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The Foreign Service JOURNAL is the professional journal of the American Foreign Service and is published monthly by the Foreign Service Association, a non-profit private organization. Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the United States Information Agency, the Agency for International Development or the Foreign Service as a whole. THE AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION is composed of active and retired personnel who are or have been serving at home or abroad under the authority of the Foreign Service Act of 1946, as amended. It groups together people who have a common responsibility for the implementation of foreign policy. It seeks to encourage the development of a career service of maximum effective- ness, and to advance the welfare of its members. The dues for Active and Associate Members are either $15 or $12: For FSOs in Class V and above the rate is $15 and is the same for FSRs, Staff officers and Civil Service personnel in corresponding grades. For active Members in lower grades the dues are $12. The annual dues for retired members and others who are not Active Members are $12. Each membership includes a subscription to the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. For subscriptions to the JOURNAL, one year (12 issues), $6.00; two years, $10.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except Canada, add $1.00 annually for overseas postage. © American Foreign Service Association, 1968. The Foreign Service Journal is published monthly, by the American Foreign Service Association. 2101 E St., N.W., Washington, D. C. 20037. Second-class postage paid at Washington, D. C. Printed by Monumental Printing Co., Baltimore.

AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION Contents: March 1968 Volume 45, Number 3 President, PHILIP HABIB First Vice President, HARRY K. LENNON Second Vice President, JOHN E. REINHARDT 4 PPBS AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS General Manager, GARDNER E. PALMER Executive Secretary, MARGARET S. TURKEL 17 HORSE AND BUGGY POLITICAL SCIENCE IN THE JET AGE Educational Consultant, CLARKE SLADE Personal Purchases, JEAN M. CHISHOLM by Kingdon W. Swayne 20 WHERE ARE ALL THE PSEPHIATRISTS AND PSEPHOANALYSTS? BOARD OF DIRECTORS by S. I. Nadler Chairman, LANNON WALKER Vice Chairman, THEODORE L. ELIOT, JR. 21 THE FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN DIPLOMATIC TREATY ETIQUETTE Secretary-Treasurer, ROBERT T. CURRAN by Robert Ralph Davis Asst. Secretary-Treasurer, ROBERT BLACKBURN ADRIAN A. BASORA CHARLES W. BRAY 30 A SPACE AGE USIA? MARTIN F. HERZ by George G. Wynne THOMAS W. MCELHINEY CHARLES E. RUSHING 40 THE CALCULUS OF FINANCIAL PROBABILITIES IN THE CONDUCT OF FRANK S. WILE US DIPLOMACY LARRY C. WILLIAMSON JOSEPH C. SATTERTHWAITE by Joseph W. Barr Ambassador, Retired Departments JOURNAL EDITORIAL BOARD Chairman, DANIEL NEWBERRY 25 ASSOCIATION NEWS 34 WASHINGTON LETTER Vice Chairman, S. I. NADLER by Loren Carroll Jo W. SAXE 29 EDITORIALS: ROGER C. BREWIN MORRIS DRAPER The Executive Role of the 36 THE BOOKSHELF CURTIS C. CUTTER Foreign Service ARCHIE BOLSTER 47 TWENTY-FIVE YEARS AGO Contributing Editor, REED HARRIS Moment for Serious by Henry B. Day Thought? JOURNAL Fifty Years 49 AMONG OUR CONTRIBUTOR Editor, LOREN CARROLL Executive Editor, SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL 33 SERVICE GLIMPSES 50 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Circulation, MARGARET B. CATON Art Direction, MCIVER ART & PUBLICATIONS INC. Photographs and Illustrations ADVERTISING REPRESENTATIVES Greta Newman, "The Flower Seller in Kensington High Street, Lon- SASMOR AND GUCK, INC., 295 Madison Ave., don," cover; Library of Congress, engraving, "Peace of Ghent," page New York, N.Y. 10017 (212) 532-6230 23; R. K. Sherwood, photographs, AAFSW Christmas dance, page 33; ALBERT D. SHONE CO., 681 Market St., San Francisco, Calif. 94105 (415) 392-7144 S. I. Nadler, "Life and Love in the Foreign Service," page 35; Marie CHARLES B. STEARNS, JR., 35 E. Wacker Dr., Skora, etching, "Epreuve d'Artiste," page 37; Department of State, Chicago, Ill. 60601 (312) ANdover 3-2241 photograph, page 42; Henry Paoli, cartoon, page 52. Marriages until 1958 when he was transferred to the Commerce ABELL-CooN. Jane S. Abell, FSO, was married to FSO Carle- Department. Mr. DeGolia is survived by his wife of 8000 ton S. Coon, Jr., on January 2, in Durham, New Hamp- Riverside Dr., Cabin :ohn, Maryland. shire. Mr. Coon is assigned to the India desk. FROST, Wesley Frost, Ambassador retired, died on January MCCAFFRAY-GREEN. Katherine Shannon McCaffray was 8, in Winter Park. Ambassador Frost joined the State married to Edward Crocker Green on September 29, in Department in 1909 and was appointed a Foreign Service Washington. Mr. Green is the son of Ambassador and Mrs. officer in 1915. He served at Charlottetown, Cork, Mar- Marshall Green and the grandson of Ambassador-retired seille, Rio de Janeiro, and Santiago, before his 'appointment and Mrs. Edward Savage Crocker. as Ambaccodor to Paraguay in 1941. He retired in 1944. Ambassador Frost is survived by three daughters, Mrs. Births Rankin Johnson, Larchmont, New York, Mrs. Phyllis Schluckebier, 8 Smallwood Dr., Pittsford, New York and CUTTER. A son, Kai Kirsten, born to Mr. and Mrs. Curtis Mrs. S. J. Craig, San Diego, California. Cutter, on January 30, in Washington. TAYLOR. A daughter, Courtney Dawn, born to Mr. and Mrs. KRAMER. Abe Kramer, FSO, died on January 10 at Bethesda Clyde Donald Taylor, on January 4, in Canberra. Naval Hospital. Mr. Kramer entered the Foreign Service in 1949 and served at Frankfort, Trieste, Sydney, Djakarta, Deaths Mexico City, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur and as counsel at Guadalajara. He is survived by his mother, Mrs. J. C. ABRAMSON. Frederick J. Abramson, AID provincial represen- Kramer, Apt. 102, 2300 North Point St., San Francisco, tative, was killed by the Viet Cong, on January 6. Mr. Calif., his wife who may be reached at the above address Abramson joined AID in 1966 and had served in Vietnam and son, David M. for 18 months. He is survived by his parents, Mr. and Mrs. John H. Abramson and two brothers, at 4964 116th Pl., MACLEAN. Henry Coit MacLean, FSO-retired, died on S.E., Bellevue, Wash. January 11, in New York. Mr. MacLean entered the Foreign Service in 1919 and served at Rome, Paris, CANTY. George Romuald Canty, FSO-retired, died on Feb- Santiago, San Jose and as consul general at Rome and ruary 3, in New York. Mr. Canty joined the Foreign Milan before his retirement in 1946. He also served as Service in 1926 and served at Paris, Rome, Berlin, Prague, delegate to many international congresses and councils. He Warsaw, Brussels, The Hague, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires is survived by a daughter, Mrs. Carlos Montoya, 345 West and Bern, before retirement in 1950. He is survived by his 58th Street, New York, and two grandsons. wife of 570 Park Avenue, New York, a son and two grandsons. The family requests that expressions of sympathy MONTICONE. William John Monticone, FSO-retired, died on be in the form of contributions to the Educational and December 26, in Munich. Mr. Monticone entered the Welfare Foundation of DACOR. Foreign Service in 1949 and served at Frankfurt, Bonn, Bangkok, Brussels, Nice, Seoul and Madrid before his CORRIGAN. Dr. Francis Patrick Corrigan, first Ambassador to retirement in 1966. He is survived by his wife, who can be Venezuela, died on January 21, in Trumbull, Connecticut. reached in care of Radio Free Europe, 1 Englischer Dr. Corrigan served as director of surgery at Alexis Hos- Garten, VIII Munich 22, Germany. pital, Cleveland, for ten years before his appointment as Minister to El Salvador in 1934. In 1936 he was appointed NEWELL. Hugo V. Newell, FSO-retired, died on January 9, at Minister to Panama and in 1939 Ambassador to Venezuela, Prince George's Hospital. Mr. Newell entered the Foreign where he served until 1947. Dr. Corrigan then served at the Service in 1930 and served at Tampico, Mexico City, Rio de United Nations as political adviser an Latin American Janeiro, Asuncion, Naples, Vienna, Manila, Saigon, Athens, affairs until he retired in 1951. He is survived by three sons, Beirut, Amman, Stockholm and Montevideo before retire- Robert F., Political Adviser, USCINCO, Canal Zone, Ed- ment in 1962. ward, Cleveland, Kevin, New York and a daughter, Patri- cia Pappano of Cleveland. TAYLOR. Emma M. H. Taylor, wife of Clifford C. Taylor, FSO-retired, died on January 8, in Washington. Mrs. DEGOLIA. Darwin Jack DeGolia, FSO-retired, died on Janu- ary 12, in Washington. Mr. DeGolia joined the Department Taylor accompanied her husband to posts at Pretoria, London, Ottawa, Warsaw and New Delhi before his retire- in 1940 and served on the Economic Defense Board and in ment in 1955. She is survived by her husband, 4000 the Office of African Affairs before being commissioned a Cathedral Ave., N. W., Washington, three sisters, a son, Foreign- Service officer in 1955. He served at San Salvador Clifford C., Jr., and three grandsons.

The Foreign Service JOURNAL welcomes contributions and will WALsx. Rutherford T. Walsh, FSO, died on February 2, in pay for accepted material on publication. Photos should be black Washington. Mr. Walsh, who was on the staff of the and white glossies and should be protected by cardboard. Color transparencies (4 x 5) may be submitted for possible cover use. Consulate at Mukden during the long siege by the Chinese communists, joined the Foreign Service in 1950, serving at Please include full name and address on all material submitted Paris, Damascus and Rome. He is survived by his wife, of and a stamped, self-addressed envelope if return is desired. 3127 51st Place, N.W., Washington. The JOURNAL also welcomes letters to the editor. Pseudonyms may be used only if the original letter includes the writer's correct name. All letters are subject to condensation. WANAMAKER. Sophia Wanamaker, wife of FSO Temple Address material to: Foreign Service Journal, 2101 E St., N.W., Wanamaker, died on January 16, in the Bahamas. Mrs. Washington, D. C. 20037. Wanamaker, granddaughter of Sergei Rachmaninoff, ran her own real estate firm in Washington for many years. She Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the For- accompanied her husband to posts at Tel Aviv, Nassau, eign Service JOURNAL will be available through the University Microfilm Library Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 under a con- Cordoba and San Jose, where Mr. Wanamaker is informa- tract signed October 30. tion officer at the Embassy.

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POBBIGN Salty= JouarrAL. March, 1968 3 doubt that the system has been a great success—may be due as much to the quality of the people engaged, and their confidence in each other, as to the logic of the system. I should like to emphasize something that is implicit in the testimony you heard from both Charles Schultze, Director of and the Budget, and Alain Enthoven, Assistant Secretary of PPBS Defense (Systems Analysis), but that they perhaps made too little explicit. PPBS, backed up by a competent analytical staff, can hardly fail to be helpful to a decision-maker who insists on making his own decisions and on understanding how Foreign he makes them; it can be a seductive comfort, and in the end an embarrassment, to a lazy executive who wants his decisions to come out of a process in which his own intellect does not participate. PPBS can be a splendid tool to help top manage- ment make decisions; but there has to be a top management Affairs that wants to make decisions. Let me use an analogy. A court-room adversary proceeding has been evolved as a comparatively good way to provide the The February issue of the JOURNAL took up one of the most judge in the dispute with the arguments and evidence on which complicated problems of modern government—budgetary to base a decision; but the crucial element in the proceedings planning. In this issue we pursue the subject further: testifying is the judge himself. Systems analysis and other modem before the Senate Subcommittee on National Security and techniques of evaluation require a consumer, some responsible International Operations, whose chairman is Senator Henry person or body that wants an orderly technique for bringing M. Jackson, Dr. Thomas C. Schelling probes the meaning of judgment to bear on a decision. PPBS works best for an the Planning—Programing—Budgeting system (PPBS) in aggressive master; and where there is no master, or where relation to foreign affairs. the master wants the machinery to produce his decisions "We requested Dr. Schelling," said Senator Jackson, "to without his own participation, the value of PPBS is likely to prepare a statement concerning the main points on PPBS in be modest and, depending on the people, may even be negative. relation to foreign affairs, which he thought we should consider and reflect upon in the course of our inquiry, and he A third point I would emphasize is that PPBS works best, has responded with this thoughtful contribution." and historically has been mainly applied, in decisions that are largely budgetary. Budgetary choices are typically choices Dr. Schelling is Professor of Economics and a member of among good things, some of which are better than others, the faculty of Public Administration at Harvard University. A when there are limits on what things or how much of them student of foreign policy in the nuclear age and author of one can have. The questions are not, "What is good?" but, "Arms and Influence" (1966), he serves as consultant to the "Which is better?," not whether more is better than less, but Departments of State and Defense and to the Arms Control whether it is enough better to be acquired at the expense of and Disarmament Agency. something else. A budgetary proposal never arises in the first Dr. Schelling's statement: place unless someone thinks it has merit. A bad budgetary judgment is usually—not always, but usually—bad in propor- tion to the money that is wasted; there are probably few things that the military services have proposed for purchase RESPOND with diffidence, as anyone must, to your invita- that would not have been worth having if they were free of tion to comment on PPBS in relation to foreign affairs. charge. Foreign affairs is a complicated and disorderly business, Outside the budget, big mistakes are cheaper. I full of surprises, demanding hard choices that must It is noteworthy that your committee, in questioning Secre- often be based on judgment rather than analysis, involving tary Enthoven about the sufficiency of bombs for bombing relations with more than a hundred countries diverse in their missions in Vietnam, did not ask what PPBS would say about traditions and political institutions—all taking place in a a bombing truce, or the bombing of targets in Cambodia. world that changes so rapidly that memory and experience These are not decisions for which money or economic are quickly out of date. Coordination, integration, and ration- resources are the main considerations. Having more bombs al management are surely desirable; but whether it is humanly than necessary is bad only because they cost money; using possible to meet anything more than the barest minimum bombs, or failing to use them, can be bad irrespective of what standards is a question to which an optimistic answer can be the bombs cost. based only on faith. In foreign affairs, more of the hard decisions are of this nonbudgetary sort. That is, bad decisions are not merely PPBS as a Tool of Evaluation wasteful of money; and good decisions do not merely promote Furthermore, PPBS is a method or procedure whose worth efficiency. Even in defense there are plenty of decisions that depends on the skill and wisdom of the people who use it. are not mainly budgetary; the defense budget, though, is so Identifying coherent objectives, relating activities to objec- big that the scope for good budgetary practice is ample, and tives, identifying costs with activities, comparing alternatives, no one can deny the significance of PPBS if it "merely" helps and weighing achievements against costs, are bound to be to spend 50 or 75 billion dollars per year more sensibly. unimpeachable activities if properly done. But human ingenui- In foreign affairs, quite broadly defined, annual expenditure ty is so great that hidden assumptions can be introduced into is about a tenth of that. The Director of the Budget cited a any analysis, benefit of the doubt can be prejudicially award- figure of 5.6 billion dollars to your committee, exclusive of ed, quantitative data can be subtly made prominent to the expenditures on military forces and intelligence. No one will detriment of important qualitative considerations, and even claim, I am sure, that decisions made in the field of foreign the objectives themselves can be gathered into the wrong affairs are only one-tenth as important as those made in the packages. The success of PPBS in the Department of Defense field of military affairs; and indeed a good many of the over the past half-dozen years—and I think there can be no non-procurement decisions in the field of military affairs can 4 FOREIGN SIMVIOE JOURNAL, March, 1968 NEWASSIGNMENT? CONGRATULATIONS!

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be construed as a specialized part of foreign affairs. I shall not question the worth of being more efficient in the use of five billion dollars, even though the amount seems small compared with the defense budget. Furthermore, those of us who think that foreign affairs sometimes receives stingy treatment in Congressional appropriations, compared with defense procurement, must be especially concerned that scarce resources not be wasted. Nevertheless, few among us—and I suspect I can include most of your subcommittee here—when we think about the management of foreign affairs, have an overriding concern with how the 5.6 billion dollars gets spent. Money is not the primary consideration in nuclear proliferation, recognition of the Greek military re- gime, or new commitments to Thailand. Your committee's interest in the Skybolt affair indicates, furthermore, your concern that PPBS, being focused on costs and other "tangi- bles," may even divert attention from those elements of a decision, sometimes dominant elements, that cannot be trans- lated straightforwardly into budgetary terms. There is consequently genuine concern that PPBS and other techniques of management that are essentially budgetary or BUY FROM HOME quantitative may be not only of less positive value when applied to foreign affairs but even, through their tendency to AWAY FROM HOME distort criteria and to elevate particular kinds of analytical A selection of fine merchandise from over 7,000 items is competence, to be of positive harm. A rather striking at your finger-tips wherever you are. when you use the manifestation of this concern is the extreme reluctance with convenient W. Bell & Co. 296-page catalog. Our entire which any among us, including perhaps your committee and collection, including sterling silver, silver-plate, jewelry, the Director of the Budget, approach the question of whether clocks, watches, cutlery, china, crystal, luggage, leather the Central Intelligence Agency is part of "foreign affairs" goods and appliances. is available to you at wholesale and ought to be subject not only to similar program planning prices. We specialize in serving the diplomatic corps but to the same process of planning, programing, and budget- throughout the world with ing. a tradition of outstanding I believe the spirit of PPBS, even some of its most familiar quality and infinite techniques, is as much needed in handling non-quantitative Bell and non-budgetary "costs" as in the more traditional budget- variety. 14ths hai ngdtol.n.S1Drcee2ls0,0N05W ing; the "costs" of, say, meeting certain objectives in Jordan or India may be the sacrifice of certain objectives in Egypt, Telephone HU 3-3311 CCo Algeria, Israel or Pakistan, and the disciplined judgment that SHOWROOMS ALSO IN BALTIMORE • ATLANTA • HOUSTON PPBS demands may prove an advantage. The estimates will have a higher component of judgment in them, a lesser component of organized data; at the same time, the tempta- 30, all dour eal eoiate needs, call tion to hope, or to pretend, that the "system" gives answers, instead of merely providing the framework for disciplined HICKS Realty, Inc. judgment and confrontation, will be correspondingly smaller. PPBS As a Means of Control 3706 Mt. Vernon Ave. My fourth general observation is that any discussion of PPBS is unrealistic unless it is acknowledged that budgetary Alexandria, Virginia 1U1111111111: processes are a means of control, as well as a means of King 8-3111 I - evaluation. Secretary McNamara surely did not use PPBS and other techniques of financial management merely to cut waste ervin9 heauqui northern Virginia oince 1946 and to improve efficiency or to save money. 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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 passed the Mutual Security Act. All aid funds vvere appropri- The Question of a Foreign Affairs Budget ated to the President who could delegate authority to the My fifth and final observation about PPBS and foreign Director for Mutual Security Appropriations for all aid affairs—and the one most directly related to whether the programs were first authorized and then appropriated in a experience in Defense could be translated into the State single Act, the titles of which differentiated by region not by Department—is that the budget does not yet exist t 0 which agency or program. Both in going up to the Hill, through the PPBS might be applied in the field of foreign affairs. When Budget Bureau and the President, and in getting apportion- Secretary McNamara assumed office he was at least fifteen ments appropriated funds, the several operating agencies a years ahead • where the Secretary of State is now in having were subject to coordination by the Director for Mutual a recognized budget. There is a "Defense Budget"; there is Security. An extraordinary degree of centralized coordination not a "Foreign Affairs Budget." Both legally and traditionally occurred. It was accomplished by a small staff working closely the defense budget is fairly clearly defined; around the edges with the Bureau of the Budget. The extent of coordination there are the Atomic Energy Commission, some space activi- was undoubtedly more satisfying to the coordinators than to ties, perhaps the Maritime Commission, that one may some- the coordinated; but there can be no question that coordina- times wish to lump into a comprehensive "defense total," and tion occurred, and that it occurred precisely because the over which the Secretary of Defense does not exercise direct Director for Mutual Security was put directly at the center of budgetary authority. But he has always had his 50 billion the budgetary process. dollars or more that were unmistakably his responsibility; and This is important. It means that in talking about enhancing money spent by the uniformed military services evidently the budgetary effectiveness of the Secretary of State or his came under his authority The Secretary of Defense ntake,s an Office, we are talking about enhancing much more than that. annual comprehensive presentation of his budget, typically in A real test of whether an aid program, an information the context of a broad evaluation of the military threat to the service, an agricultural program an intelligence activity or United States; it is a "State • the Union" • as national peace corps is subordinated w the executive authority of the security is concerned. The committees in Congress that deal Secretary of State is whether and how aggressively, he with the defense budget have no doubt that they are dealing exercises authority over their budgets. (His authority over with national defense and no doubt about what budget it is their personnel ceilings would be a second such test.) I have that they are onsidering. no doubt that the coordinating role of the State Department Not so the Secretary of State, whose own budget of about a in respect a foreign aid would have been greatly enhanced, third of a billion dollars a year corresponds, to take a very perhaps permanently so had the Mutual Security Act a 1951 crude analogy to the budget that the Secretary of Defense given budgetary authority to the Secretary rather than to might present for the operation of the Pentagon building and Director for Mutual Security. (And I have little doubt that the people who work in it. The 5.6 billion dollars cited by the the Congress knew exactly what it was doing.) Director of the Budget is neither a "State Department

