cross-country neutral 27 20 18 34 37 36 39 34 skiing. The history of skiing in Norway pro- desirable $8 50 77 54 29 32 17 46 vides some hints as to its potential in the 1973- 74 (N-61) United States. A 1970 analysis of outdoor undesirable 6 17 10 17 27 25 22 20 recreation, sports, and exercise in Norway neutral 35 37 37 41 43 34 52 49 desirable 59 46 53 42 30 41 26 31 showed that during that (1969-70) season 52 1974-75 (I+-71) percent of the population took shorter ski trips, 29 percent took daylong trips in undesirable 7 29 7 13 46 43 41 13 neutral 27 20 29 46 37 30 39 49 forests and fields and 28 percent took day- desirable 66 51 64 41 17 27 20 38 long trips in the mountains (these are not 1975-76 (H-96) exclusive categories). With these rates as undesirable 8 24 6 11 39 40 39 18 a benchmark we can proceed to qualify for the neutral 30 30 23 44 40 26 37 28 desirable 62 46 71 45 21 34 24 54 conditions in Minnesota. Minnesota does not 1976- 77 04-93) have the traditions of Norway. Minnesota does have a well established competitor for undesirable 4 17 6 11 32 41 37 24 - neutral 39 41 I9 48 51 33 33 54 the individual's attention, namely snow- dsslrable 57 42 75 41 I7 26 30 22 mobiling. A lot may depend on how actively 1977-78 (N-134) public agencies develop opportunities and - ~ ~ - - - undesirable 7 19 5 I2 32 45 42 22 promote the sport. In Norway the promotion neutral 24 39 20 44 45 29 43 51 of physically demanding forms of recreation desirable 69 42 75 44 23 26 I5 27 is an important part of public policy. Mo- torized activities, such as snowmobiling, Those seeking greater challenges may be are subject to more restrictions than in the attracted to the increasingly popular United States. "citizens tour races". These are all comers events where everyone competes against the Prediction is always a risky undertaking clock or simply attempt to go the distance. -- there are many "ifs" in the equation. A The growth in the number of scheduled events fundamental question is how actively we want and the number of entrants is ample evidence to become involved in creating the conditions for the appeal of this kind of challenge. which effect change. As risky as it is, This trend is not reflected in the items someone must take the responsibility to make contained in our survey. a judgement. The best approach to determining changes which have occurred within individual parti- REFERENCES cipants may be by means of in-depth interviews. This process would document their life history Ballman, G., Merriam, L.C., and Knopp, T.B. within the activity and the linkages between Interim Response Summary for the changes in attitudes and behavior. For the 1979. 1978 Minnesota Cross-Country Skiing future we may be able to establish "panel" Study. College of Forestry, University type studies which follow the development of of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. individual participation. In any case it is difficult to separate internal, self-initiated Christy, F.T. 1970. Elements of mass demand changes brought about by actual participation for outdoor recreation resources. In: from those imposed by changes in the image of Elements of Outdoor Recreation Planning the activity as a whole. edited by B.L. Driver. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms. SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS Dalton, M.J. 1979. Minnesota Cross-Country Skiers, Report No. 2321. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Comprehensive Planning and Programming, St. Paul, Minnesota.

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Tinsley, H.E.A., Barrett, T.C., and Koss, R.A. 1977. Leisure activities and need satifaction. Journal of Leisure Research 9(2) :110-120.

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