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOITRNAL, March, 1968 9 Budget" nor a "Foreign Affairs Budget." It is a composite By a heroic exercise of both intellect and authority, and with figure that makes a lot of sense to the Director of the Budget the full cooperation of the Budget Bureau, he might have but has no official status and corresponds to no appropriations achieved a welcome consolidation of budgetary plans on their procedure. I have no doubt that his composite is a reasonable way through the White House to Capitol Hill, but there the one; but if I were to present you my own figure I'm sure that whole package would have had to be disintegrated to corre- it would be different, because there is no official definition spond to the Congressional appropriations structure. This that keeps me from adding, on the basis of judgment, a few would have been a different task, and in many ways a harder things that his figure leaves out or deleting, on the basis of one, than the budgetary task that he actually took on— judgment, a few things that he and his staff think it expedient and that one itself was a task that an ordinary mortal would to include. Even he acknowledges that his figure leaves out have shrunk from. intelligence as well as all expenditures on US military forces; and while I may agree that it makes practical sense at the A Dilemma of State Department Organization present time to put intelligence in a wholly separate category, it is not for "official" reasons. We know that the CIA is I called my fifth generalization "final," but I'd like to make outside the defense budget because we know what the defense one organizational comment about the Department of State. budget is; we do not know whether the CIA would be outside It has been widely remarked, especially in the early years of a "Foreign Affairs Budget," because we do not even know the McNamara regime, that there were frictions between whether there ever will be a foreign affairs budget. civilians and the military in the Pentagon, that "civilian Let us imagine that Mr. Charles Hitch had been, instead of control" was occasionally resented, that there was not always Assistant Secretary of Defense (Comptroller), Assistant mutual trust and respect as between civilians and the military, Secretary of State (Foreign Affairs Comptroller). If he were and that the civilians lacked direct experience in military to perform a task in the field of foreign affairs comparable to command and the conduct of ground, air or naval operations. what he and Secretary Enthoven and others did for Secretary Just suppose the reverse had been true, and the Chief of Staff McNamara, he would have had to invent a budget, not of the Army were ex officio Secretary of Defense, all his merely to rationalize one. There would not have been a Assistant Secretaries chosen from the Army, all of their "whiz history of "Foreign Affairs Reorganization Acts" defining his kids" being bright, promising young Army officers. I think the budgetary jurisdiction. Nor could he have simply folded into situation would have been impossible. The entire OSD, being one comprehensive foreign-affairs budget the budgets of strictly Army, would have had no experience in naval com- several subordinate agencies; not all the agencies would have mand or the conduct of modern strategic air operations; been subordinate, and some programs over which he might professional bias and service loyalty would have made it have wanted some coordinating authority would have been beyond the credulity of the Air Force and Navy that they lodged in agencies, like the Department of Agriculture, whose were receiving fair, sympathetic and impartial treatment. primary responsibilities were not in the field of foreign affairs. Secretary McNamara had the disadvantage that he and his

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86 PROOF KENTUCKY STRAIGHT BOURBON WHISKEY DISTILLED AND BOTTLED BY THE JAMES B. BEAM DISTILLING CO., CLERMONT, BEAM, KENTUCKY FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 11 staff were a class apart—civilians—but he had the great little the way an Air Force officer would feel if the Congress advantage that he was unambiguously a civilian, not identified had created the Defense Department by elevating one service with a particular service, with no special bonds of personal into executive status while preserving the operating role of sympathy or loyalty to any one service, and not obliged to that service. devote part of his time to running one service while being the I have to discuss this because, as I mentioned earlier, rest of his time the President's executive manager of them all. techniques and procedures that are intended to enhance the The Secretary of State presides over, or can aspire to budgetary role of a particular office tend, when successful, to preside over, a number of civilian services and operations. But enhance the executive authority of that office. The matter is he is also traditionally identified with one particular service, not simply one of providing better analytical staff work to a the Foreign Service. The Department of Defense is essentially senior official of the government; more than that, the issue is OSD, "the Office of the Secretary of Defense; the Depart- how to generate more coherent planning and better coordi- ment of State is both OSS—"the Office of the Secretary of nated operation in the field of foreign affairs. The first thing State"—and the Foreign Service. (It is also quite ambiguously to decide is whether we want more coherence, more coordi- related to ambassadors abroad, who are nominally the Pres- nation, and an identified responsibility for executive direction. ident's representatives, but who are more and more expected If we do not, then PPBS probably becomes an analytical to be professional graduates of the Foreign Service.) The specialty that is not really worth the attention of your Congress has never quite recognized the OSS function of the committee. If we do, then I believe we have to recognize that Department of State; putting the Marshall Plan under an the Department of State presently combines both what might independent agency, the Economic Cooperation Administra- be called the "Office of the Secretary of State," and the tion, was a Congressional vote of "no confidence" in the Foreign Service, and that this constitutes an encumbrance that executive talents of the State Department. Resentment and the Department of Defense did not have to suffer. distrust of "State" by people in foreign aid programing, through a long sequence of agency reorganizations, has been The Country As the Package not wholly dissimilar to the distrust that the military allegedly Now let me turn—"finally," if I may use that word have for civilians in OSD. again—to the first rudimentary step in the establishment of Furthermore, by putting some of the specialized profession- PPBS. It has nothing at all to do with computers, little to do al responsibilities in quasi-independent agencies like AID, with systems analysis, and in the first instance little to do with USIA, Peace Corps, and so forth, the Executive Branch and analysis of any kind. It harks back to the first elementary the Congress have precluded the State Department's acquiring thing that Secretary Hitch did in the Department of Defense the professional talents, the internal organization, and the and that Secretary Enthoven may have emphasized too little, executive experience to lord it over these other agencies. No partly because of the progress he has made and partly because uniform distinguishes the AID official from a country direc- of the general interest in the mystique of systems analysis. tor, or Deputy Assistant Secretary of State; but he may feel a The most crucial thing that Secretary Hitch ever did was to

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The Champagne Curtain. Most Americans don't know it exists.

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identify his basic "program packages"—what are sometimes Countries cannot, of course, be treated in isolation—India called the "outputs" of the defense budget. It is important, in separately from Pakistan, Jordan separately from Syria and thinking about a "foreign affairs budget," not to pass on too Israel, Thailand separately from Vietnam and Cambodia. But readily to the examination of "program elements," and all the neither can the Defense Department's strategic defenses be techniques of analysis that can thereafter be applied. Eventu- considered wholly in isolation from strategic offenses, or ally most of PPBS is likely to be concerned with the "general purpose forces" from sea-lift and air-lift. The point is evaluation of "program elements" and comparisons beyond that the basic program package is not Peace Corps, financial what first needs to be done in foreign affairs; that all comes aid, military aid, agricultural surpluses, propaganda, or diplo- after the basic program packages have been identified. matic representation; the basic package is the country. What is it that corresponds, in the field of foreign-affairs Maybe somebody can think of a better package. But what planning, to the original program packages that were de- we are presently struggling for in our budgetary procedures is veloped under Charles Hitch? I believe the Director of the an identication of the objectives or "outputs" toward which Bureau of the Budget gave you his answer when he said, our programs are supposed to be oriented. Just getting "First,"— and I am glad he put it first—"individual countries recognition that the country, rather than the agency or constitute useful categories under which to analyze an agen- program, is the basic unit of analysis would be a heroic step. cy's foreign affairs activities as a means of achieving US After that the people with specialized analytic talents, with objectives." Let me say it differently. Individual countries are schemes for the orderly collection of data, and with profes- the basic "program packages" for foreign affairs budgeting. (I sional training in PPBS can go to work. The first step toward do not at this point want to argue with people who think that PPBS is officially identifying program packages; and that step regions rather than countries are the basic packages; I think has not yet been taken. they are wrong, but they are not the ones I want to argue, with. The basic package is not the program—Peace Corps, Who Coordinates Foreign Policy? intelligence, AID, agricultural surpluses, technical assistance, To say that the basic program package in foreign affairs is Ex-Im bank credits—but the country. Secretary Hitch iden- the individual country can provoke either of two objections— tified originally, I believe, about seven basic packages. I wish that it is wrong, or that to say so is trivial. Those who object in foreign affairs we could get along with as few; as Charles that it is wrong do not worry me; I share their discontent with Schultze indicated, the number of countries we now recognize the country as the basic package, but do not believe they can in the world has grown to 119. I'm afraid this is an irreducible identify a better package, and in the end we shall, equally minimum number of packages, except as we can exercise discontent, settle on the individual country as the least selectivity in treating some as far more important than others. unsatisfactory basic package for foreign affairs budgeting. Mr. Schultze understated it; individual countries are more Anyone who says that the individual country is so obviously than "useful categories," they are the basic packages for not the basic package that in saying so I have said nothing,is only budgetary decisions but most other policy decisions. (Continued on page 44)

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The RIGGS NATIONAL BANK of WASHINGTON, D. C. FOUNDED 1836 • LARGEST BANK IN THE NATION'S CAPITAL Member Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation • Member Federal Reserve System sufficient age to have become attuned to the underlying "political culture," so that the essential objective— understanding that political culture—can be reasonably ap- proached through a description of the institutions. Even in cases where the institutions have changed frequently (e.g., in France), the underlying political culture is not so different from our own that we are led seriously astray if we do not completely understand it.2 However, the fact that India or Burma or Japan has a cabinet and a parliament and political parties rather than some other institutional setup may be of relatively little importance in understanding the political process in those countries. To understand why decision makers act as they do, and to be able to predict how they will act in given circumstances, requires an understanding of such things as the social class structure, urban-rural cleavages, the structuring of decision making, attitudes toward decision making, patterns of interpersonal relations, value systems, etc. This is the stuff of sociology and anthropology, not of traditional political science. Charged with enthusiasm for •the Institute's approach, I tried to introduce into my political reporting from Japan in the mid-fifties some of the concepts and vocabulary of Ruth Benedict3 and her followers. This experiment worked very badly. Some Foreign Service colleagues sympathized with my efforts, but counseled against trying single-handedly to fight "the system." Others, who more directly represented "the KINGDON W. SWAYNE system," gave me to understand that I couldn't possibly be saying anything important enough to warrant their taking the trouble to alter their conceptual sets in order to understand me. This resistance was, I suppose, a manifestation of the exclusively European orientation that has persisted in the AROLD LASSWELL calls the present age a "perma- Foreign Service long after it bore any relation to reality. nent revolution of modernizing intellectuals."1 But Ambassador William Attwood is the latest to complain of this not all intellectual disciplines are modernizing at phenomenon.4 Most of us laborers in the Afro-Asian the same rate, and some may not be modernizing vineyards have felt its dead hand in one way or another. at all. The intellectual discipline of diplomacy may be one of I tried to buck the tide again in Burma in the mid-sixties, the most tradition-bound. for I discovered there that one of the few people who had American diplomacy has been forced to modernize itself to anything sensible to say about the situation in that politically encompass the new tools of propaganda and military, exotic country was Lucien Pye,5 a scholar working on both economic and technical assistance, as well as the old but sides of the boundary that has traditionally separated the hitherto "un-American" tools of alliance-building and power study of politics from the study of society. This time my politics, adapted to the nuclear age. But in at least one efforts to use unorthodox concepts in political reporting were important aspect of the intellectual discipline of diplomacy we frustrated as much by Burma's Bamboo Curtain as by reader have made no move at all to modernize. The rhetoric of our resistance, though the resistance was obviously still there. political reporting remains stubbornly traditional. Of course Pye's work was the first hint I had had that some odd things we no longer "have the honor" nor indent our paragraphs, had happened to political science in the decade or so since the and we are constantly chivvied to write nothing but short, Foreign Service Institute had rejected it. Now, as a retired declarative sentences (a chivvying that any political reporting Foreign Service officer and aspiring political scientist, I am officer worth •his salt ignores). But this "modernization" has discovering that •the political science rejected by the Institute done little more than drain all grace from our collective has also been rejected by a large part of the political science reporting style. The root of the matter—the conceptual fraternity itself, and particularly by that part of the fraternity framework of our political reporting—remains untouched. that is concerned with politics abroad, which is of course the I first became aware that something was amiss in 1952, area of concern of the Foreign Service. The new political when I began a Japanese language and area specialization science is still in a state of somewhat disorderly ferment, as under the auspices of the Foreign Service Institute. I discov- befits a recently rejuvenated discipline, but it seems to me that ered that the programs of Asian and African area specializa- it is now sufficiently developed to provide a new and better tion at the Institute had completely discarded the "tradition- set of concepts for Foreign Service political reporting. al" social sciences of history and political science in favor of The Foreign Service reporting officer now works with a social psychology and cultural anthropology. pseudo-universal set of concepts rooted in Western civilization There were sound reasons for this approach. The standard political science of the time was almost exclusively "institu- tional" in orientation, concerned with the historical and legal analysis and description of such political institutions as parlia- 'Some would argue that the political cultures of continental Western Europe are in fact quite different from our own. See, for ments, cabinets, political parties, etc. The study of such example, Almond, Gabriel A., and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Cul- institutions on their native heath in the Atlantic Community ture, discussed below. was and still is a reasonable undertaking, for political institu- The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese tions in the countries of the West are in most cases of Culture. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1946. Attwood, William, The Reds and the Blacks, New York, Harper & Row, 1967. iLasswell, Harold D., and Lerner, Daniel, World Revolutionary 'Politics, Personality, and Nation Building: Burma's Search for Elites. Cambridge, The M.I.T. Press, 1966, p. 96. Identity. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1962. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 17 and the political practices a the Atlantic Community. I "speak" as well as read the new language, that the effort to believe it is possible to create a new and truly universal set of learn it will be worth the tmuble. My argument has two main political reporting concepts equally applicable to Western parts: first that the present concepts serve us badly and Europe, Eastern Europe, Asa, Afrca, and Latin America. second, that acquiring a new conceptual vocabulary wouM The conceptual framework would penetrate through the not be all that painful Before taking up the second part a the superficial level of institutional analysis to deal with the argument in detail let me summarize the first part: functions that all governments must perthrm, functions An institution-oriented conceptual framework may be an defined in relation to the wtal society • which the instituticms acceptable instrument of analysis where the institutions are of government are • a part. firmly rooted in the underlying political culture or where the Such a new conceptual framework faces much the same underlying political culture does not differ greatly from our kind of obstacles that have faced English spelling reform. own. There are important vested interests in the present concepts as • or both of these conditions exist in Western Europe in the present spelling, both in the stake individuals have in and the old Commonweath • not elsewhere. the fruits of their past training in traditbnal spelling or 3. The non-Western world has become so important to us concepts and in the stake society has in its store of knowledge that we can no longer afford the luxury of trying to appre recorded in the old form. English spelling reform would also hend it "through a glass, darkly," a glass made up • tend to break the links with other European languages, just as culture-bound concepts of politics. conceptual reform would tend to bre,ak the exceedingly 4. In short, we tieed a mode of political analysis with important links between the Foreign Service and the trad predictive vaue. • get it in the non-estern world we must tionally educated appointed officials at the •. level of •. our analysis on the actual political behavior of the key government. actors, not on their political nsttutons. I am not particularly impressed by the arguments against To advance the second part of my argument, I am not either reform that have their basis in the individual's stake in going to try to design a ull-bown set a universal political the old system, for these arguments merely seek to justify a reporting concepts for the Foreign ervce. That would be too lazy inertia. Learning a new set a concepts would not be all • a project for this paper What I will try to do is to that • if we just put • minds to it. There undoubtedly .• some of the more important concepts that I think are some younger officers in the Service who already feel at such a universal framework must include. By doing so I hope home in the new ramework, 1• as their numbers •• the I can stimulate active Foreign Service officers and concerned imposition on them of the dead hand of the traditional officials a other branches of the government to undertake the concepts will become more and more ridiculous. We should detailed work (in committee, I suppose!) of tailoring a new rather use them to help the old hands get familiar with the set a concepts to the precise needs a the Foreign Service. new. As I have already suggested, the key to a universal .• of The • of knowledge argument deserves serious atten- political analysis is the study • .• behavior. •• tion. Shakespeare just doesn't look like Shakespeare in re- behavior can best be thought • as interactions among formed spelling (though those who use this argument tend to individuals, interactions that thrm patterns with the patterns forget that modern editions dont spell •-. the way in tum thrming systems. An accurate appreciation a the Shakespeare spelled Shalcespeare). • the Foreign Service system and its constituent patterns will have a great deal of the pmblem is primarily one • transton, for • essential predictive value. store of ubwedge—te basic • surves—s constantly 'Thinking about behavior instead a institutions calls for a being revised. We would have to live through a period during different vocabulary. "Instead of the concept of the state, which parts of this store of knowledge were expressed within • as it is by legal and • meanings, we prefer • different conceptual ramewors, a period that • political system; instead of powers, which again is a legal come to an end only when we had completed a full cycle • concept in connotation we are beginning to • unctions; revision. This would pose some inconvenience, but I think it instead of offices we prefer roles; instead • institutions, would •• minor. which again directs us toward thrmal norms, structures; The problem of links with non-professionals at the top is instead of public opinion and citizenship training, formal and also a serious one, though less serious than might be supposed. • in meaning we prefer political culture and political First a all, our present modes a expression, as Under ocialization."7 These are not simply new and fancy words for Secretary Katzenbach reminds us,6 are not all that simple. old • They reflect a new behavioral way • thinking • able to manage S/S-S • JUSMAG • about politcs, to help us come to grips with the politics • CINCMEAFSA should be able to swallow "interest aggrega- societies whose institutions are imported and fragile, and tion" as a term for a • function • pressure groups • the perhaps also • give us some new insights into 1 .•olitics of "rule adjudication function as a way of describing what established Western societies.8 As this sample indicates, the courts do in some (but not all) countries. In fact, the group words and the concepts they represent are not particularly with which we are concerned has already demonstrated its forbiddMg • the educated layman. ability to cope with the conceptual esoterica a the nuclear Most behavioralists start talking about the political system age. The new political science is no more complicated than or the "polity" by defining it in relation to other elements in 1 psychology a deterrence and counter-deterrence. Fur- the socet. Mitchell(' conceives of a • system as consist- thermore it is in part with this group in mind that I advocate ing • thur sub-sstems—te paty, the economy, the pat- a new universal conceptual framework. If we don't achieve tern-maintenance system (family, school and church—the one we may find regional specialists developing their own agencies of "socialization" of the young), and a sort of parochial sets • concepts to the confusion • both the top catch-all overlapping the other three that he calls the "inte- level and their • in other regons. Finally, the non-pofessonal ,at the top •• • •' expected actually to Almond, Gabriel A. & Coleman, James S., eds., The Politics peak" this new anguage; he need only read and understand of the Developing Areas. Princeton, N. J., Princeton University considerably easier role to play. Press, 1960, p. 4. The principal problem ten, is to persuade the Foreign Two interesting efforts to study the United States from the behavioral viewpoint are William C. Mitchell's The American Service establishment tself, the gm up that will have to Polity, New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962, and David B. Truman's The Governmental Process, New York, Alfred A. °Remarks • the American Foreign Service ssocaton. Foreign Knopf, 1951. Service ournal, March, 1967. •• cit. p. 33.

18 FORRTGN SERVICII JOURNAL, March, 1968 grative" system, i.e., those elements in the society that unify it The Foreign Service has, I think, beaten the ivory tower and differentiate it from other societies. Other than the polity, analyst to the punch with respect to one key aspect of the these parts of the social system are of interest for our present output process—decision making. Since influencing the deci- purposes only as sources of inputs into the polity and sions of foreign decision makers is our bread and butter, our recipients of its outputs, and to remind us that identifying the pioneer role in this field of analysis is not surprising. Howev- boundaries between the polity and the other systems may be er, our analytical methodology is not as precise as it might be. of some importance to the analyst. Harold Lasswell has written extensively on the subject of The Foreign Service officer may find it convenient to define decision making,12 and he has developed a seven-stage the boundaries of the polity somewhat differently from the analytical framework that the Foreign Service might usefully ivory tower analyst. One ivory tower definition of the political employ. It consists of the following steps: system is "that system of interactions to be found in all 1. Intelligence—information gathering, planning and pre- independent societies which performs the functions of inte- diction. gration and adaptation (both internally and vis-a-vis other 2. Recommendation—promotion of various policy alterna- societies) by means of the employment, or threat of employ- tives. ment, of more or less legitimate physical compulsion."1° For 3. Prescription—the rule-making function at the overall his own operational purposes the Foreign Service officer may policy level. want to define the polity more sharply in terms of its role 4. Invocation— ) Lasswell makes here what may be an vis-a-vis other societies, for it is in this role that foreign unnecessary distinction between the polities become the official concern of the United States. The rule-application functions of the po- boundary line between the polity and the rest of society might lice and prosecutors (invocation) and be thought of as the line beyond which the Foreign Service 5. Application— ) of the administrators and judges (ap- officer as a practical matter need not concern himself. This plication). line would vary from society to society. There are, for 6. Appraisal—the watchdog function of assessing the suc- example, many countries in the world where religion is highly cess or failure of a policy or of the chosen mode of politicized; in others interactions between the religious and implementation. power elites are few. 7. Termination—the ending of prescriptions. Wherever the boundaries between the polity and the rest of society are placed, they serve as the crossing point for the On the input side the concepts are somewhat more novel. inputs and outputs of the polity. Structural-functional analysts Interest articulation can be roughly equated with the work of have conceived of these inputs and outputs in somewhat organized pressure groups, whose main political function is to different terms, depending on whether they have viewed them form the often diffuse values of their constituents into specific as the raw materials and finished products of a functioning demands and expectations and communicate them to the polity or as functions in their own right. Both viewpoints rule-makers and rule-appliers. Interest aggregation can be should be explored by the creators of any universal analytic roughly equated with the work of political parties, whose framework, but for purposes of illustration I will restrict the principal function in democratic polities is to form and reform discussion here to the concept of inputs and outputs as alliances of interests into working majorities. Political com- functions in their own right, for it seems to me that this munication interpenetrates all the other functions, both input approach has received a superior theoretical elaboration.11 and output. Those •analysts who isolate it as a separate The input functions are identified as: function do so on the grounds that the way this function is 1. Political socialization and recruitment. performed—free or controlled press, character of the in- 2. Interest articulation. formation flow to the polity versus that from the polity, 3. Interest aggregation. etc.—provides an extremely important tool for differentiating 4. Political communication. among types of polities. Perhaps the most novel input function on this list is The output functions are: "political socialization and recruitment." The identification of 1. Rule making. this as a significant function opens up an area of investigation 2. Rule application. that traditional political science has all but ignored. In this 3. Rule adjudication. respect also the Foreign Service may have been a bit ahead of the game, for it is my impression that the demands of our If the output functions have a vaguely familiar air about occupation made us conscious of the importance of political them, it is simply because the structural-functional analysts elites and their recruitment before the ivory tower political have accepted Montesquieu's hoary "troika" of legislative, scientists began to study them systematically. On the other executive, and judicial functions as a meaningful analytical hand, the Foreign Service reporting officer has usually paid tool. What they seek to point out with the new nomenclature scant attention to the function of political socialization—the is that even in the ultra-Montesquieuan American polity the complex and often ill-understood process by which the citizen troika-like separation of powers into legislative, executive and develops politically significant attitudes—toward authority, judicial branches has not prevented the judicial branch from toward the particular political systems in which he lives, becoming a rule-making as well as a rule-adjudicating body, toward competition and cooperation, toward his own role as a while the legislative and executive branches in one way or participant, active or passive, in the political system. Perhaps another perform all three output functions. it is safe to ignore this function when dealing with polities within our own culture, but both the process and the end result of political socialization in non-Western societies may "Almond and Coleman, op. cit., p. 7. 11I am relying here primarily on Almond, Gabriel A., and contain some unpleasant surprises for the analyst who does Powell, G. Bingham, Jr., Comparative Politics: A Developmental not take this function seriously. Approach. Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1966, pp. 16-41 The end result of political socialization—the collection of and 73-189. This is probably the best available introduction for the FSO to the nouvelle vague in comparative politics. In addition (Continued on page 46) to the conceptual framework summarized here it contains stimu- lating suggestions of approaches to the analysis of political systems "e.g., The Decision Process, Bureau of Governmental Research, in terms of their capabilities and in terms of developmental stages. University of Maryland, 1956. This brief summary is adapted from Both of these aspects of political systems are of course highly Lasswell, Harold D., and Lerner, Daniel, World Revolutionary relevant to the work of the Foreign Service. Elites, Cambridge, M.I.T. Press, 1965, pp. 10-12 and 24-26. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 19 child, "was before the results were weighted. You read the raw data." He said the last in the tone usually reserved for accusations of child molestation. Where As he was ejected from the office (and from public life), Populi was shouting, to no avail, "It's undemographic! Why Are All the can't I seek the nomination? I demand my institutional rites!" From time to time, within the new breed itself, there are those who question the procedure by which specialists Psephiadtrists "weight" the results of public opinion polls, producing figures and interpretations markedly different from what the inter- viewers have gathered. Those who object strongly feel that this is not really a legitimate part of the polling process. The put-down is invariably some variation of the pollitical science Psepahloanalysts tenet which holds that "They also survey who only understand and weight." Meanwhile, the takeover goes on. The new kingmakers, the pollitical science practitioners, send out their research-and- destroy teams months and even years ahead of elections at all levels. Many a starry-eyed and well-motivated hopeful, look- ing forward to running for public office, finds himself poll- axed before he can remove his hat from his head, much less S. I. NADLER toss it into the ring. Nor is there any recourse, for, as another pollitical science tenet has it, "no one refutes that which computes." HE "new math" was different. It came on slowly. It It is precisely in this area that the fundamental danger and has not yet, in fact, completely arrived. There has the basic cruelty of this new discipline, pollitical science, is been time for books to be published for the benefit of clearly revealed. befuddled parents, time for retraining teachers, time When psychology ("the science of the mind") came into Tto reassure apprehensive students. People have been able to being, it was relatively quickly followed by psychiatry ("the examine, readjust, accept. study and treatment of mental diseases") and psychoanalysis Not so with the new political science. True, it was creeping ("the minute examination of a mind or minds to discover the up for years, surrounding us. Nobody paid any real attention, underlying mental causes producing certain mental and ner- perhaps hoping it would go away. But, suddenly, there it was! vous disorders"). In some of the newer lexicons, like the We did not even have a choice. We had to accept things as "Random House Dictionary" and the "World Book Ency- they had become. clopedia Dictionary," you can find the word which underlies And it happened with such rapidity and decisiveness that pollitical science: psephology. The latter dictionary defines nobody ever got around to referring to the "new political psephology as "the study of electoral systems and trends and science." The "old" political science was unceremoniously of patterns of behavior in voting." kicked into the dust-bin of history, and pollitical science You can also look up psephologist, "an expert in psephol- was—and is—with us. ogy." If the new math caused an upheaval of sorts, the new But where are the psephiatrists and psephoanalysts? political science—that is, political science—has represented They do not exist. There is psephology, but there is no nothing less than a first-degree cataclysm. The once seemingly psephiatry and no psephoanalysis. And this is a central infallible and indispensable poll have been rendered an- tragedy of our time. achronistic by the polls. The •traditional art of demagogy Consider the case of Ward C. Heeler, a pol replaced by the experienced overnight obsolescence as it was replaced by polls, his thirty years of once invaluable familiarity with the demography. And the old political scientists, with their histor- local level urban electorate suddenly worthless. Or Jeb Grass- ic analogies and labored analyses, have been upstaged by the roots, formerly courted by every congressional candidate modern polltergeists, with their social research magic, com- seeking the rural vote, who now finds his store of whistle-stop puter projection mumbo-jumbo, and sundry ethnic-knacks. acumen ignored in favor of the delphic print-out of a survey Some of the old guard are still fighting, or think they are, data-fed computer. Or Boss T. Weed, who discovered that it for the new breed does not recognize them as real opponents. now costs ten dollars per vote (as against two in the old They are regarded, rather, as interesting and perhaps once- days), but that the voter cannot be paid directly, the money formidable, but extinct and fossilized, like dinosaurs. Others going •to public opinion polling organizations, public relations of the old guard who try to make the new scene, acting on the associates, and television networks. once valid premise of "if you can't lick 'em, join 'em," meet Frustrated beyond measure at best, more likely disoriented with only frustration and heartache. Such, for example, was the experience of Homer Populi, who had devoted his life to or out of touch with reality, where are people like these to the old politics and forlornly hoped to move up to the new turn for help, if there are no psephiatrists and psephoanalysts? pollitics. If psephology is the foundation of pollitical science (and it The end began with Populi standing in the new, chrome- is), the structural framework is modern communication— and-leather party headquarters, high in a glass-and-steel- specifically, the mass media. A few decades back, the cloud on reinforced-concrete building, which was not only not smoke the horizon no bigger than a man's hand was the radio filled but had perfect atmosphere and temperature control (in "fireside chat." But even this seems slightly quaint today, deference to the electronic machines). when electric logs have filled the remaining fireplaces and the "Why," asked Populi, "can't I even seek the nomination?" television set dominates the living room. "Read this poll," said the Ph.D. behind the metal desk. A potential candidate's qualifications—experience-wise, ed- "I have read it," replied Populi, "and I saw where I was 20 ucation-wise, and even wisdom-wise—score no points in the percentage points ahead of the nearest other potential candi- calculations of the political scientists. "Let's look at the date." record" represents no challenge, just an invitation to a "That," pointed out the Ph.D., as if talking to a retarded (Continued on page 45) 20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 The Foundations of American Diplomatic Treaty Etiquette

ROBERT RALPH DAVIS, JR.

HORTLY after the War of 1812, Albert Gallatin wrote that "the War has renewed and reinstated the national feelings which the Revolution had given and which Swere daily lessened. The people have now more gener- al objects of attachment with which their pride and political opinions are connected. They are more American; they feel and act more like a nation; and I hope that the permanency of the Union is thereby better secured."1 This heightened sense of nationalism and republican self-awareness which Gallatin detected and which permeated nearly every facet of American life after the War of 1812 is clearly illustrated by the uncompromising position the United States adopted in late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, however, this regard to treaty-etiquette in general and the so-called alternat system was replaced by the practice of the alternat. The in particular. alternat (rotation) gave each contracting party the right to be Prior to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, first-named in its copy of the treaty or agreement. This European treaty-etiquette dictated that the most powerful or procedure was subsequently recognized and formalized by the the most venerable nation contracting a bilateral agreement Congress of Vienna in 1814.3 should take precedence over the other contracting party.2 During the early years of its existence, the United States This meant that the name of the nation so favored would was viewed by most of the European powers as an upstart appear first in the preamble and first in the text of every copy republic, not entitled to the precedence generally reserved for of the executed treaty. With the development of power monarchies. Accordingly, in nearly every treaty and interna- relationships between the major European nations during the tional agreement signed by the United States prior to 1815 the alternat was not observed.4 In the definitive Treaty of

1Cited in George Dangerfield, The Awakening of American Na- tionalism (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 3-4. 2John W. Foster, The Practice of Diplomacy as Illustrated in 3Graham Henry Stuart, American Diplomatic and Consular the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston: Houghton Practice (New York: Appleton and Company, 1936), 127. Mifflin Company, 1906), 251. Multilateral treaties were usually 4One of the few exceptions to this was the treaty of 1803 signed in alphabetical order without regard to precedence. (Louisiana Purchase) with France. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 21 Paris (1783), for example, the British plenipotentiary, David During the course of the actual negotiations, other prob- Hartley, was accorded the privilege of signing his name first lems concerning etiquette and protocol cropped up to confuse on both copies of the treaty, while the American commission- the real issues at stake. The British temporized in delivering ers, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, followed their preliminary draft of the proposed treaty to the Ameri- in strict alphabetical order. Moreover, the British government cans, feeling that there was a distinct advantage in receiving and the English king were given precedence throughout the the first draft of the other contracting party before submitting texts of both copies. Hartley, the British commissioner, had their own. This attitude infuriated John Quincy Adams, who been given strict orders from the Foreign Office to exclude scoffed at "plenipotentiaries who are obliged to send to the the principle of the alternat from the treaty. On August 21, Privy Council for objections of etiquette and question who 1783, Charles James Fox, Secretary of State for Foreign shall give or receive the first draft."12 Affairs, wrote to Hartley informing him of this matter. "When The Americans then proposed to exchange the first drafts a treaty is signed between two Crowned Heads in order to simultaneously, thereby avoiding any possible breach of eti- prevent disputes about precedency," Fox explained, "the quette. The British remained adamant, however. Finally, the name of the one stands first in one instrument and that of the frustrated Americans decided to yield to this British preten- other in the other, but when the treaty is between a crowned sion. "It was too plain that their advantage and their etiquette Head and a Republic, the name of the Monarch is mentioned were nothing but devices for wasting time," Adams wrote, first in each instrument."6 Hartley, of course, complied with "and so we sent them a complete project drawn up in form, these instructions explicitly. On September 1, two days before with nothing but blanks of time and place to fill to make it a the official signing, Hartley informed Fox that "the treaties treaty." Mincing no words in a letter to his wife, Adams are drawn out for signature as you have expresssed it viz: declared that "the pretended etiquette is an absurdity. The giving precedence to the Crowned Head. The American negotiation was proposed by the British government. It was Ministers never had a thought of disputing the priority or the business of the British government to present first, in form equality of rank & therefore I have had no occasion to as well as in substance, the terms upon which they were mention the subject."6 willing to conclude the peace."13 During the negotiations at Ghent to conclude the War of While the British and American plenipotentiaries divided at 1812, matters of etiquette were early in sharp dispute. Upon times over matters involving diplomatic etiquette and proto- the arrival of the British ministers on August 6, 1814, the col, within the American delegation itself such matters occa- American plenipotentiaries—John Quincy Adams, James A. sionally threatened to jeopardize the solidarity of the group. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, and Albert Gallatin— One such occasion arose when Adams, Bayard, and Gallatin were approached by the British delegation's secretary, who were made honorary members of Ghent's Society of Fine informed them that the British commissioners—Lord Gambi- Arts and Letters, and Russell and Clay of the Society of er, Henry Goulbum, and Dr. William Adams—were anxious Agriculture and Botany. According to Adams, the two socie- to begin negotiations and proposed, on that account, to meet ties had drawn lots to determine which of the commissioners with their American counterparts at the Hotel du Lion d'Or, would be named to the respective groups. As the Society of where the three Englishmen had taken lodgings.? This ar- Fine Arts and Letters was the more prestigious of the two rangement, however, was totally unacceptable to the Ameri- organizations, Clay and Russell apparently felt slighted. In cans. Adams, for example, labeled the invitation "an offensive fact, Adams later wrote, Russell "appeared to think his pretension to superiority."8 Clay, who had earlier maintained dignity most offended. He said that if the people of Ghent that "I am not going during this negotiation to give conse- meant to show us civility they should treat us equally; that he quence to any affair of mere etiquette," echoed Adams' assumed for his part no superiority, and would not admit of sentiments on this point. "It appeared to us," Clay wrote, any." Bayard endeavored to reassure Russell that no offence "that according to established usage, we were entitled to the had been intended and that he, along with Adams and first visit; and that there was, both in place fixed on and in Gallatin, disclaimed "any assumption of superiority," the precision of the time designated, the evidence, of an maintaining that "any such pretension would be ridiculous." assumption of superiority on their part, which we could not Finally, his fellow commissioners persuaded Russell to accept the situation with equanimity, which, after a brief period of admit."10 Accordingly, the Americans sent their secretary to 4 the British commissioners, informing them that "we should be sulking, he apparently did.' happy to meet and confer with the Commissioners, and At the close of the Ghent mission, a dispute developed exchange full powers with them, at any time which they between Adams and Clay as to whom should be entrusted would indicate, and at any place other than their own with the papers and notes of the official proceedings of the lodgings."11 The British agreed to this proposal and neutral commission. Adams, as the first-named member of the group, meeting grounds were subsequently arranged. maintained that usage and protocol dictated that he should retain possession of the official papers until instructed other- wise by the Department of State. Clay, however, "said he did 5Charles James Fox to David Hartley, August 21, 1783, cited not pay any regard to the precedent . . . and knew nothing in Hunter Miller, ed., Treaties and other International Acts of the about the usage." For his own personal reference and for United States of America (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931), II, 157. preservation as historical archives, Clay was determined to take the papers back to the United States immediately. °David Hartley to Charles James Fox, September 1, 1783, cited in Ibid. Adams resisted. This, in turn, merely increased Clay's deter- mination. Both he and Russell suggested that the commission 7John Quincy Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Com- prising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848, 12 vols., ed. Charles Francis Adams (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1874-77), III, 12John Quincy Adams to William Harris Crawford, November 3-4; and Henry Clay to James Monroe, August 18, 1814, in Henry 6, 1814, in John Quincy Adams, Writings of John Quincy Adams, Clay, The Papers of Henry Clay, 3 vols. to date, ed. James F. 7 vols., ed. Worthington C. Ford (New York: Macmillan, 1913- Hopkins (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1959- ), 17), V, 180-81. 963. 13John Quincy Adams to Louisa Catherine Adams, November 8Adams, Memoirs, III, 3. 22, 1814, in Ibid., 203-204. 9Henry Clay to James A. Bayard and Albert Gallatin, May 2, 14Adams, Memoirs, III, 58-59; and James A. Bayard, Papers of 1814, in Clay, Papers, I, 891. James A. Bayard, 1796-1815, ed. Elizabeth Donnan, in American '°Henry Clay to James Monroe, August 18, 1814, in Ibid., 963. Historical Association, Annual Report, 1913, II (Washington: Gov- nAdams, Memoirs, ///, 3-4. ernment Printing Office, 1915), 304n. 22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 vote as to the proper procedure to follow, but Adams refused dressed to him by Secretary of State James Monroe on March to entertain such a otion. "I said I should not put it to a 13, 1815. Monroe expressed his displeasure at the fact that vote, not considering it as a point to be decided by a vote." the American ministers had not insisted upon the alternat at Adams considered the whole controversy as being "a piece of Ghent. "It is urlderStood," he said, "that in treaties between chicanery upon a trifle," interpreting Clay's accusation that all powers, this principle of equality is generally, if not he was "arrogating prerogative and superiority" as nothirig invariably recognized and observed." Although he confessed more than "cavilling upon a bagatelle merely because it would that the oversight was probably due to a preoccupation with be convenient to himself to have the papers." After further the raore importhnt terms of peace, Monroe hastened to add debate, Clay finally gave in and Adams retained possession of that in the future the principle of the alternat should be the papers.15 incorporated into all American treaties and international Considering the amount of time devoted to debating such agreements. The United States was a sovereign nation and questions, it is perhaps strange that nothing was said or done should not, on that account, yield precedence to any country. by the Americans about the alternat. In the final version a "It is a mortifying truth that concessions, however generous the treaty, which was completed in triplicate and signed on the motive, seldom produce the desired effect. They more December 24, 1814, His Britannic Majesty took precedence frequently inspire improper pretensions in the opposite over the United States throughout every copy, while the party."18 British commissioners—Gambier, Goulburn, and Adams, in This "rap on the knuckles" was sufficient to arouse the that order—signed the document above the signatures of the nationalistic Adams, who became determined from that point American commissioners—Adams, Bayard, Clay, Russell, and on permanently to secure the alternat for the United States. Gallatin, respectively.le His first opportunity to establish a precedent along these lines For failing to raise this issue, John Quincy Adams later was shortly forthcoming. wrote that he "had received a rap on the knuckles from Adams, Clay, and Gallatin had traveled to London shortly home."17 He was obviously refening to the directive ad- after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The Americans had been commissioned to negotiate a general treaty of commerce

15Adams, Memoirs, III, 128-44; and Bayard, Papers, 369-71. 16miller, Treaties, II, 582. 15.1ames Monroe to John Adams, March 13, 1815, in Micro- yrJohn Quincy Adams to Jonathan Russell, October 10, 1815, films of the Adams Papers owned by the Adams Manuscript Trust in Adams, Writings, V, 415-16. and deposited in the Massachusetts Historical Society, reel 422.

FORZION SREVIOR JOURNAL, March, 1968 23 with the British. During the course of the relatively brief can and British plenipotentiaries signed their names in parallel negotiations which resulted in the Commercial Convention of columns, the American column on the left hand side of the 1815, Adams made it a special point to inform the British American copy, and the British column on the left hand side commissioners—William Adams, Henry Goulburn, and Fred- of the British copy. In addition, this same principle of rotation erick John Robinson—that there had been an error, "both in was observed in the respective preambles and bodies of the the preamble and in the order of signatures at Ghent, which it convention.24 would be necessary to avoid repeating at present.") The The United States was determined to maintain and re- error, of course, had been the omission of the alternat. Adams enforce this precedent during the administrations of James took special care, therefore, to inform the British that he for Monroe (1817-25). Monroe's Secretary of State, John Quincy one would refuse to sign any agreement unless the alternat Adams, made a special point to safeguard the diplomatic was observed in all respects. victory he had so painstakingly fought for at London in 1815. Two of the British commissioners, Goulburn and Dr. In his "Form of Personal Instructions" to American diplomats Adams, maintained that they were unaware that such a usage abroad (1817), Adams gave top priority to the principle of even existed. "I told Goulburn," Adams later wrote, "that if the alternat. "This practice," Adams began, "having been he would take the trouble of enquiring at the Foreign Office accidentally omitted on one or two occasions, to be observed he would find it a universal usage."20 The British ministers on by the United States, the omission was followed by then objected to Adams' demand because, they insisted, the indications of a disposition in certain European Governments, alternat would require that the wording of the two treaty to question its application to them. It became therefore copies would necessarily have to be different, thereby adding proper to insist upon it, as was accordingly done with effect." an element of confusion and possible error to the definitive Having explained these circumstances, Adams proceeded to agreement. Adams replied that "the mere variation of order, instruct American diplomats to "consider it as a standing in naming the parties, made no change either in the substance Instruction to adhere to this alternative in the conclusion of or in the words of the treaty; it did not in any manner affect any Treaty, Convention or other document, to be jointly the essential accuracy of the copies."21 signed by you and the Plenipotentiary of any other Power."25 The two delegations then separated, each to prepare a draft Ironically, Adams was himself the first American statesman to be submitted to the other party on the following Monday. to negotiate a major international treaty under the new This was accordingly done. Upon receipt of the British draft, dispensation. Beginning in December 1817, Adams and Luis however, Adams discovered that although they had made de Onis, the Spanish minister in Washington, undertook provision for signing the treaty in parallel lines, the British negotiations which resulted in the Transcontinental Treaty of had ignored the principle of the alternat by appending the 1819. By this treaty, the United States acquired east and west statement "done in duplicate" to their draft. This infuriated Florida. The agreement also defined the boundary line be- Adams, who set about at once to rewrite the draft using the tween the United States and Spanish-American possessions alternat throughout.22 His determination to secure the alter- west of the Mississippi River. nat for the United States, however, was not shared by Clay The Transcontinental Treaty was a notable diplomatic or Gallatin, who both felt that it was somewhat silly to argue achievement for the United States, and Adams improved the over trifles. occasion by strongly and successfully reaffirming the Ameri- Being unaware of Secretary of State Monroe's admonition can determination to resist European pretensions in respect to to Adams, Gallatin suggested that the American commission precedence in diplomatic agreeements. Onis had expressed accept the British draft without the alternat. He felt that some objection to the use of the alternat and, although he had Adams' revision was "entirely wrong; it will throw the whole acquiesced upon the principle for inclusion into the treaty business into confusion." Adams, of course, "peremptorily then under discussion, he suggested that perhaps he should refused," and added, in a heated and angry manner, "Mr. draft a "protest" to insure that the same procedure would Gallatin, you and Mr. Clay may do as you please, but I will never be followed again in treaties between the United States not sign the treaty without the alternative observed through- and Spain. Adams would not hear of this. "I told him," the out." Secretary of State later wrote, "I certainly could not receive "Now, don't fly off in this manner," Gallatin responded. any such protest, for that, so far from its not being drawn into "Indeed, sir," Adams countered, "I will not sign the treaty in a precedent, it was our expresss intention that it should be a any other form. I am so far from thinking with Mr. Clay that permanent precedent, and I could assure him we should never it is of no importance, that I think it by much the most hereafter conclude a treaty with Spain without insisting upon important thing that we shall obtain by this treaty. The treaty the same mode of signature and the same alternative first itself I very much dislike, and it is only out of deference to naming of the parties."26 you and Mr. Clay that I consent to sign it at all.'25 Adams It was largely owing to the persistence of John Quincy had his way. Clay and Gallatin finally agreed to the alternat Adams and, to a lesser extent, James Monroe, that American throughout the revised draft. In reality, they had no choice diplomatic treaty etiquette was liberally infused with a sense other than to concede this point to Adams in light of the of nationalism during the early national period. The United Secretary of State's directive. States had scored a major diplomatic victory, one which Moreover, the British commissioners became convinced would serve as a precedent for the future and one which that the American government was deadly serious in its would be observed and maintained, with but a few inadvertent demand for diplomatic equality, and the formal copies of the lapses, thereafter. • Commercial Convention which were signed on July 3, 1815, observed the principle of the alternat throughout. The Ameri- 24Ibid., 24647; and John Quincy Adams to James Monroe, July 14, 1815, in Despatches, Great Britain, XIX, reel 15. 13Adams, Memoirs, ///, 237; see also John Quincy Adams to 25John Quincy Adams, "Form of Personal Instructions to the James Monroe, July 14, 1815, in United States Department of Ministers of the United States—to be variously modified in par- State, Despatches from United States Ministers to Great Britain, ticular cases," in Adams Papers, reel 439; see also: John Quincy 1791-1906, National Archives Microfilm Publications, XIX, reel 15. Adams to Richard Rush, November 6, 1817, in United States De- 20Adams, Memoirs, ///, 237. partment of State, Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of 21Ibid, 237-38. State, 1801-1906: All Countries, National Archives Microfilm Pub- 241; and John Quincy Adams to James Monroe, July lications, VIII, reel 3, and John Quincy Adams to Henry Middle- 14, 1815, in Despatches, Great Britain, XIX, reel 15. ton, June 7, 1820, in Ibid., reel 4. 23Adams, Memoirs, III, 24243. 26A dams, Memoirs, IV, 271-72. 24 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 Association March, 1968 ***************** ews *********

AFSA Ideas on Overseas Personnel Cuts Eight embassies (Bonn, Saigon, Rome, Oslo, Amman, Kinshasa, Vien- na and Tehran) have responded to an Responding to an invitation from posts and that consideration be given, invitation by Chairman Lannon Walk- Mr. Katzenbach, the AFSA Board of insofar as possible, to assigning per- er by establishing local organizations. Directors has written a series of let- sons already in Washington to other Chapter representatives are now in ters to Under Secretary Katzenbach agency slots and reserving Depart- regular correspondence with AFSA and to administrative officials of AID, ment, USIA, and AID slots for retur- headquarters in Washington. The As- State and USIA setting forth its views nees so that they will not feel that sociation News section of the JOURNAL on certain aspects of the program of they are being left off the team. The is airmailed to these chapters before personnel cuts abroad. Association also opposed any scheme the JOURNAL'S publication date as a to place those returning from overseas AFSA is strongly urging that every means of informing them of AFSA ac- on leave with or without pay simply to effort be made to use the readjustment tivities in Washington. relieve pressure on the various agen- to strengthen significantly our training In the event that there are no plans cies for quick assignments. For the program, particularly at the middle for organizing a chapter at a particu- longer term the Association recom- grade officer level, and to enlarge our lar post and AFSA members there mended that the Department consider exchange program with other federal would like to take such action, in- seeking one-time legislation providing agencies in Washington. AFSA partic- quiries may •be addressed to the Amer- unusual incentives for early retirement ularly recommends that consideration ican Foreign Service Association (c/o and that it enter into a contract with a be given to placing a significant num- Department of State) or to R. T. Cur- professional executive placement or- ber of officers with the United Plan- ran, Secretary-Treasurer of AFSA ganization. ning Office in Washington and other ( USIA /I) . agencies at work on "inner city" prob- So far these representations have lems, as an ideal method of giving had the following results: returnees and others significant pro- 1. It has been agreed that any Casualties in Vietnam gram experience and direct re- decision on further recruitment of Anxiously watching the casu- immersion in American life. junior officers will be held in abey- alty lists in early February, we ance. The Association is also urging the face the prospect that more 2. AFSA has two men specifically Under Secretary to use this opportuni- names may be added to the fol- recognized as AFSA representatives ty to move towards the establishment lowing list before the JOURNAL sitting in at two levels in the decision- of a single Foreign Service as envis- can reach its readers. making process. Ambassador Graham aged in the Act of 1946. AFSA fur- As of February 19, we learned Martin represents AFSA's views at ther promised Mr. Katzenbach that with deep regret of these losses: meetings of Mr. Katzenbach's princi- we "would oppose any halting of jun- pal policy advisers and Howard Myers Albert Farkas (AID), Killed ior officer recruitment with every represents AFSA at sessions on per- Thomas M. Gompertz (AID), resource at our command, especially sonnel matters in the office of the Killed so since no thought is being given to Director General of the Foreign Serv- Kermit J. Krause, Jr. (AID), use of Section 519, which, with great Killed foresight, was included by the framers ice, Mr. Steeves. The AFSA Board has taken an Robert R. Little (State), of the 1946 Foreign Service Act to active role in presenting to appropri- Killed provide a way with dignity and honor ate officials the Association's views on Hugh C. Lobit (AID), to relieve pressure at the top. Similar- the proposed personnel cuts. Members Killed ly, we believe that lateral entry of who have additional suggestions Jeffery Lundstedt (AID), individuals with rare or scarce skills should send them to the Board of Killed should not he eliminated for the Directors. This is particularly true of LCpl. James C. Marshall health of the Service, although it is AFSA members -overseas, since the (Marine Guard), Killed obvious that such actions must be initial recommendations for personnel John T. McCarthy (AID), severely limited." Killed cuts will be made at posts in the field. Stephen H. Miller (State), In letters to Messrs. Lee, Mosley AFSA's prime function is to represent and Rimestad, the Association asked the interests of its members, so let the Killed for assurances that the various agen- Board know your views. Michael D. Benge (AID), cies are prepared to assist returnees Captured financially in cases of hardship and AFSA Chapters Organize Abroad Philip W. Manhard (State), inquired as to what arrangements Captured were being made to keep their •person- The Board of the Foreign Service There were others wounded nel informed of their activities in this Association has begun organizing or missing. area. We also suggested that informa- chapters overseas to aid in effective Our prayers and our sympa- tion kits similar to those available to communication of views and issues thy are with the families and personnel under evacuation orders be between the Board and its members friends of these gallant men. made available to returnees at their abroad. Vietnam Memorial Scholarship AFSA AND COLLECTIVE BARGAINING Department of State Telegram In the climate of change and reno- form of recognition essentially is TO: Ambassador Bunker from vation that now infuses AFSA, there meaningless as it merely entitles such Philip Habib has been much thought about the employee organizations to present, to Association's serving its members ei- appropriate officials, their views. 1. As president of the American For- ther in ways more like a trade union, AFSA is doing this already. eign Service Association, I wish to ex- as an advocate, or perhaps in de- press the deep sense of respect and Trade Union? veloping an ombudsman concept. admiration which all of us, in Wash- There are obvious advantages to hav- "Formal" recognition theoretically ington and at missions and posts ing an advocate that could speak to could be accorded to AFSA because, throughout the world, hold for you the administration, the Congress, and we have "a substantial and stable and your colleagues in Vietnam. From the public and assist in righting indi- membership of ten per cent of the all accounts, the Mission's perform- vidual wrongs. The possibilities are employees in the unit." Such recogni- ance during the Tet offensive has add- less well known. tion would allow AFSA to set up a ed a lustrous episode to the tradition In 1962, President Kennedy issued check-off system arranged by volun- of service to our country abroad. Executive Order 10988 which estab- tary participation in a payroll deduc- 2. Yet we are not unmindful of the lished the policy and arrangements for tion system. The agencies involved price that was paid. It is my privilege, cooperation between employee orga- would be required to consult with therefore, to convey to you the follow- nizations and agency management in AFSA in formulation and implemen- ing resolution, adopted unanimously the Executive Branch of the Govern- tation of personnel policies and work- today by the Board of the Association. ment. Since the issuance of this order, ing conditions. This form of recogni- "Throughout our country's history, over one million Federal employees tion would not give AFSA the negoti- Americans have gone abroad in a civil have chosen to affiliate with employee ating rights enjoyed with exclusive capacity to serve the national interest. organizations which now have the recognition. It would put AFSA in a These citizens, by their diligence and right to negotiate agreements with position similar to that enjoyed by devotion to duty, often under trying agency management. State-AID Lodge 1534 of the Ameri- or even hazardous conditions, estab- AFSA is not at present an employ- can Federation of Government Em- lished a tradition which those of us, ee organization within the purview of ployees. Although useful, these new coming after, count among our proud- E.O. 10988. There are advantages, powers would be marginal and AFSA est possessions. however, in being recognized as a true can presently do as much with only "In times past, the clear risk of life "employee organization," and these modest cooperation from manage- in line of duty has not been common- the membership should seriously con- ment. ly required of us. But in the first days sider. "Exclusive" recognition would give of February in Vietnam, this require- Consultation with management considerable power to AFSA. We ment was levied hourly, on hundreds would be compulsory rather than could then negotiate meaningful of our colleagues. For those who gave voluntary. Management would be re- agreements. However, under the their lives, reality transcended risk in quired to negotiate seriously with the provisions of E.O. 10988, to obtain the measure of devotion exacted from Association. AFSA would also have this kind of recognition AFSA could them. more independent access to the Con- not include in its membership any "In their memory, the Board of the gress, the White House, the adminis- managerial executive, or employee en- American Foreign Service Association tration of AID, State, and USIA and gaged in Federal personnel work in hereby resolves to establish the me- to the Civil Service Commission. other than a purely clerical capacity, morial scholarship, to be awarded Under E.O. 10988, there are now or supervisors who officially evaluate annually under the same terms and three types of recognition: "in- the efficiency of employees. conditions now governing other asso- formal," "formal," and "exclusive." ciation scholarships. The Board in- Professional Organization? In effect, AFSA already enjoys "in- vites all who would honor the civilian Another possibility would be affilia- formal" recognition, but this theoreti- employees of the United States gov- tion with the National Federation of cally could be denied under a conflict ernment who have given their lives Professional Organizations. NFPO is a of interest clause which excludes sen- throughout the struggle in Vietnam to loose grouping of some 12 organiza- ior supervisory personnel from serving contribute to the Memorial Scholar- tions representing about 30,000 pro- as officers in such organizations. This ship Fund." fessionals, mostly in the federal serv- RUSK ice, including engineers, plant quarantine inspectors, patent office specialists, etc. It cooperates closely AFSA's Second Vice President with the 60,000-strong Nurses Associ- ation. When first formed, to take a John E. Reinhardt, Deputy Assist- position on a pay bill, the NFPO ant Director of the US Information testified on behalf of some 250,000 Agency for East Asia and the Pacific, supporters. With pay comparability as was elected Second Vice President of a principle endorsed by Congress, the American Foreign Service Associ- NFPO currently is seeking other ob- ation on January 19. jectives. Many of these parallel the Reinhardt, 48, was born in Virgin- goals of AFSA. ia. He attended Knoxville College, the 1942, serving overseas and attaining NFPO leadership welcomes AFSA University of Chicago, and the Uni- the rank of lieutenant. cooperation. They have, in fact, versity of Wisconsin, receiving his Joining USIA in 1956, Reinhardt agreed that there may be advantages Ph.D. from the latter institution. Af- has served in Manila, Kyoto, Tokyo, in having AFSA testify in concert ter two years as an instructor of Eng- and Tehran. He received the Agency's with NFPO, rather than merely as one lish, he entered the US Army in Meritorious Service Award in 1962. of its members. AFSA's certificate of THE CLICHE EXPERT EXPLAINS THE BUDGET

Q. Now, Mr. Arbuthnot, your title is— and, by reducing non-essential programs, to find bodies to A. I am Special Assistant for Fiscal Management to the put in these slots. Deputy Assistant Under Secretary for Budget. Q. How many bodies? Q. And in that capacity, sir, you can give us— A. Well, the slots came first, of course, Naturally, the A. A full and frank exposé of the implementation of our Chairman had to have a Deputy, and then there was the cost-reduction program. Administrative Officer, with his Deputy, plus a special Q. Yes. Now, this budget is.. . Assistant for Management, a Section Chief for Personnel, A. A minimum cost budget. It reflects hard choices. a Public Affairs Officer, and of course the Congressional Q. What sort of activities are included? Relations Officer. We have to think about our image on A. The top priority ones. the Hill, of course. Q. And you have cut out? Q. And this is a program— A. All non-essential programs. The others have been cut to A. Close to the heart of the Chairman of our Subcommittee. the bone. Q. And what is this group to do? Q. And the impact will be? A. Well, we felt on balance that we should obviously abolish A. Far-reaching. We have asked only for the absolute mini- economic sections in those countries—where we continue mum funds necessary for maintaining our posture and to have programs. In the others, we will rely on the AID reaching our goals. missions. Q. And the goals have been? Q. But why do we need AID missions in countries where they A. Subjected to searching cost-benefit analysis. won't take our aid? 0. And the budget will cause? A. Well, you see, there are residual functions which have to A. Some readjustment. Some postponements of programs be carried out. And besides, we have Economic Counse- which, desirable as they may be in themselves, cannot be lors there, who are also Chiefs, or in some cases Deputy justified in view of the balance of payments program. Chiefs, of the AID missions, and they can perform the Q. How many jobs will the Department lose under this economic analysis which will allow us to base our future budget? budget projections on the emerging situation as it develops. A. Well, now that's a difficult question. I'd better go on deep I see. And where we have aid programs, we must have background here. But no career employee need fear. Q. economic sections? Q. Does that mean that there will actually be fewer employ- A. Of course. They give us a fresh look at the programs. ees? A. Oh no. Perish the thought. No, you see, what we have Q. And they are— done is to reduce the ceilings on new jobs. We have, in fact, A. Fully integrated with the AID missions, of course. implemented a new program under the directive calling This prevents duplication and assures us that the Country for stringent economy. We have set up a special Task Team speaks with one voice. Force which reports directly to me, through my Deputy, to Q. Whose voice? examine the recommendations made by a Special Inter- A. Why, obviously, the voice of the country. agency Group, representing all the interested agencies. . . . Q. So we need an independent judgment, fully integrated with Q. And how many people are on this Task Force? the views of the Country Team and not likely to rock the A. Well, you see, we find have comp rerliinfign, in the boat or make waves in our relations with the host higher levels—I mean FSO-ls and 2s, and people like country, and that means that.. . that—and we have managed, without loss to other impor- A. It means that we have to send out high-level teams to tant objectives, to assign a high-level group, of the mini- reconcile honest differences of opinion. By reducing the mum size consonant with its charter, to.. . number of people we have abroad, we can employ more Q. Yes, but how many people are on it? of them in Washington, and then we can send them out on A. Well, naturally, we felt that a group of this sort had to be special assignments (on per diem, of course)to give them fully staffed, and taking account of natural attrition, and the feel of the local situation. Of course they mustn't stay making allowances for men in motion, we had to assign a too long; might get localitis. And we have found that by few administrative specialists and this is, of course, leaving having all the Washington people in the field on survey out some specialties which we could not find in the Foreign missions, and all the field people on consultation in Service, so we had to get in some outside assistance. There Washington, we can justify two men for every job.] was this fellow. I believe he had been a policeman.. . Q. Then you would say, Mr. Arbuthnot, that this budget is. . A. And, of course, he is outside the Department, so we had A. A realistic attempt—of course it's only a first cut at the to offer him a fully comparable salary. So we felt that we problem—to balance the needs of the Service with our could hardly give him less than a GS-18, because he growing responsibilities. might have gotten to a comparable grade outside if he had Washington, we can justify two men for every ;oh. been able to go on with his night courses. He was taking A. Will be a handicap in our constant efforts to place our reading, arithmetic, and personnel management. And you personnel most effectively, with consideration of tne needs couldn't ask any of these temporarily unem—I mean, these of the Service for highly trained career men. But we have high-ranking FSOs whom we temporarily of course were to bite the bullet. And actually, there will be, you will see unable to assign to colleges around the country—to work on page 376, there will be a slight temporary increase in the under a lower-ranking officer. It wouldn't have been con- numbers of administrators, by only 38.6 percent, if you sonant with the importance of the task to which all of us neglect a few ad hoc assignments, which is only until we get are presently giving unstintingly of our best efforts. this program off the ground. And that, you see, is why we Q. So the net result? are requesting a small but highly-trained additional special A. Well, actually, the net result is, balancing one consider- staff for this particular program. ation with another, we have managed to absorb the cut Q. I see. incorporation makes formal affiliation Join AFSA's Community Action Program an academic question for it prohibits using funds for lobbying purposes. If The following letter from AFSA's We want you to participate in this events should permit our formal affili- chairman was sent to our Washington AFSA program. We've all partici- ation at a later date, there would be membership in early February, in- pated in community service projects little risk of compromise to AFSA's viting them to participate in the at post; the time has come for us to integrity. The NFPO consititution per- AFSA's community action program. start showing the same zeal in our mits public dissent by member organi- Those of you who are overseas are own home base—Washington. zations. heartily encouraged to join this effort AFSA has the full backing of the Check Off when reassigned to Washington. Secretary and the Under Secretary. Still another possibility is the Amer- Give it yours by filling out the ican Federation of Government Em- The crisis in our American cities is "Volunteer Application" on the back ployees (AFL-CIO). AFGE has a probably our number one domestic of this letter and returning it to Pat State-AID Lodge 1534 with some 700 problem. A December Foreign Serv- Byrne, Room 7210, N.S., unless one AID employees and 200 State em- ice JOURNAL editorial announced of our recruiters has already been in ployees. It enjoys the voluntary check- that your Association would investi- touch with you. We are anxious to off for AID employees; and it is get- gate what it could do to participate in have the participation of wives and ting results in settling some personnel the programs now under way to at- older children. The number of volun- matters in both agencies. AFGE is tack the problems of our cities. An teer positions to be filled is so varied affiliated with a sizable segment of AFSA committee was formed under and so great that we are sure we can federal employees in the Government the chairmanship of Bob Blake. He find jobs to match the time availability Employees' Council of the AFL-CIO. met with representatives of the Office and interests of every member. There are fundamental problems in of Economic Opportunity, the United A member of the AFSA Communi- affiliating with AFGE. There are Planning Organization (UPO) here in ty Action Committee will talk with some AFGE positions which AFSA Washington, and the Vice President's you as soon as the volunteer applica- could not easily support: for example: office. The results of these soundings tions have been matched with the job seniority, veteran preferences, and are most encouraging; the skills of our UPO requests. opposition to selection-out authority. membership are not only needed, they The problems of the city are the On the other hand, AFSA could easily have been requested by the various most pressing we face today. AFSA support and work cooperatively with agencies in the Washington area. The hopes you will find it possible to help AFGE in connection with improved UPO has given us a listing of specific in solving the problems of Washing- death and burial expenses and im- volunteer positions that need filling. ton. proved allowances for service- connected disability, and retirement reforms. COMMUNITY ACTION COMMITTEE Ombudsman? Return to: Patricia M. Byrne, c/o Department of State, AFSA could adopt other Room 7210, N.S. procedures which would give it some Name Office of the effectiveness of a true union Room Office Phone while not involving us in the difficul- ties which becoming a union might Home Address Home Phone bring. Further development of the Areas of Interest (check) (Use W for Wife) ombudsman concept might be an al- Tutoring High School students. tern•ative to all of the above. One way Work with pre-school age children (daytime). of doing this might be through an Help in giving courses on Africa. extended AFSA committe on welfare Help in running youth centers. and grievances. Another method Work with young narcotics addicts. would be to appoint a man, perhaps a Summer programs for young people and children. retired officer who knows the bureau- Consumer education & establishment of cooperatives. cratic labyrinth, to act as a members' Help in establishing neighborhood businesses. advocate on a full-time basis. We Work with unemployed. might be able to encourage manage- Help with office work (typing, filing). ment to establish an independent om- Library assistance. budsman out of the chain of com- Editing and Writing community newsletters. mand, with expanded authority to ex- Special work with Puerto Ricans. amine and redress grievances. Work on legal problems. In September 1967, the President Help in arranging financing for housing repair. set up a commission of high-ranking Help in rebuilding youth centers. Federal officers to study the provi- Photographers to help in various projects. sions of E.O. 10988. AFSA went on Work with aged. record with the commission as reques- ting relaxation of the conflict of inter- Special Qualifications est provision of E.O. 10988. All of the Time Available for Volunteer Work (check) considerations discussed above will be Evenings How many evenings affected, of course, by the findings of Daytime the President's Commission. The Special weekend assignments JOURNAL will report these findings Others in. Family Who Wish to Participate when they are available and will ana- Wife Older children Time lyze other implications for further development of AFSA activities. Remarks EDITORIALS Fifty Years TIME would probably call it the Golden AFSAnniversary. The Executive Role of the Foreign Service In any event, it is a special one. The American Foreign Service Association is fifty years old this month. In a manner HE testimony before the Jackson Subcommittee pub- of speaking. In March, 1918, it was the American Consular lished last month and the memorandum prepared by Association which came into being, "for the purposes of fos- T Professor Schelling contained in this issue of the tering an esprit de corps among the members of the Consular JOURNAL raise important questions. Service of the United States, to strengthen Service spirit, and A careful statement of objectives, an orderly arrangement to establish a center around which can be grouped the united of programs on a country or regional basis, an analysis of the efforts of such members for the improvement of this service." relative costs and benefits of alternative programs, and an The American Foreign Service Association, as such, was assessment of results are essential to the management of any organized in August, 1924, and began its existence officially enterprise. It is not necessary that the process be known as on September 1 of that year. It assumed the general form PPBS or that it be identical to the system developed in the and continued the activities of the American Consular Asso- Department of Defense. It is essential, however, that an ciation. The Rogers Act of May, 1924, which combined the agency nominated to leadership in foreign affairs be prepared diplomatic and consular services into a single service, ren- to discharge these functions. dered Obsolete an association the membership of which com- Professor Schelling argues that neither the Department of prised only consular officers. The Consular Association State nor its foreign service is organized or equipped by accordingly wound up its affairs, and its publication, •the training or experience to meet these responsibilities. More AMERICAN CONSULAR BULLETIN, became the FOREIGN SERV- disturbing, perhaps, is his argument that the office of the ICE JOURNAL. Secretary of State cannot perform as it should so long as it is Looking at the Association today and thinking back 50 staffed so exclusively by an essentially subordinate organiza- years, one could accurately conclude that the more it is the tion, that is the Foreign Service Officer corps. same, the more it changes. We do not agree with Professor Schelling that the Foreign The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, for example, is still recog- Service cannot perform the management functions which it nizable, despite the modernization of type and makeup. But ought to perform and which the Secretary of State requires of consider this, in the Articles of Association, dated September, it. We believe that the job of execution of foreign policy is a 1924: "Propaganda and articles of a tendentious nature, espe- job for professionals and that the Foreign Service is where the cially such as might be written to influence legislative, execu- professionals are to be found. We would not go so far as to tive, or administrative action with respect to the Foreign Serv- say that the Foreign Service as it is now constituted produces ice, or the Department of State, or other Departments of the sufficient numbers of managers of the kind Professor Schelling Government, shall be rigidly excluded from its columns!" and we agree the Secretary needs. But this is a problem of [Section XI.2] organization and training. We believe, for example, that it One might also consider the membership itself, which to- will be necessary to use the Foreign Service Act of 1946 to day includes officers of the US Information Agency, AID, create a broader Foreign Service so that more members of and the Peace Corps, which, of course, did not exist fifty the Service will be better qualified to assume executive years ago. responsibilities. The Association's recent letter to the Under Probably most illustrative of the Association's stability and Secretary of State, synopsized elsewhere in this issue, so states. flexibility, however, is the present Board of Directors which The Association will continue its efforts to make the Foreign took office for this year and next. The eighteen members ran Service fully qualified to perform its executive role. In fact, for office as a group; for the first time in the Association's no more important work lies before us, and criticism such as history, they actively campaigned for election; and, upon that made by Professor Schelling demonstrates its urgency."' election, they chose to remain a governing body, all members of which remain active. Many are young in years, junior in Moment For Serious Thought grade. Chairman Lannon Walker, for example, is an FSO-5 in his early thirties. And among the "18" are representatives HE JOURNAL'S cliche expert this month offers a wry of USIA and AID, as well as State. warning that temporizing •and improvising have got us There may be those who, raising an eyebrow, might ob- Tinto many a managerial morass. The President's Janu- serve that AFSA's fiftieth anniversary follows that of the ary 18 directives offer a way out. Soviet Union by a few short months. We assure them 'the Invoking the balance of payments problems in this context coincidence represented nothing more than that. According is almost irrelevant to the American Foreign Service Associa- to the first circular letter, dated July 1, 1918, our preliminary tion. We see the Presidential directives as a fortuitous and aims were "a. To maintain at Washington either club premises perhaps fleeting opportunity for the administrators of AID, or a rendezvous of some kind where members coud meet so- State, and USIA to rationalize and streamline the operations cially . . . ; b. To assist the Department in gathering correct of foreign affairs agencies abroad and at home. information about living conditions affecting the members, The harassed task forces striving to comply with executive and to assemble data relative to any subject of interest to the deadlines might not welcome AFSA's strident insistence on . . . Service, such as a retirement system, c. To ascertain by attention to long-term goals in the midst of "crash" imper- referenda from time to time the sentiment of the [member- atives. Captious kibitzing is not AFSA's intent. We are ship] regarding matters relating to the interest of the Service; confident that the extra effort of intellect required to look to and d. To assist members of the Service coming to Washing- the future of the foreign affairs instrumentality will actively ton in such matters as may present themselves . . ." assist the tough and nagging detailed decisions the task forces To others, who may slyly note that our Golden Anniversary are being called on to make. happens to occur in the very year when the gold outflow If those in charge of implementing the January 18 direc- constitutes one of the critical problems facing the country, tives pass up the opportunity now before them, it will be we offer the reminder that no one who has been a member of immeasurably more difficult at some future time to bring the the Foreign Service for more than 24 hours is a stranger to disparate elements of the foreign affairs agencies together into crisis. the kind of "Foreign Service of the United States" which our We feel that members may look back at AFSA's first fifty nation deserves and which our national interest demands. • years with justifiable pride and to the future with anticipation. FOREIGN samfros 30IIRNAL, March, 1868 29 ow that USIS officers have become full-fledged GEORGE G. WYNNE members of the Foreign Service Association I think it is high time that we begin using the JOURNAL as a forum for the constructive discus- denominator of world comprehension and acceptability the Nsion of current issues in the information field much as it is kind of information materials sent our posts abroad. In the being used by our Foreign Service colleagues for a searching Agency jargon we call these our media products and they analysis of the more traditional tools of the profession. The include press commentaries, documentary films, TV shows, three anniversary articles on the Voice of America in the radio broadcasts, exhibits and pamphlets designed to explain February 1967 issue, one of them by Edwin M. J. Kretzmann to global audiences American policies and institutions. The who hired me for that tower of Babel just before the McCarthy fallacy of this approach has been brought home to me over corrosion to which he devotes a reflective appraisal, are a big the years by working as an information officer in both step in the right direction. But I hope the pages of the developed and developing countries. USIA has not yet faced JOURNAL will also be used as a vantage point to seek out the up to the fact that we have more than one world to deal with. future as much as to gaze appreciatively and nostalgically at People in the field know it and so do some people who have the terrain stretching out behind us. come from the field to Washington, but the realization has to I hope that the random thoughts that follow on future tasks sink in institutionally throughout the Agency and bring about and proposed new techniques in the information field will major changes in techniques and emphasis in the servicing by make a modest contribution in this direction by eliciting USIA of its more than 200 foreign posts. comments and starting a dialogue among our information We have to accept, I think, that there are two principal purveyors in Washington and their distributors in the field. groups of consumers for our media products, those in the The public forum provided by the JOURNAL, swept by a fresh developed and those in the developing world. The type and breeze of self-analysis and the skeptical gaze of men who have standard of products and services provided these consumers risen to the top of the profession, is a distinctly unhealthy by our country posts should not be the same, as they now very place for sacred cows. I sense the need for such an open largely are, if we expect to be responsive to real needs and forum, a market place of ideas where operational principles interests of each category. The temptation sometimes felt by may be challenged by USIS officers. It does not now exist and headquarters personnel in Washington to reply to this kind of sacred cows often graze happily in the close comfort of argument begs the question by telling public affairs officers in privileged communications between headquarters and the effect: "It's your job to tailor your country output to local field. needs; after all we cannot run a hundred country programs One of these is the notion that we live in the best of all from Washington." PAOs and their staffs however have to run possible worlds for government information programs. Under with what they are given and with the products emitted by this prevailing concept all we need to do as an information pouch and teletype in response to their specific requests. They agency to keep pace with the revolution of rising sophistica- can be superb salesmen for Agency products and services. tion is to keep on doing everything we have been doing, only a They can even give a final polish, giftwrap the package and little better. Given the unquestioned position of the United deliver it with a flourish. But the content has to be what the States as an object of worldwide interest, people will come to customer ordered, or what we can convince him he really our films and lectures, read our articles, look at our exhibits needs. The global approach that delivers neither fish nor fowl no matter what we do. True, we should seek to make our is not conducive to the servicing of clients who want or need activities a little more stimulating to the audience, but, one or the other. essentially, we are on the right track. This smug way of The much vaunted new Planning, Programing, Budgeting thinking neglects the fact that the gathering of crowds is no System (PPBS) provides only a partial answer to this de- indication of effectiveness in influencing attitudes and that the ficiency for while it will permit the PAO to identify priorities mass approach is neither appropriate nor indeed possible with in the allocation of human and material resources based on the limited means at our command in the developed world. goals set in his country plan, he will still depend very largely What I think we have failed to do is to develop an internal on the tools and raw materials furnished by the headquarters awareness of the changing world around us and this in some organization. ways has made us a space age agency operating with the tools Looking from a different perspective at the challenge and of the early post-war period. Things are perhaps not quite so opportunity faced daily by USIS posts around the world we bad as I depict them here for the sake of bringing issues into could characterize their respective environments as either a the open, there is still time for change and self-reform, but in buyer's or a seller's market for our products and services. The my view the danger of obsolescence and unsuitability to the result will be roughly the same, as the buyer's market can be task at hand is unmistakable if we persist in our present equated with the developed, advanced or industrialized coun- course. tries, whatever we decide to call them, and the seller's market At the core of our problem lies the "one world" concept with the developing, or underdeveloped or newly-independent which reduces to what we believe to be the lowest common nations. The political alignments of host country governments

30 FOREIGN SERVICE JOCRNAL, March, 1988 can of course modify the environment of relative acceptability For the developed world this means a reduction in the of our products and services by placing barriers between shared servicing of the routine package programs: films, TV ourselves and the target audience, or on the other hand by shows, exhibits, radio tapes, Wireless File features and com- facilitating our work. mentaries and a commensurate step-up of component and raw One might question the practical value of this new break- material servicing for custom-tailoring and discretionary use down because our bureaucrats already have the world divided by the post in the light of local needs and opportunities. up into geographical, functional and regional divisions that Under this concept each major developed country post or constantly overlap and cause no end of trouble. group of contiguous posts would have one or more media leg I am proposing the concept merely as a servicing aid, as a men in Washington working with the country desk offi- mental framework for the Agency on which to hang new cer. It would be his task to provide individual service to techniques and management tools because I feel that we "his" post, tracking down information and answers to post cannot afford to keep operating in the same routine way that requests, setting up appointments for visiting opinion leaders dates back to Marshall Plan days when practically the whole and media men referred to him, expediting action on post world—developing or recovering—provided a seller's market projects and operating across the media spectrum to help the for our products and services. post discharge its information and cultural functions speedily In the interval of one generation, the communications and effectively. He would not be concerned with policy, industry has advanced in the developed world to US levels of personnel or budget matters but serve as a full time research- sophistication, in some cases it has exceeded them in content er and expediter, in a true sense the eyes and ears of USIS quality, and at the same time the attention threshold of "Bigville" in Washington with his loyalties and performance priority audiences has been raised considerably by the daily report in the charge of the CPAO and the desk man in charge onslaught of competing messages from every quarter. In the of the review. developing world, meanwhile, new-won independence, a pre- To assist the developed country posts and "our men in occupation with the trinkets of sovereignty, insurgencies Washington" charged with the procurement of particularized exploited by forces hostile to an orderly world community, information for our spoiled and sophisticated clients, the and the natural desire to catch up, to run in some instances Agency should devote urgent attention to the development of before having learned to walk, have created situations calling an up-to-date information retrieval capability. For an Agency for deft new approaches to persuasion and institution build- devoted to slaking the world's curiosity about us because of "a ing. decent respect for the opinions of mankind," we lag sadly As the environment in which our missions operate has behind the other civil and military components of the execu- radically changed since World War II, our central servicing, tive branch who operate elaborate scanning and retrieval our ingrained attitudes have remained more or less geared to systems to make information available to the privileged few. the comfortable, undifferentiated standard of information Currently we waste much precious staff time at overseas posts dispensing about the United States that we inherited twenty and are often forced to confess failure when asked highly years ago from the Office of War Information. Nor have our technical and specific questions that call for precise answers tools kept pace with the challenge around us. Barring some on various aspects of American life and institutions. As a laudable exceptions, our worldwide audiences face the same result our reputation has suffered, particularly in Western wordy articles, the same tired paper shows, the same lecturing Europe where we are considered to be coasting on our documentaries that they did when the dearth of competing achievements of earlier decades and are now often removed interests and stimuli made these acceptable. We pay lip from the mainstream of the countries' cultural and intellectu- service to the idea of change and challenge, but we don't al life. follow through. Routine has become a way of life, the clouded I submit that we should be able to process, store and monochrome spectacles through which we look at audiences retrieve on demand the answers to all questions of possible throughout the world are firmly riveted to our face and any policy significance or public relations value which we are real change would require a brutally honest reappraisal by the likely to be asked by overseas customers. To this end we Agency's top management of our tasks and our tools in the should program into a sophisticated search and retrieval late twentieth century. system such items as our Wireless File from the year one, an This reappraisal in my view would have to start from a real annotated bibliography of selected non-fiction dealing with recognition that there are two worlds and the consequent American institutions and personalities, laws, treaties, abandoning of global product servicing on a single standard. speeches and public position papers on international issues in Manpower and resources freed by this move should flow into which the United States is involved; everything in short that the creation of a capability for specialized and responsive can assist the selective information purveying function of our servicing of field requirements in developed and developing key country programs. A system of this kind is capable of countries. I believe that there will be sufficient internal nearly indefinite expansion and ideally it would be equipped consistency and similarity within these two groupings to make with facsimile printers at the major posts, serviced from a such a division profitable for the Agency. central location that would make available requested informa-

PORIIION SHOLVIOR JOURNAL, March, 1888 31 tion and source data in a few minutes at the flick of a finger same m pressing for symbolic gestures and symbols of our anywhere in the world. sympathy for other countries—for example stamp issues, As the news of our new capability spreads, the opinion scholarships, endowed chairs—or in suggesting impressive leaders we are trying to influence would take increasing psychological initiatives in our relations with foreign govern- advantage of it and areas of misinformation and distortion ments in recognition of ethnic and cultural links. about US intentions and activities on the international scene These techniques point the way to improved servicing of would be significantly reduced. The system, activated by USIS our sophisticated clientele. An entirely different problem has posts, would provide a real service not otherwise available— arisen in the developing countries that in a less polite day and this is the traditional key to our popularity—for commen- were called underdeveloped. And we are not facing up to that tators, journalists, educators, parliamentarians and other one either. Because the needs of these countries in the members of priority target groups we are trying to reach in information and cultural fields show great similarity, the the various countries. Agency would find it fruitful as well to create a task force or In the past, information seekers have been restricted to some internal entity that would occupy itself with defining asking relatively simple questions. This has been due to the tasks and developing tools for our work in the places that seek cumbersome traditional storage and retrieval process, shelves to catch up with this century. of books and batteries of file cabinets for the former, and a Under this heading I would put citizenship education time-consuming and consequently costly manual search for programs, the whole spectrum of civics, assistance to the their retrieval. Recently-developed automated information development of representative institutions, in short the activi- processing systems used in government and industry, though ties that are now often called "nation-building." Local tradi- not yet by USIA, make it possible to store books and tions that focus allegiance on units larger than the extended documents on microfilm joined to a magnetic margin which family will have to be strengthened or created and carefully describes the content of the page in dozens of cross-indexed, nurtured in some instances. Our standard media servicing, our machine-readable electronic impulses. In this format, collec- traditional information and cultural programs are of limited tions of information which ordinarily would occupy an entire utility in these countries even if we fill mountains of newsprint floor can be stored in a single file cabinet. The compact units and years of airtime. Criteria of effectiveness are found that retrieve the microfilmed information—I have seen one in elsewhere here, for example in the prevention and cure of operation—can scan through more than a hundred pages a insurgencies, the development of problem-solving techniques second. This means in a minute it can go through an average that eschew violence, and the identification and care of future year of the Wireless File or the equivalent of 13 books of leaders. more than 500 pages each. It finds the item you are looking Our effectiveness is often impaired by cultural barriers that for and reproduces it on the spot. If connected with a we ignore in applying our own concepts and yardsticks to facsimile teleprinter, the requested pages or series of items foreign environments. Through the application of scholarship, appear a few microseconds later hundreds or thousands of the training of specialists, the long-term development of our miles away from the central search unit. key local employees through extended tours of training in the Up-to-date retrieval is one phase of the communications US, we must build greater empathy with the societies we seek revolution that USIA ought to join. Not reluctantly, not to influence. We will have to know more about the structure limping along behind as a stolid band of aging bureaucrats, of their languages, the differential vocabulary used by various but in the front rank if we are to represent America, the target groups, local values and traditions. leader of that revolution, the way it deserves to be rep- Much of the facilities, backstopping, and most importantly, resented. To keep up with new products and processes in the sympathetic understanding of the unconventional needs of our field of communications, to commission and monitor specific information posts in developing countries will have to come research in pursuit of Agency goals, a Research and Develop- from the Agency. We are deficient in this respect. Much ment section ought to be constituted to work closely with the valuable experience has been lost because we have not Policy Staff and the Area Directors in responding to require- concentrated on developing a headquarters mechanism for ments and matching new needs with the new tools obtained supplying talent and resources pertinent to the problems of from industry, the academic community or other government developing countries. We can learn a lot here from private research. Before reaching for tomorrow though, it behooves foundations and voluntary agencies who carry on projects us to make full use of today's achievements in our product that advance common objectives—at times unbeknownst to servicing—video tapes, stereo tapes, the communications USIS posts. An example is the citizenship projects of the Asia satellites for program transmissions, large image projection Foundation that help build or reconstruct national traditions and all the sophisticated paraphernalia now available to make and a spirit of regional cooperation. And the resident US an impression on audiences who are becoming increasingly community, an immense potential asset, should not be ne- jaded. glected in the shaping of our country programs. It frequently The Agency should offer specialized training for certain is ignored for all practical sources and this lode of ingenuity USIS local employees in the highly industrialized countries and continuity goes practically untapped. who provide program continuity and are called upon to Friendly governments with limited but carefully-planned answer technical questions. I have in mind media people such resources are often ahead of us in selected areas. Australia as the editors of post publications in the labor, science and each year picks a few dozen promising young men from cultural fields, radio and film producers, where applicable, or Colombo Plan countries and gives them a full four-year the top exchange program employees. At the same time posts college education rather than waiting till they become leaders should be able to obtain and dispense to selected audiences, and then inviting them for a quickie look at the country. On through these specialized locals, detailed or technical informa- their return they are committed to work for ten years in tion obtained from US government agencies active in such government jobs using their new-won skills. The program has fields as education, labor, transportation, urban planning, or won Australia many long-term friends in Southeast Asia, scientific research to mention but a few. The post's represen- while our own massive, short-term approach to training in tative in Washington referred to earlier would be the leg man developing countries is often wasteful. for this kind of service. These random examples could be added to from the Finally, our country PAOs should have a clear mandate to experience of USIS officers in the field but they can serve as a urge other members of the country team to take psychologi- starter in getting a dialogue going on the need for a searching cal objectives into consideration in the formulation of their appraisal of our information service techniques in the space own country plans. And back home the Agency might do the age. • 32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968

New Delhi. The Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra under taped broadcasts and telecast by All India Radio. At right, the baton of India-born Zubin Mehta gave two concerts in Ambassador and Mrs. Chester Bowles chat with Prime November, as part of the world tour sponsored by the State Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi during the intermission at the Department. The concerts were attended by audiences of opening concert. 2,400 and an estimated 150,000 persons heard the live and

Colombo. Ambassador Andrew V. Corry talks with Ven. Induruwe Pannatissa Thero, Director, Buddhist University Serwce s College, and Mr. A. R. N. Perera, Presi- dent of The Ceylon-American Society at a recent meeting of the Society. Ambas- Glows° sador Corry addressed the Society on "The Prospect Before Us."

Washington. The annual Christmas dance for Foreign Service Nadler, Annapolis Midshipman. The two attended kinder- juniors sponsored by the American Association of Foreign garden together in Taipei but had not met since. At right, Women found Steve Parker being greeted by AAFSW Presi- `Belle of the Ball' Kathleen Carter receives her bouquet of dent, Mrs. G. Lewis Jones. To her right is Ambassador Jones, roses from Secretary Dean Rusk, who had drawn her name. at left Ambassador and Mrs. John S. Steeves. Center photo- On the left, Mrs. Alexander Schnee, AAFSW Teen-Age Ac- graphs shows the reunion of Suzanne Kerchen with Hunter tivities Chairman, and, far right, her husband.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 WASHINGT10N LETTER by LOREN CARROLL

The drowned and desolate world "Restricted Titles" tion (God knows what will happen to Lies dumb and white in a trance of In days gone by public libraries it in the years to come) is "someone snow. used to maintain a section privily who sings popular sentimental songs hold with false pathos." ELIZABETH CHASE, "SHOW" (1866) dubbed "the closed shelves" to books that were withheld from chil- In 1550 when the word scan (from The wife a a northern European dren and handed out to adults only Latin scandere) came into the English ambassador stood at a window in her after they had "signed the book." language one of its principle meanings drawing room gazing pensively at a (Apparently signing the book made was "to discuss minutely," "to scrutin- snow-covered street. "VVhy snow in these miscreants realize what they ize closely." It preserved this sense Washington turns people into mani- were doing.) The "closed shelves" until recently. Indeed the Oxford dic- flip-flop acs. They behave as if they never saw harbored an odd bag coMaining such tionary gives no hint of the the stuff before. In Stockholrn or Mos- items as Valle-Inclan's "Las Cuatro that has taken place in recent years. cow or Berlin or Montreal they Sonatas," the works of Aretino, the Most people now use it exclusively to ply shovel it up and life preceeds as Decameron," and Edith Wharton's mean "glance at" or "consider hasti- usual. But here there are traffic jams. "Summer." ly." Webster's New International dubs Buses run late. People run their cars Which books in our day are kept this "colloquial" as it maintains the into drifts and they shovel themselves from minors? A casual survey reveals original meaning. Webster's New out. But they are too lazy to use the the following on the list of "restricted World authorizes you to use it any way you shovels on sidewalks. So the snow titles." want—the long slow look or melts and freezes and footing is some- Defoe—The Fortunes and Misfor- the quick glance. times treacherous—until comes a pro- tunes of Moll Flanders onged thaw." Zola—Nana Villainous Trees How true! She would have usecl • North Frederick Street Science is providing us with one "lunatics" instead of "maniacs" if she Joyce—Ulysses crashing disillusionment after another. could have witnessed some of the CaMwell—Caravan; God's Little Fritz W. Went, a botanist at the snow tizzy in American homes after a Acre versity of Nevada, says that, in air snowfall. It is customary for members Mailer—The Naked and the Dead pollution, trees are the main villains. of the family to turn on all rados, Lawrence—Lady Chatterley's Lover The fragrant pine and the pungent including transistors, and these emit McCarthy—The Group sage and other related trees emit 1,- wildly contradictory news: All gov- Baldwin—Another Country 000 per cent more pollutants into the ernment offices will be shut. They will Genet—Our Lady of the Flowers air than all of man's fires, factories be shut to noon They won't be shut at Wilson—Memoirs of Hecate County and motor cars. These trees, said the all. All schools in such and such Jones—From Here to Eternity botanist, send into the air substances trict or county will not open. They Burroughs—Naked Lunch known as terpenes and esters, stimulat- will open two hours late. No, the Selby—Last Exit to Brooldyn ing a chemical reaction similar to buses will start running two hours Fielding—orn Jones that caused by manmade pollutants. late. Everyone to his own taste said most a the titles seem oM1110n Think! It was only yesterday that the cow as she kissed the grinding place and the restrictions futile. But we wandered through a forest, all stone. Everyone decides for himself. let us not be censorious. Librarians innocent and carefree, feeling restored Those students who stay home for the must deal with parents and there are as we breathed the fragrant pine air day seem to get away with it easily. said to be still on the planet parents and murmured smugly, "Marvelous to The snow has provided youth with who control what their children read get away from the gasoline fumes." an edifying sport. Little groups gather (mirabile dictu!). How they do so, is, in the shadows of bushes and trees to however, a mystery since all "restrict- Another Distinguished Thinker ed titles" including gamier items that hurl snowballs at passing cars. On The Washington Letter in the eb don't even get into libraries, are easily several occasions the youths were ap- ruary issue related a commendable act obtainable at the corner drugstore. plauded by adults. Such fun! The pos- of a distinguished thinker in the State sibility of a distracted driver hitting a Department's mail room. It now de- pedestrian or another car seemed to Topsy-Turvy Words velops that the Foreign Service Asso- occur to n..ne. "Oh look! He almost ciation has also got a distinguished We expect words to glide away got the windshield of that gray car!" thinker who knew what to do when a from their original meanings as the On one occasion a snowball smashed letter from a member turned up With years go by, but it is astonishing to see the side window a a car driven by a this address: Ione woman. A triumphant youth ex- them do a complete flip-flop. Here are Mrs. Mary McCarthy plained matters to the audience. "I two capricious performers: The Group from only aim at cars driven by omen. When the word croon entered the American Foreign Service Associa- They're too scared to get out." Partic- English language (the earliest example tion ipants and audience melted into the of it given by the Oxford Dictionary is 815-17th St. N.W. darkness and all this in a suburb, a 1460) it meant "to bellow, to boom." Washington D. C. moo6 citadel for the upper bourgeoisie, the It has now collapsed into this: "To u.s.A. kind described in newspapers, as "all hum or sing in a low voice." owners a so000 homes and above." And a crooner in the current defini- A non-distinguished thinker would

34 FOREIGN SERVICE JouRxe.t., March, 1968

1 have ascertained Mary McCarthy's The excuse for this comment is the inclined to think he had pinked one of address and forwarded the letter to publication of a beautiful new hand- the marauders but the police could her. But our distinguished thinker book of the Byzantine Collection. It find no evidence of this. said, "This is probably an order for consists of 120 pages of text and 88 It seems more than likely, however, `The Group.' " She slit open the enve- pages of illustrations, in addition to a that some other doctor was called lope and she was right. useful glossary and maps showing the upon to treat two cases of nervous growth and contraction of the Byzant- breakdown. Having a doctor chase Sound Not the Meaning ine Empire between 565 A.D. and you with two guns blasting away is A ramble in Oak Hill Cemetery by 1453 A.D. something not even the most rugged nervous system could endure. the STAR'S "Rambler," John McKel- Award way, produced an interesting piece on Wayward Thoughts of Mighty the grave of John Howard Payne, the Washington doctors have been in Thinkers author of "Home Sweet Home." recent months increasingly the victims 1. "Gentlemen never wear white This reminds us that Payne wrote of stick up men. The method is always shirts before 6 p.m." one of the most beautiful lines in the the same: two thugs appear at an 2. "Gentlemen never wear colored English language. It will never get into hour when the doctor is alone. One shirts in an office." a Peaks on Parnassus because it has says he needs medical attention and while the doctor is examining him, the 3. "Gentlemen never wear brown." none of the quintessence of beauty, Number three is imputed to Lord the compression of drama to be found other erupts into the room with a gun. So it happened to Dr. Egbert V. Curzon. The other two remain stub- in quoted lines from Plato, Tacitus, bornly unidentifiable. Shakespeare, Petrarch, Schiller, Vil- Wiltshire, 52-year-old physician. lon, etc. No, Payne's beautiful line lies When one of the thugs interrupted the Peaks on Parnassus examination brandishing a gun, Dr. merely in the sumptuous combination What is the most beautiful line in of sounds—something you could read Wiltshire, undaunted, opened a draw- er, pulled out a .32 and a .38 and all world literature? Here is another to a foreigner who didn't understand candidate: English as an example of what tonal blasted away from both hips. The "sick man" recovered at once, leaped This world nys but a thurghfare ful of beauty the language is capable of. to his feet and made for the door, wo, Here is the line: followed by his armed confederate. And wee been pilgrimes, passinge to "An exile from home, splendor Dr. Wiltshire followed still blazing and fro. dazzles me in vain." away with both his gats. He was CHAUCER: The Knightes Tale A companion piece—all lovely froth, and don't bother about the Life and Love in the Foreign Service S. I. Nadler sense, from Julia Ward Howe: "In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea." And this from Elizabeth Barrett Browning: "And bless me deeper in your soul because your voice has fal- tered." But enough! You can't compose a whole anthology for people who can't read English. We Are Real Sorry The word "very" is dying from the English language—at least as Ameri- cans speak it. Ten years ago it was a flourishing, indispensable adverb. To- day it is beginning to acquire an ar- chaic tinge. Its place, alas, has been taken by "real," e.g., "Dear Mr. Jenk- ins, we are real pleased to hear that you fell flat on your face at the Mc- Killicuddys' the other evening." Washington Treasure It would be an exaggeration to say that the Byzantine Collection of Dum- barton Oaks is neglected but still a visitor is sometimes driven to wonder that this collection, one of the most resplendent Byzantine exhibits in the world, does not draw bigger crowds. The more so since the gardens of Dumbarton Oaks make the whole es- tablishment one of the outstanding museums of the world. And in Wash- "But, Olga, how can I be sure you love me, that it's not a blackmail plot of some ington it is so easily accessible! sort?" FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 35 THE BOOKSHELF ances, they should recognize that Con- gress itself has permitted the balance to shift to the President. Notwith- standing its statements to the con- trary, Congress, through its actions, has repeatedly affirmed the Com- mander-in-Chief's authority to deploy troops to South Vietnam." The arguments marshaled by the authors in support of the legality of US involvement in Vietnam are con- vincing. Whether involvement can also be justified morally and as being in our national interest is touched on Challenge of Foreign Aid perhaps in the uncertainties of inter- only in passing, these issues being national, national and individual be- OR anyone who has more than outside the scope of this study. havior, and in the ultimate reliance on F passing interest in the subject of W. J. GALLMAN foreign aid, Jacob Kaplan's book is human judgment where even modest prescriptions for the future most often LAW AND VIETNAM, by Roger H. Hull eminently readable, informative and and John C. Novogrod. Oceana Publica- balanced. It is a tour de force of founder. Kaplan's diagnosis as well as tions, Inc. foreign aid doctrine and rationale. his prognosis should be of substantial Rather than being primarily critical or interest to many people in government The German Question defensive, as writers on this subject and to the public. If his prescription is NDERSTANDABLY there has been a often tend to be, Kaplan reconstructs used and is successful, foreign aid good deal of controversy in the the evolution of US foreign aid policy, might at last find that constituency it UFederal Republic about Professor and in tracing its tortuous convolu- has always needed. Karl Jaspers' book on "The Future of tions, examines its basic premises with —EDWARD M. ZIMMERMANN Germany." Some, though by no admirable objectivity and incisiveness. means all, of that controversy is at- THE CHALLENGE OF FOREIGN AID, by The author feels that foreign aid Jacob J. Kaplan. Praeger, $8.50. tributable to Jaspers' stand on reunifi- can serve US interests in a worthy and cation which he suggests should be vital way only if its values, limits and Something Different on Vietnam dismissed as the most important aim purposes are better clarified. In seek- OGER Hutt, and John Novogrod of German policy. This note is, of ing that clarification, Kaplan endeav- R of New Haven have produced a course, diametrically opposed to the ors to debunk a number of the basic compact, compelling study of the le- objective to which W. W. Schuetz is tenets upon which the US aid program gal aspects of involvement in the Viet- dedicated not only as the author of is currently rationalized, such as the nam struggle. These 200 pages are "Rethinking German Policy" but also "economic development syndrome" essential reading for students of inter- as the Director of the Foundation for and geographic concentration. He national law. Others, hawks and doves an Indivisible Germany. posits a number of provocative sug- alike, might find them a welcome Mr. Jaspers ranges far and wide. gestions to reappraise the role of Con- diversion from the mass of ordinary, He is much concerned with the draft gress, the aid agency and the multi- daily comment on Vietnam. "emergency legislation." This preoccu- lateral institutions. Kaplan emphasizes "The crucial issue," as the authors pation can be understood fully only by the need for those responsible for state in the Introduction, "is the ques- those Americans who are aware of the administering the program to consider tion of lawfulness of assistance to the traumatic experience which the toying more fully the noneconomic factors contending factions in South Viet- with constitutional government in the which bear heavily and justifiably on nam." The answers vary, "depending Weimar Republic just before Hitler's the aims and accomplishments of for- on whether the struggle is viewed as a accession to power still is for the eign aid. The consideration of aid by civil war or a war of aggression." politically conscious and articulate both the executive and legislative In search of an answer to this basic survivors of that era. Needless to say, branches as an integral part of foreign issue, the authors have sifted masses Jaspers views "emergency legislation" policy, Kaplan claims, would provide of documents. Every page of this little as a menace to what he considers to it with a focus and a force appropriate book has its footnotes. A bibliography be a precariously based democracy. In to its potentiality for promoting US of twelve pages is appended. Their part, his criticism is unjust. He rests objectives and those of the other de- conclusion is that, this being a war of his case heavily on the assertion that a veloped and the developing countries aggression against a sovereign state, war in Europe will be nuclear from as well. the involvement of the United States the start and quickly concluded. The book's thesis assumes the and its allies is legally sound. Therefore, such legislation is unneces- preeminence of nationalism over in- In the process of reaching this con- sary. This is an unsound assumption. ternationalism, at least for the next clusion, the complex Geneva Accords In a somewhat petulant discussion of decade. Consequently, while interna- of 1954 are judiciously weighed. The the shortcomings of German dem- tional cooperation is to become more applicability of the U.N. Charter and ocracy, Jaspers contradicts himself. common in administering bilateral of SEATO to the issue is examined in He seems to want a highly pluralistic aid, pure multilateralism will continue detail and, beyond law and pacts, society with maximum leeway for the to have only secondary importance in "community expectations" as well. individual but disparages the "sense- the service of what are essentially The penultimate chapter deals with less splinters" of France's Fourth Re- national goals. the Constitutional powers of the Pres- public. He is intensely critical of exist- It is in the attempt to assess what is ident and Congress to make war. The ing political parties in the Federal possible from'foreign aid and to relate final •paragraph reads: "While critics Republic but offers no realistic alter- those possibilities more intimately to may argue that the recent enhance- native, and complains of parliament's broad US interests that the book's ment of Presidential power is destruc- lack of power. There are also philoso- largest contribution is found. It is tive of the system of checks and bal- phical insights on the reality of the 36 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 fact of force in international affairs The Path To Dictatorship Columbia Professor Fritz Stern which in itself will invite persons interested and the shortsightedness of contem- ow could Nazism triumph in a in modern European history to read porary French policy. On the other civilized country? "The Path to these stimulating essays: "Nazism had hand, Jaspers sees the war in Vietnam HDictatorship," essays by ten promi- as "atrocious" and insists the Warren nent German scholars, attempts to been difficult to understand from the very beginning. If it had been easier to Commission did not establish the truth shed light on this question and on the perceive, it would never have succeed- about Dallas. None of this in his eyes causes for the failure of the Weimar ed." This volume materially aids that detracts from his admiration for Republic. These essays were originally American democracy and his belief broadcast over the Norddeutsche perception. —WILLIAM L. Swmio that American "hegemony" is Eu- Rundfunk and published in 1962 as rope's only hope for security. Der Weg in die Diktatur. The cliche is to say that Jaspers has The respected University of Tue- THE PATH TO DICTATORSHIP, 1918-1933, written a stimulating book. This is bingen political scientist, Theodor Ten Essays. Praeger, $5.50. true enough but there is something Eschenburg, examines the general disturbing about a kind of super- breakdown of democratic govern- Comprehensive Survey of Egypt idealism which demands a world in ments in Europe between the two mins is the second edition of a which everything has to be perfect world wars. Ernst Fraenkel and Kurt I comprehensive, political and so- before there is any hope. Sontheimer of the Free University of cial survey of Egypt since Napoleon's Mr. Schuetz on the other hand is Berlin, describe the anti-democratic invasion in 1798, with particular em- single minded. His purpose is reunifi- legacy of imperial Germany, including phasis on the events of the last thirty cation through a process of East-West latent racism and nationalism. Other years. It concludes with a chapter on reconciliation at the end of which chapters deal with the political parties the June war. German unity is "transformed into a and their underestimation of the The book gives a very useful and political and national interest of the threat Hitler posed; the Nazi mecha- thorough review of events leading up USSR." Schuetz challenges, quite per- nism of seizing power; and the begin- to and following the revolution of suasively, the so-called "realistic" nings of internal resistance to Nazism. 1952. It benefits from the personal school which would accept the divi- A concluding chapter by University of experiences of the author, who was sion as an irreversible fact. He bases Darmstadt Professor Eugen Kogon the manager of the British-backed his challenge on the claim that the assesses the prospects of the Bonn Arab News Agency in Cairo during West does not have it in its power to Republic and asks what it can learn the 1950's. Little is generally sympa- unilaterally decide for or against uni- from the Weimar Republic to prevent thetic to Nasser and the goals of the ty. If the West gives up its advocacy the possibility of dictatorship again revolution and explains some of the of unification the cause will become rising in Germany. Appendices con- problems which have bedeviled our that of the other side. Mr. Schuetz tain a chronology of the Weimar Re- relations with Egypt as seen from a carries his scenario through to a Euro- public, thumbnail sketches of the viewpoint quite different from that pean security system to accompany Weimar political parties, unemploy- encountered in most press accounts. unification. In such a Europe—but ment figures during the period, and a Although some of the details are ar- only after reunification—he sees tabulation of national election results, guable, the book is accurate and re- United States and Soviet forces with- from 1928 until 1933, when Hitler's sponsible and is well worth the buying drawing to their respective home National Socialist party polled more and the reading. countries with a system of US logistics than 43 per cent of the vote. —RICHARD B. PARKER bases, reception airfields and naval The complexity of the problem ex- facilities on the continent or its fringes plored—Nazism and its rise to power— MODERN EGYPT, by Tom Little. Praeger, providing the balance and offsetting is well described in the introduction by $7.50. the closer proximity of the Soviet armies to the heart of Europe. This is at least a thought although it does not address the difficulties connected with any attempt to define such arrange- ments in a meaningful and mutually acceptable way. There is also some fuzzy stuff on the role of ICBMs in a European security system and a some- what airy and unrealistic notion that the Soviet MRBMs threatening Eu- rope would have to be dismantled. All in all, however, Schuetz has a fairly clear approach which, whether one shares it or not, is at least based on recognition of the fact that the problem will not just fade away if everybody waits long enough. —WOLF LEHMANN

THE FUTURE OF GERMANY, by Karl Jaspers. The University of Chicago Press, $4.95. RETHINKING GERMAN POLICY, by Wilhelm Wolfgang Schuetz. Praeger, $5.50. Epreuve d'Artiste by Marie Skora FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 37 Peru Today Gabon possesses a clearly dominant peace (and almost succeeded), even ethnic group (the Fang—from whose when Japan's only alternative (and REDERICK PIKE, who already has a they knew it) was annihilation. F distinguished list of scholarly numbers came recently deceased Pres- books to his credit has contributed the ident M'ba). Although the Fangs con- —S. I. NADLER latest in the series of Praeger Histories sider themselves to be superior to other groups and even sense the need THE FALL OF JAPAN, by William Craig. of Latin America. The book is in the Dial Press, $6.50. Pike style: careful, copiously foot- for nation-building, their lot is not an noted, educational. It is not, alas, easy one. The author has delved deeply into sparkling but perhaps that is hoping the French pattern of colonial admin- for too much. However, for the Peru istration and provides the reader with Vargas: Brazilian Roosevelt? desk officer or American official in Peru, it is a treasure house of in- a well documented picture of the 74 OHN W. F. DULLES, son of our late years of rule by Paris. Credit is due formation, particularly enlightening J Secretary of State, and now pro- on the stresses and strains in Peruvian Professor Weinstein for what surely fessor of Latin American Studies at history which still inhibit the develop- must be one of the finest (over 20 the University of Texas, learned much ment of a modern, viable, unified pages, with many French and British about Brazil during the somewhat Peru. references) bibliographies on nation- frustrating years he spent there rep- I found it most interesting for the building and nationalism, group analy- resenting the Hanna Mining interests. light it shed on the racial problem in sis and social change, witchcraft and Despite the fact that Getulio D. Var- Peru. The theories of the cult of religion, the Gabonese, the Fang and gas, the man he has chosen to study in other Gabonese tribes, and Africa in Spanishness, of the Indian, of the depth, had left the scene, the time was general. mixed freed (hispanidad, indigenismo still part of the Vargas Era. In fact, and mestizaje) are fully explained as —JAMES 0. MAYS the heritage of nationalism that Var- well as the intellectual and political GABON: NATION-BUILDING ON THE OGOOTJE, gas left made it impossible for the strife these theories engendered. The by Brian Weinstein. M.I.T. Press, $12.50. Hanna company to carry out its orig- background of the current Belaunde inal project for developing part of regime, the problems that beset it and Look Back In Anguish Brazil's fabulous iron deposits. why, the rise and fall of APRA and o state the case immediately, In this "political biography" Dulles all the long route of Peruvian political T "The Fall of Japan," by William gives a rounded picture of the man, development from the days of San Craig, is highly recommended. To the times, and Brazil's relations with Martin and Bolivar are carefully those who fought or otherwise lived the rest of the world between 1930 recounted. The individual leaders through the last, chilling days of and 1954. The author's valuable con- along the way: the caudillos, the Posi- World War II in the Pacific. And for tribution is the completeness of the tivists, the Civilists; Fascists and dem- those, younger, who have acquired book, helped considerably by exten- ocrats; heroes and braggarts all par- their knowledge of the period from sive personal interviews with close ade before us giving the personalism television films and serials, in which friends of Vargas, political opponents essential to an understanding of a the good guys are always easy to tell and opinion-forming Brazilians; as country's history—particularly a Latin from the bad ones (and almost always well as by the use of official US American country. win) and where prisoner-of-war Government documents only recently Recommended for the student and camps are more fun than a barrel of made available, and German Foreign the practising diplomat. junkies. Office documents which clarify to a —JOHN M. CATES While it is history being recounted, degree the president's equivocal posi- tion during World War II and before THE MODERN HISTORY OF PERU, by Fred- such is the manner of telling that erick B. Pike. Praeger, $7.50. suspense does not slacken. The reader Brazil joined the Allies. Much has is spared none of the horror, whether been written in Portuguese and Eng- it be the fire-bomb raids on Tokyo or lish about this enigmatic dictator- Nation-building in Gabon the brutal beheading of American pi- democrat, father-image to his people, HE M . I.T. Press has been a lots, prisoners of war, after the sur- who—when all finally went wrong— Tsource of excellent, provocative render. Nothing, however, is included took the violent non-Brazilian route of studies in African development in the solely for shock value. A pattern ulti- suicide that enshrined him among his last few years. Here is another such mately takes shapes, and all the pieces country's heroic figures. More than study, this time devoted to the nation- are necessary to make it visible. any other man Vargas was responsible building theme in a former French Using the technique popularized by for unleashing forces which began the territory, Gabon. Cornelius Ryan (in "The Longest modernization process in the southern hemisphere's largest nation. One of Here are reviewed the basic ingre- Day" and "The Last Battle") Craig dients for nation-building and readers piles on the detail, but does not over- the last thoughts he left behind for his followers to ponder partly unlocks the will see in them similarities to the do it. Some will disagree with the problems that confront leaders of emphasis accorded one phase in com- mystery of his thought-process: "To newly formed nations not only in oth- parison with that given another, but the fury of my enemies I leave the er parts of Africa, but also in when is this not so with a book of this legacy of my death. I have the sorrow of not having done all I wanted for Southeast Asia. Differences in reli- sort? One of the most sobering the humble...." gion, tribal rivalries, undeveloped thoughts which comes through con- resources, and a heavy reliance on aid cerns the absence, even in a tightly- The author's style is fluent—even from external sources—these and oth- controlled country, of any unanimity the patently exhaustive research does em comprise the familiar fabric that of purpose or plan in an undertaking not interfere with the strong story independence has brought to so many so vast and complex as modern war- thread and makes for easy reading for small states since 1960. fare. There were forces in Japan historian and layman alike. The selec- Professor Weinstein deals with his which had not wanted the country to tion of illustrative photographs is ex- subject as both a sociologist and a go to war. And there were forces at cellent in giving visual reality to those political scientist. He recognizes that the end which tried to sabotage the not yet familiar with the diminutive,

38 FOREIGN, SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 but tough gaucho from Rio Grande ple who direct and influence American do Sul. government at all levels." There are Ex-Ambassador and As in Dulles' "Yesterday in Mex- 12,500 entries, ranging from the Pres- Mrs. Charles Darlington ico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, ident down to those active at local tell the extraordinary 1919-1936," the author does little edi- levels. Whereas information on the torializing, is satisfied to give facts, top national leaders can be obtained story of their 3-year construct events out of available evi- in other books, the particular value of mission in this volume lies in its coverage of dence and opinions of the time, and Gabon follow their sequence, wisely leaving it active political levels in State Capitals, to the reader to draw his own conclu- in cities, etc. sions for past and present. The thesis It is convenient to find a special that men shape history more than section bringing together, by states, events is exemplified by these impor- all Senators and Representatives and tant decades in the life of the "sleep- another section listing the Governors ing giant," Brazil. "Vargas of Brazil" of the 50 States. belongs in the library of every serious The book made its first appearance student of Latin America. at the end of 1967. Its success is —PHILIP RAINE assured, for it will be invaluable to anyone who deals with the American VARGAS OF BRAZIL, A POLITICAL BIOGRA- political scene. PHY, by John W. F. Dulles. University of Texas Press. $8.50. —THOMAS CULPEPPER

Perspective on Vietnam WHO'S WHO IN AMERICAN POLMCS, com- piled by Paul A. Theis and Edmund L. IETNAM and the Sino-Soviet dis- Henshaw, Jr. Bowker, $25. pute was the subject of a mid- V1966 symposium at the Institute for The German Problem the Study of the USSR at Munich in ANY German writers are seek- which specialists from six countries ing to answer the question, joined. They sought a larger perspec- M"How could a civilized people let a tive of the Vietnam war by examining barbaric madman lead them to horror AFRICAN it within the framework of Sino-Soviet and destruction?" Professor Gerhard conflicts and by considering its effects Ritter looks at German history to see on Communist policy, global strate- BETRAYAL if it reveals that Hitler was a logical by gies, and the world balance of power. development of that history. He con- The participants' informed views on cludes that such is not the case and Charles F. and Alice B. the tactics of the people's war, further that Germans have a history Darlington economic and social conditions in the to be proud of, despite many errors. "To any one interested in a skill- two Vietnams, the impact of the Viet- He believes that this lesson must be ful narration of the problems fac- nam war on relations between USSR taught to his compatriots, especially ing our country in dealing with and North Vietnam, on relations be- to young German intellectuals, many the peculiar problems of politics, tween Peking and Hanoi, and on of whom have turned against all his- trade and economy, education, Japan, and the applicability of a con- tory, distrusting the many revisions AID and the Peace Corps, and tainment policy to Asia are set forth that it has gone through in history the tribes and personalities of black Africa, the present volume in this collection of scholarly essays. books. While the march of events since June is recommended." — ROBERT D. One may not agree with the author MURPHY, former Under Secretary 1966 may have done little to confute about some of his rationalizations. of State, author of Diplomat Among the judgments expressed, it has made His account of the origins of World Warriors. some statistics out-of-date. War I, for example, seeks to relieve "Highly readable....Their open In his summary of conclusions, Pro- Germany of all guilt, except for the and frank story is a narrative of fessor Robert Rupen states that the sin of miscalculation. Nevertheless, their own adventures ... and a conflict between the USSR and China his case is well documented and worth tactfully phrased but firm and and those between the US and China reading. His book is particularly use- unmistakable condemnation of and between the US and the USSR ful for someone interested in earlier President de Gaulle of France for will likely continue regardless of the meddling in Gabon's govern- German history, from the early eight- ment." —Publishers' Weekly outcome of the Vietnam war. "The eenth century through World War I. war in Vietnam will remain a case of Thankfully, he does not apologize for "The second half of the book, a limited conflict with limited aims Hitler, but admits that no explanation Mrs. Darlington's story, will in- terest women readers because of and limited results, and the larger "rids our nation of the charge that at struggle will continue." the appealing picture she gives least for a time it gave its loyalty of the responsibilities of a diplo- ROBERT W. RINDEN and frenetic applause to a monster of mat's wife with the humorous a man." He concludes that we must situations that can and do de- VIETNAM AND THE SING-SOVIET DISPUTE, realize that "always and everywhere velop.... Highly recommended." edited by Robert A. Rupen and Robert —Library Journal Farrell. Praeger, $5.00. men of character and humane intel- ligence are rare exceptions." Illustrated with photographs. Who's Who in US Politics —ALBERT W. STOFFEL Indexed. $6.95 at all bookstores. ITH incontestable accuracy, this book is described as "an author- THE GERMAN PROBLEM: Basic Questions W of German Political Life, Past and Pres- DAVID McKAY itative biographical directory" bring- ent, by Gerhard Ritter. Ohio State Uni- COMPANY, INC. ing together "information on the peo- versity Press, $6.00. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 THE CALCULUS OF FINANCIAL PROBABILITIES IN THE CONDUCT OF U.S. DIPLOMACY

N the past two decades it has been unfashionable to associate matters of security and diplomacy with consid- erations of finance. For a time, this was not an unrea- JOSEPH W. BARR Isonable attitude. We were poorly prepared to engage in World War I or II, and the Korean hostilities caught this nation in an interlude of savage retrenchment in our military that this system of priorities may not be possible in the future posture. As thoughtful men looked back at this history, and as and that increasing attention must be given to "the calculus of we attempted to put together a viable military alliance in financial probabilities" in the conduct of US diplomacy. NATO, the conviction arose that this nation and its allies Where is the trouble? The trouble lies in that bete noire of must first determine their diplomatic and military requirements the State Department, the US balance of payments. The and then fit the financial equations to these requirements. deficits we have run in our international accounts almost Any consideration of costs in arriving at sensible military continuously since 1951 have come close to placing us in a and diplomatic arrangements all too frequently raised the situation where other nations can veto or negate our diploma- anguished cry in this nation, "We can't afford it." I might add tic and military objectives by refusing to hold our notes. that the clamor was probably greater in the European nations Therefore, you as diplomats have an overriding stake in the whose aversion to taxation is even more pronounced than President's January 1 balance of payments program. If it does ours. Consequently, financial arrangements were largely ig- not work, you had better start reading history to find out how nored in NATO considerations, and I am not aware that they to implement diplomatic policy without money. had any serious consideration in our other treaty arrange- Professor Galbraith once said about the commodity mar- ments. kets, "Not much is understood about these markets, and most US Secretaries of the Treasury, beginning with John Snyder of what is understood is wrong." The same observation could in 1951, have attempted to encourage their colleagues in the be applied with emphasis to the balance of payments statis- finance ministries of NATO to attend the NATO meetings tics. In addition, reasonable men often end up in the position and to take an active part. Their success has been minimal. of the three blind men trying to describe the elephant—the This result has inspired some to suspect that finance ministers statistics can mean different things to different people depend- stay away from NATO meetings in order to be in a position ing on just where you catch hold. At the risk of causing to say, "To Hell with that, Jack," when the foreign minister palpitations and various forms of seizure among the statistical comes home with his share of the bill. community, let me tell you how the balance of payments I am not disparaging recent history, even if sometimes I looks to me. feel that financial considerations have been given too low a I look at the balance of payments as a pool with four large priority—if any priority at all. You diplomats have managed pipes draining out; three large pipes flowing in; and miscel- to avoid a nuclear exchange in the past twenty years, and laneous plumbing inter-connecting the system. In financial there is no way to price that result. What I do mean to say is terms the drain pipes would correspond to our payments; the

40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 fill pipes would correspond to our receipts; and the level of 1961 -2370 the pool at any moment reflects the interaction of the flows in 1962 -2203 and out. 1963 -2671 Let's name and price the pipes for calendar year 1966. For 1964 -2800 that year the flows looked like this (in millions of dollars). 1965 -1335 PAYMENTS 1966 -1357 Travel (net) -1,644 1967 -3500 to -4,000 (est.) Government (net) The deficit figure for this year is not yet firm, but we have Military (net) -2,747 indicated that it will probably be in excess of $3.5 billion. P.L. 480 & related programs -1,401 Over this decade, as you can see, there has been a general Ex-Im -909 trend towards an improvement in our performance. Our Aid & miscellaneous -2,370 exports have held up well, and continued to grow; our imports Government Receipts 1,201 have grown at a reasonable pace, but show a tendency to Total - 6,226 accelerate in periods of intense economic activity such as we Private Capital Outflow have witnessed in calendar years 1965, 1966, and 1967. Our Direct Investment -3,543 government expenditures have been held carefully in check Bank claims (net) 253 and from 1960 up to the outbreak of hostilities in Vietnam Sec. issues & non-bond claims -923 they were actually cut. Bank loans and security issues surged Total - 4,213 in 1963, but were brought under control with imposition of Payments on For. Invest. the Interest Equalization Tax in that year. Direct investment Interest & dividends -2,074 surged mightily in the last quarter of 1964 but was brought Misc. services (net) -291 under restraint with the voluntary program of 1965. The Total - 2,365 deficit in our travel account has shown a steady tendency to TOTAL PAYMENTS - 14,448 increase. RECEIPTS The record of the past decade is rather clear. This nation's Trade Surplus 3,658 attitude over this decade can be characterized as a posture of Income from For. Invest. increasing vigilance in this highly sensitive area. Dividends & interest 6,245 It was the devaluation of the British pound, which, not Royalties & Fees 1,045 unexpectedly, triggered the onslaught against the dollar as the Total 7,290 basis of the international monetary system. This attack took Foreign Invest. In U.S. 2,445 the form of a tremendous demand for gold on the London market. TOTAL RECEIPTS 13,393 There are, of course, worlds of difference between the Errors and Omissions -302 position of sterling and the position of the dollar. The dollar is DEFICIT - 1,357 vastly stronger as the currency of the world's largest and For comparison, let's look at calendar year 1960. In that technologically most advanced economic unit. Nevertheless- year the figures looked as follows. and this is a point which must be emphasized-the experience PAYMENTS of sterling should serve as a salutary warning that a country Travel (net) -1,238 whose currency is widely used for reserve purposes has some Government (net) special aspects of vulnerability, and with that goes some Military (net) -2,741 special responsibility for even more scrupulous financial be- P.L. 480 & related programs -1,278 havior than those countries whose currencies are less widely Ex-Im -405 used internationally. Aid & miscellaneous -1,722 It is because of the special burden placed on the United Government Receipts 669 States that President Johnson on New Year's Day moved Total -5,477 decisively with an Action Program to correct the long series Private Capital Outflow of deficits and to bring our balance of payments as close to Direct Investment -1,674 equilibrium as possible. Bank Claims (net) -1,148 I should emphasize at this point that when you touch an Sec. issues -1,057 item on either side of the balance of payments equation, there Total - 3,879 is a strong tendency for a reaction to occur in some factor on Payments on For. Invest. the opposite side. This is what I term the "calculus of Interest & dividends -1,063 financial probabilities." Ex-Im loans, P.L. 480, and AID out- Misc. services (net) -171 lays are reflected almost completely in our export figures and Total -1,234 the trade surplus. Direct investment generates dividends, bank TOTAL PAYMENTS - 11,828 loans bring back interest, and so forth. RECEIPTS This interaction between factors on opposite sides of the Trade Surplus 4,757 balance of payments equation is especially pronounced in a Income from For. Invest. nation such as the US which accounts for Dividends & interest 3,350 -40-45 percent of the free world output; Royalties & Fees 403 -33 percent of total world production; Total 3,753 -17 percent of world exports; Foreign Invest. in U.S. 339 -14 percent of world imports; TOTAL RECEIPTS 8,849 -20-25 percent of world tourism outlays. Errors and Omissions -922 When we move it is literally like a giant moving in a world DEFICIT - 3,901 of Lilliputians. The record for the past decade is as follows: There was a clear recognition of this fact in the President's 1958 -3365 January 1 balance of payments message. It was a positive 1959 -3870 example of the calculus of financial probabilities. Its impact 1960 -3901 was aimed at the surplus countries of Europe whose surpluses Pomp:a; SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1988 41 have been nearly a mirror image of our deficits. Its thrust was tendency to try to shift the sacrifice to the other fellow. deflected from the developing nations and it was muted or Tourists, bankers, and corporate executives will naturally take mitigated as it applied to those nations such as Canada, the a closer look at government expenditures to see if we are United Kingdom, Japan and Australia where the full thrust of dipping too frequently and deeply at the pool. I warn you that our program could be severely damaging, to them and we in government must be prepared to demonstrate that our ultimately to us. trips to the pool are necessary and the depth of our dip is The issues are posed rather starkly for this country: How truly spartan. can we raise the level of the pool—realizing that restraints on What can you as diplomats do to help? I have indicated the drain pipes have at least some relation to the flow from that your stake is crucial. So let me list the ways in which you the fill pipes. Who gets to dip out of the pool (tourists, banks, can support the President, the nation, and yourselves. multinational corporations, the government) and how many 1. In your relations with Members of Congress, never fail dips do they get? to drive home the fact that a strong and stable domestic US There has been a tendency for Americans to believe that if economy is vital to our international position. For this reason, they get their hands on a dollar they can spend it with the most crucial element in the President's whole balance of impunity at home or overseas. This has been as true of the payments program is the enactment of the tax surcharge. The federal official getting appropriated dollars from the Con- Europeans with whom Under Secretary Katzenbach recently gress, as of corporate executives planning the disposition of consulted made it abundantly clear that they would consider their profits and borrowing, or of American citizens determin- action on the tax legislation an indication that this nation has ing whether they shall go to Yellowstone Park or the Riviera. the will to keep its own internal affairs in order. While true in theory, this thesis has not been true in fact for nearly a decade. Almost ten years ago we began tying our 2. Quit writing the papers I have read over the past decade AID outlays to US goods and services. In 1960 Secretary entitled "The US Has No Balance of Payments Problem." Anderson tried to reduce our military outlays by bringing You might believe this, but our creditors don't, and in this home dependents. While this proved politically impossible, it game it is the banker who counts. In my business career I set in train violent and vigorous efforts to hold down the have often been frustrated by bankers who refused to agree exchange costs of our troop deployments overseas and in- with my own evaluation of my prospects. I have never yet directly gave impetus to our gold budget. Over the past found a way to make a banker take my note if he didn't decade the government has learned the difference between a want it. As a nation, we are in precisely this situation today. dollar spent in the US and a dollar spent abroad, and on the Besides being wrong, papers of this sort only make us look whole our record is impressive. silly and lacking in will. Bankers learned a similar lesson in 1963 when the flood of 3. Don't fall into the trap of belaboring gold as the villain. loans and security issues triggered the Interest Equalization The villain is the continued deficit in our international Tax. accounts. The world is moving gradually to a new system of Business got the word in 1965 with the imposition of the reserve assets—"special drawing rights"—but not to accom- voluntary program on direct investment and bank loans. modate the US balance of payments deficit. Remember this Today it is the turn of the American traveler and the and underline it—there are no gimmicks to resolve this tourist industry to face up to the fact that they must dip dilemma of continued US deficits in its international accounts. carefully from the exchange pool. The tourist industry espe- 4. Do try to implement the President's directive to cut cially faces the responsibility for trying to replace—by pro- down the deployment of civilians overseas. I have a strong mr.ting foreign travel to the US—what they have ladled out. hunch that you diplomats are not the offenders, and this is a The President's program is an austere program and austeri- God-given chance for you to reduce the number of extrane- ty is never fun. In a free society such as ours there is always a ous bureaucrats from other departments who are nosing

Mr. Barr, The Under Secretary of the Treasury, (second from Wilkins and AFSA's President Philip Habib are shown with left) delivered this speech at the AFSA luncheon on January Mr. Barr before the luncheon. 25. Lannon Walker, Chairman of the Board, at left, Fraser

42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 around in your business. Ambassador Tuthill did it in Brazil. ". . . We do believe that there should not be a balance of Good luck to all of you in the rest of the world. payments windfall arising out of troop deployments, the 5. Take to heart the President's directive to hold down effect of which would be to increase the surpluses of those foreign travel and especially travel to international confer- who are in a balance of payments surplus position. So, ences. The US should not be over-represented at these this has given rise to our need for offset arrangements and conferences. I was once the number two officer at a confer- other acts of cooperation in the handling of reserves and of ence where we took a plane load of US officials. The UK was international financial transactions." represented by their resident ambassador. In my eyes he did At the moment we are asking countries where we have better than we. He refused to commit any money. heavy security responsibilities to offset our exchange expendi- The whole travel area is one where you can assist the tures by purchasing US Government obligations. This is only President. As a senior US Senator put it to me: partially satisfactory and will not be effective in the long run. "Ambassadors used to represent this country. Today they You must persuade the nations of NATO and SEATO that we only make appointments for bureaucrats flying in from will tax ourselves to help protect them, but they must work Washington." There is some truth to that, of course. There is with us towards a long-range plan to neutralize effectively the no reason for so many Washington bureaucrats to be con- exchange costs of our deployments. stantly flying around the world. If our Ambassadors cannot We must remember that this program is not just an represent us in most matters of defense, finance, agriculture, American program. It is a program which is designed to fulfill trade, etc., there is something wrong with the system. Our both a national and an international responsibility of the battle cry should be 'Bureaucrats stay at home! Let the highest order, to maintain the strength of the dollar and Ambassadors conduct our foreign affairs.' " thereby the international monetary system on which the entire 6. Another area in which you can help is to make certain free-world economy depends. that our AID outlays and the outlays of the international Without the cooperation of other countries, it is not going banks do not displace US commercial exports. Reasonable to be possible to achieve United States equilibrium in a men dispute our claims that our AID programs cost only manner that is conducive to the long-term health of the whole $700 million in exchange. You can help the President and this free world. nation by making sure that this displacement does not occur. This is well understood by the financial leaders and officials 7. There has been a considerable amount of concern in the of the countries concerned. Yet, as our representatives in international banks about "free international competitive bid- foreign lands, defending as well as defining our role to others ding." We understand and sympathize with their position. of a different heritage, you all have an important task to However, surely they cannot ask us to meet their legitimate perform. development needs by risking a depletion of our monetary Unless you are successful in this objective, all the other reserves. They should understand that while we are in balance factors in the calculus will fall apart. Without our active of payments difficulties we must and will meet our interna- support and participation I see little hope for the preservation tional development responsibilities, but by supplying United of order in this world. With no order in the world, investment States goods and services and not US dollars. I do hope you is too risky—even in Europe. With no order, no sensible can explain to the nations to which you are accredited that American would want to travel. With no order, bank loans too strong an insistence on the transfer of untied dollars could and security issues are unthinkable. With no order, trade is probably endanger the prospects for continued development impossible. assistance in the eyes of the Congress and the country. 8. Above all, take to heart the President's injunction to In the conduct of US diplomacy we must continually compute the calculus of financial probabilities as we deter- "minimize the foreign exchange costs of keeping our troops in Europe." mine and implement our objectives. This computation may not have been necessary in the past; it may well inhibit us in The United States is not in the fortunate position of Darius the future. I have no great faith in the ability of finance and the Persian Empire, of Caesar and the Roman Empire, of ministers to determine foreign policy. But I do say that the Genghis or Kublai Khan, or even the Soviet Bloc of today. calculus of financial probabilities must be computed and We are operating on exterior lines at enormous exchange considered as we conduct our foreign policy. costs as we pursue our foreign policy objectives. All these other great powers, including today's Russia, were or are Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy both were increasingly operating on interior lines involving little or no exchange cost. aware of this problem, but consideration of the financial Darius, Caesar, Genghis Khan, or the Russian Presidium of calculus of diplomacy in their administrations was in the main today could or can deploy their forces without concern as limited to the last round of officials—the highest level. Today to the cost of foreign exchange. We are not afforded that the financial calculus is considered at every level—in the luxury. Our troops cannot live off the land and they are not Interdepartmental Regional Groups, the Senior Interdepart- operating in areas that could even remotely be classed as mental Group, and finally in the National Security Council. satellites of the United States. Our deployment expenditures History may well indicate that this development is unfortu- in foreign exchange are roughly $1.5 billion in Europe, $500 nate—that the old system of ignoring the financial calculus million in Japan, and $1.5 billion in Southeast Asia and was more productive. However, in the world in which we live Korea. Our budgetary costs in these areas are of course I do not see that we have an alternative. very much larger. To ignore the financial implications of diplomacy could While we as a nation are willing to tax ourselves to support ultimately lead to a world in monetary disarray. To ignore a defense establishment that spends more than the total GNP our diplomatic and mutual security objectives could well lead of South America, we must recognize that there are definite to a world in which international trade and finance were im- and distinct limits to our ability to expend foreign exchange. possible. It seems clear that our obligation to ourselves and You, as professional diplomats, must help support the to the world is to steer a course between these unsatisfactory President and this nation in our attempt to •neutralize the alternatives. exchange cost of our defense shield. No country, no matter This is precisely what we are attempting to do and I know how impoverished, should expect to get rich from the fact of that nowhere in the American establishment can we look for American protection. You must help us drive home this fact and can we expect a more effective response than from the in Europe and in Asia. As Secretary Rusk has stated: corps of professional diplomats. • FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 43 PPBS (Continued from page 14)

plain wrong. What I have said is trivial as far as analytical IUSED To TALK To MYSELF- budgeting is concerned; but bureaucratically it is revolutionary. Charles Schultze is a sensible and responsible man; that does THEN I sTARTEP READING THE not mean he is not revolutionary, only that he makes his FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL revolution slowly, carefully, and responsibly. The revolution is I STILL TALK To my5ELF,BuT in considering all programs for a country together, rather than all countries for a program together. It is examining what NOW PEOPLE sTop ToLISTEN the United States does with respect to Greece, Thailand, Brazil, India, or Nigeria, rather than what the United States does with aid, Peace Corps, agricultural surpluses, military assistance, and propagands. This is revolutionary not just because somebody would be looking at the totality of US programs with respect to a particular country all together, relating them to the same set of objectives, comparing them with respect to their effec- tiveness, demanding that the same set of objectives be acknowledged in the consideration of each program, elimina- ting inconsistency and reducing duplication. Nor is it that, once the basic country packages are identified, countries would be compared with each other as claimants for US resources and US attention. No, what would be revolutionary is that somebody or some agency has to do this, and it has to be decided who or which agency would do it. (It also has to be decided whether the Congress wants this done; and that may depend on who does it.) Who should do it? An easy answer is that the Budget Bureau should do it; the Budget Bureau is the centralized agency that brings consistency and compatibility to the claims of diverse governmental programs, foreign and domestic. But what I said earlier about the relation of budgeting to control commits me to the belief that we are talking about the question, "Who coordinates foreign policy?" I do not believe the answer should be the Bureau of the Budget. Maybe the answer is "nobody." Maybe, as a practical &-rAN'AWAN-A matter, the answer is that the coordination will be frag- mented, and the Budget Bureau will exercise a good part of the coordination. But if both the President and the Congress want this responsibility fixed unambiguously, in the absence of a drastic reorganization of the Executive Branch it would be FINANCIAL WORRIES hard to identify any formal locus of responsibility except the Office of the Secretary of State. But to put this responsibility on the Secretary of State is to give him both a means and an obligation to assume the kind of executive authority that has never, in spite of executive STATE DEPARTMENT orders and the logic of ideal government, either been wholly FEDERAL CREDIT UNION acceptable to the Department of State or freely offered to it. This is to put the purse strings directly into the hands of the Secretary of State with encouragement to use them in the IS executive management of foreign policy. I think it makes sense, but I am not sure that this is what FOR YOUR the Congress wants nor sure that this is what Secretaries of CONVENIENCE State and their senior staffs want. But this is where we are led by the philosophy of PPBS; and we are led there not by fancy analytical techniques but by the simple logic of "program packages" and the need to develop policies, as well as USE IT TO HELP SOLVE THOSE budgets, in a coherent process that recognizes the country as FINANCIAL PROBLEMS. SEE YOUR the primary unit of budgeting and policy-making. ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER I am not trying to lead your subcommittee, through any FOR DETAILS. line of reasoning or casuistry, to a particular conclusion. If we were concerned exclusively with architecture, we would end up with a good case for demanding of the Secretary of State that his Office do this kind of budgeting and do it with the LOANS-$ 9,564,480 impartiality that would estrange the Foreign Service from the TOTAL Office of the Secretary of State. But these issues cannot be tSHARES-s 11,954,718 settled by reference to the aesthetics of organization charts. These are pragmatic questions. Do we want coordination at the price of centralization? Can we split the Department of eY)..V eYi.V eY/W eY).V eY)W eY)•9 State into an executive foreign-affairs office and the Foreign 44, FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 Service? Does coordinated, centralized programing under- mine the decentralized initiative and responsibility of pro- grams like the Peace Corps, AID, or cultural exhanges? Does the Congress itself lose bargaining power when the Executive World-Wide Branch gets better organized for foreign affairs, and is the Congress willing to encourage this? Insurance Service I should like to see the Office of the Secretary of State accept the philosophy according to which it is the executive ADDRESS ALL INQUIRIES TO arm of the President for foreign affairs, and emancipated from the Foreign Service. I should like to see it use the CLEMENTS & CO. budget process to clinch its authority and to rationalize its INSURANCE BROKERS decision processes. I should like to see all overseas programs Suite 700 Warner Bldg., Washington, D. C. 20004 and activities brought under the purview of an "Office of the Cable: Telephone: Secretary of State," streamlined to provide executive direc- CLEMCO—Washington District 7-4383 tion. And I should like to see the Department of State enjoy the benefits of modern analytical techniques of the kind that Secretary Enthoven has brought to the Department of De- Ask for our fense, as well as other kinds. But I cannot—I wish I could, but I cannot—declare with any confidence that this can be Property Policy Analysis done. I come back to the remarks with which I began this memorandum. Foreign affairs is complicated and disorderly; which includes descrip- its conduct depends mainly on the quality of the people who tions of coverages, have responsibility; decisions have to be based on judgments, often too suddenly to permit orderly analytical processes to rates and applications. — determine those decisions. The best—the very best— Household & performance that is humanly possible is likely to look pretty Personal Effects unsatisfactory to the Congress, to Washington correspon- Also dents, to the electorate, even to the President who presides WORLD WIDE AUTOMOBILE — INCLUDING TRANSIT over the arrangement. The system can be improved, but not to anybody's complete satisfaction. In this improvement, (Third party liability not included) PPBS will eventually have a significant role. Analysis sent airmail upon request.

Competitive rates on all forms of domestic insurance PSEPHIATRISTS (Continued from page 20) meaningless waste of time. The key question is: "What image does he project?" When rare cases are mentioned in which a victorious WHERE candidate ignored the press, television, and radio, in favor of traveling around the country and speaking live to live audi- ences, it is shrugged off with the observation that "one man's DIPLOMATS media is another man's person." November 1968 is fast approaching, with presidential, DINE congressional, gubernatorial, and a raft of local elections to be held. The new pattern has been fixed. Television cameras, CHEZ FRANCOIS, 818 Connecticut Ave., NW, ME 8-1849. rather than issues and platforms, will dominate conventions. Le Rendezvous des Gourmets oii les mets sont bons et les Public relations firms will re-design candidates and package vins de choix. French cwsine at moderate prices. Open them for instant voter appeal. And on election day, with daily except Saturday and Sunday for lunch, 12-2:30: open perhaps one or two percent of the returns in, projections will daily except Sunday for dinner, 6:00 till 9:45. be made and "final" results announced on a coast-to-coast * * THE FOUR GEORGES RESTAURANTS—Four distinctively hookup. designed dining rooms, each created in a mood and motif re- Electronic computers and related machines being what they flective of its culinary achievements. Located in the famous Georgetown Inn in the heart of Georgetown—luxurious accom- are, political scientists tell us unequivocably that democratic modations. 1310 Wisconsin Ave., N.W. Free Parking, 333-8900. processes will not be spindled or folded in the process. r * They are not so sure, however, about mutilation. LA FONDA, 1639 "1r St., N.W., AD 2-6965. For years the These projections, remember, are based on returns from favorite of true aficionados of delectable Spanish and Mexi- one or a few "representative" districts, minuscule in size can food served in a romantic atmosphere. Complete bar. Lunch and dinner parties. Credit cards honored. Open compared to the total electorate. Is it not reasonable to daily 11:30 to midnight, Sunday, 2 to 10 p.m. assume that the pollitical scientists may one day find one * * person who is representative of the entire electorate of the THE SKY ROOM . . . Hotel Washington, Penn. Ave. & United States? As to what happens after that, the reader can 15th . . . A panoramic view of the Washington scene is a design his own nightmare. breath-taking backdrop to sophisticated atmosphere here ... International menu, with a French accent, includes flaming It is hardly surprising that there is a growing feeling that sword medallions of beef tenderloin bourguignonne. somebody should devise a brake and then quickly apply it. * * The idea of applying a stiff public opinion poll tax has already TOM ROSS' CHARCOAL HEARTH, 2001 Wisconsin Ave., been discarded 'because of the connotation of the last two of N.W., FE 8-8070, specializing in prime ribs of beef, charcoal- broiled steaks and seafood. Free parking in rear. Open daily for the four words. Bad image. lunch 11:30 to 2:30, dinner 5:30 fo 10:30, Saturday dinner 5- Is there a psephiatrist or a psephoanalyst in the house? II. Closed Sundays. Wide selection of cocktails and liquors. Or in the Senate? • FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1968 45 HORSE AND BUGGY (Continued from page 19) STU, ART & MAI54,17, Inc. attitudes mentioned above—may be called the political cul- ture of a society. The repeated failure of democratic forms to REALTORS take root in the alien soil of Afro-Asia, the distortions in Sales • Rentals • Insurance Russia and China of the ideas of a humane German pedant named Karl Marx, the uneven record of democracy in Specializing in Residential Properties modern Germany and Italy—all testify to the usefulness of Northwest Washington • Bethesda, political culture as an analytical substitute for institutional Chevy Chase and Potomac in Maryland forms. Political culture has proved to be an extraordinarily fertile concept. In fact, practically all the ideas in this article Member: Multiple Listing System stem in one way or another from the notion that the primary 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. task of political analysis is to capture the essence of a society's Washington, D. C. 20016 political culture in a form that will have predictive value. This being the case, it will perhaps be sufficient to conclude this Telephone: 537-1366 brief paragraph on political culture with a reference to what I Let Us Know You Saw Our Ad In The Journal found to be an extraordinarily insightful treatment of the subject, Almond and Verba's "The Civic Culture."13 This book describes the political cultures of the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, and Mexico on the basis of ASSIGNMENT WASHINGTON! information derived from an attitude survey of about 5,000 TOWN OR COUNTRY? Top Virginia locations for citizens of those countries. It is an excellent introduction to city, suburban or rural properties. "TOWN & COUN- the nouvelle vague of comparative political studies, arguing TRY" has an excellent selection of available homes in persuasively that it is not their political institutions but the beautiful Northern Virginia. FHA In-Service, G.I., and special political culture of Britain and the United States—the Conventional Financing. Four offices to serve you. "civic culture" of the title—that sets them apart from other polities as stable, successful democracies. A complete property management and rental service. While "The Civic Culture" is a brilliant example of the Write for our free brochure successful application of the new political science to advanced Western countries, the facts of Foreign Service life may argue TOWN & COUNTRY PROPERTIES, INC. for its introduction into bureaucratic routines, at least initial- REALTORS ly, only for non-Western countries. The usefulness of treating 3807 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria TE 6-8915 the non-Western world separately has been recognized by a 4701 Old Dominion Dr., Arlington, Va. 525-6900 4205 Evergreen La., Annandale, Va. CL 6-9100 number of nouvelle vague scholars.14 And it is in the non- 1384 Chain Bridge Road, McLean EL 6-1323 Western world that the present institutional approach serves the Foreign Service reporter so badly. A halfway approach would help solve the kind of reporting problems I faced in "SHOP IN AN AMERICAN DRUG STORE BY MAIL" Asia without disturbing the habits of thought of the European "AN ICE CREAM SODA" is one of the few items we specialists, a powerful "lobby" whose interests must be consid- cannot mail. Drugs, cosmetics, sundries mailed ered. But it would also involve the maintenance of two daily to every country in the world. parallel conceptual frameworks. Having only two might be We Maintain "Permanent Family Prescription Records" better than having the twenty or thirty that may be produced "SEND NO MONEY" by enterprising Foreign Service officers in non-Western coun- tries who will one day surely break the bonds of the Pay only AFTER satisfactory receipt of order. traditional conceptual framework and go off on their own if they are not offered art "official" conceptual framework that estetn Shan racy meets their reporting needs. Whether having two conceptual frameworks—one familiar, one exotic—would be more of a 1665 3514 Sheet, T. V. burden on the non-professionals at the top than having just one exotic one is a question that also deserves study. In the final analysis, the adoption of a culturally oriented structural- Vaskingion, 0. C. 20007 functional conceptual framework for reporting from the non-Western world may become just the first step toward its adoption as a universally applicable tool. Whether it moves a step at a time, or in one grand leap, the Foreign Service urgently needs to get moving. The approach Association of American Foreign Service Women to political science I have been describing had its beginnings a full generation ago and came into flower within the political P.O. Box 4931, Washington 8, D. C. science discipline half a generation ago. It is unquestionably the political science of the future. In Snuffy Smith's immortal words, "Time's a-wastin'!" • Information Desk in F.S. Lounge DU 3-6657 18 Almond, Gabriel A., and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton, N. J. Princeton University Press, 1963. Lunches, tours, languages, education, " Almond, Gabriel A., "Comparative Political Systems," Journal scholarship fund-raising. of Politics, August 1956. Kahin, George McT., Pauker, Guy J., and Pye, Lucian W., 1 year, 10 year, and life memberships "Comparative Politics of Non-Western Countries," American Polit- ical Science Review, December 1955. Rustow, Dankwort A., "New Horizons for Comparative Politics," World Politics, July 1957. 46 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1988 REAL ESTATE 25 EA Specialists in MARCH 1943 IN THE JOURNAL by HENRY B. DAY TOWN HOUSES

Fiftieth Anniversary CAPITOL HILL • GEORGETOWN FOGGY BOTTOM Twenty-five years ago James Barclay Young gave an account in the JouRNAL a how the American Consular Phone: LI 6-2676 Association precursor of the American Foreign Service Asso- ciation, had come into existence 25 years before. He was one RHEA RADIN,Inc. of the founders. Conversing after lunching together at the REALTOR Raleigh Hotel, a small group of officers wondered why the 201 MARYLAN D AVE., N.E consular officers in Washington should not have some kind of organization like a club. A club might not be just what was needed but something should be done. The first meeting to set up an organization was held on March 18 1918 in the office Welcome to Wila5bington of Marion Letcher, then assigned as Foreign Trade Adviser, on the "north side of Pennsylvania Avenue, No. 1653, opposite to the Department of State and between the Court of Claims and Blair House." Orbe Park Central 3Potet Besides Young and Letcher, the founders were C. Donald nevvly decorated Shepard, J. Klahr Huddle, Leland Morris, Wesley Frost, ROOMS — EFFICIENCIES — SUITES Harold G Waters Jesse B. Jackson, John E. Kehl, Charles H. reasonable rates Albrecht, Gebhart Willrich, Bernard Gotlieb, Henry C. Von MONTHLY Struve, Ralph J. Totten, William Coffin, and the Reverend DAILY • Glazebrook 72 years old, who had been named Consul most convenient to: General in Jerusalem in 1914. The average age of the USIA STATE DEPT. founders was 38 4/5. Excluding Glazebrook it was 36 3/ 4. 'The Airconditioned Television articles of Association were drawn up by Ralph J. Totten, Laundry Facilities Wesley Frost, Henry C. Von Struve, James B. Young, and J. 705 18th St., N.W. Ex 3-4700 Klahr Huddle. Wesley Frost became the first Chairman and Henry Von Struve was made Recording Secretary.

Elevations in Rank The Department announced on March 23, 1943, that it had T.c. made reciprocal arrangements with the Governments of Costa Sanderson Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, OF VIRGINIA, INC. Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua for raising its Legations to the rank of Embassies. On March 27, the Senate confirmed REALTORS the nominations of the following mission chiefs as Ambassa- dors: Boaz Long in Guatemala, Robert M. Scotten in Ec- Sales—Management—Rentals uador, Fay A. Des Portes in Costa Rica, James B. Stewart in Nicaragua, Walter Thurston in El Salvador, John D. Erwin in 1437 CENTER ST. — McLEAN, VA. 22101 Honduras, Avra M. Warren in the Dominican Republic, and SERVING ALL OF NORTHERN VA. John Campbell VVhite in Haiti. A press note of the time said that those promoted would continue to receive the $10,000 Member: Multiple Listing Service salary of a Minister instead of the $17,500 usually paid to Ambassadors. This had been the practice when raising Lega- Telephone 356-1300 tions to Embassies in Latin America.

News from the Department, March 1943 Jane Wilson informed readers in March 1943 that the Department was supplying life preservers to Foreign Service personnel leaving for posts. A notice with each belt said, in OV VilSIVA NS ? part— This pneumatic life preserver belt is the property of the Department of State and is being assigned th you for use in a possible emergency, which it is hoped will not arise.

'The notice asked the holder to return it to Room 108, Don't ',rake nrove Division a Foreign Service Administration and earnestly without calling... requested cooperation in keeping the belt available for po sible use by someone else. Jane Wilson reported that Carl von Zielinski had told her STORAGE COMPANY that the original 13 Consular Clerks were appointed under the Act of 1856. One was General John Sedgwick, grandfather of EXPERT EXPORT PACKING • PHONE 265-9218 Ernst (Putzi) Hanfstaengl, early backer of Hitler in Munich. Padded Crates • Overseas Containers • Storage and Shipping Insurance

FORZION SERVIOR JOURNAL, March, 1963 FRANCIS SCOTT KEY HOTEL Later they were called Consular Assistants. Tne number rose The Nicest Small Hotel in Washington to 25, then 30. Until President Roosevelt put the Service on 600 - 20th St., N.W., Washington, D. C. NAtional 8-5425 the merit system by the Act of 1906, they were the only Why Foreign Service Personnel prefer the career officers. Among the Consular Assistants were J. Klahr Huddle, Harry McBride, Augustus Ingram, and Carl von Francis Scott Key Hotel Zielinski. In December 1928, Ingram, then retired, was made It is only two blocks from the State Department It offers family accommodations Editor of the Foreign Service JOURNAL. One room, kitchen, dinette and bath, completely furnished efficiency suites Completely air-conditioned Restaurant with excellent food at moderate prices Governor's Tribute ROOMS Early in 1943, James K. Penfield returned to Washington One Person $8.00—Two Persons $10.00 Efficiency Suites—Double Beds or Twin Beds after completing his assignment at Godthaab, Greenland, One Person $9.00 & Up—Two Persons $11.00 & Up where he and Vice Consul George West first landed on May Additional persons $1.50 each. 22, 1940, to open a Consulate. The JOURNAL published a 10% discount for weekly occupancy. translation of a piece that Eske Brun, Governor of North Rowena F. Ward, Mgr.—Gladys L Warner, Asst. Mgr. Greenland, contributed to the bi-monthly Gronlandsposten of December 16, 1942. It included this paragraph: Of all the many things I have learned during the gt rigt r94. Established 1912 collaboration which I have had with Consul Penfield for almost three years, one is a profound respect for the You get special attention at organization which can spare people of Consul Penfield's type even for posts so comparatively in the background 1 W. C. & A. N. MILLER as Godthaab can certainly be considered when seen with I the eyes of the world . . . Consul Penfield has seen more DEVELOPMENT COMPANY of Greenland than most—all the way from Thule to Offering a Complete Real Estate Service Angmagssalik—and everywhere his winning personality Sales - Rentals - Insurance and the respect which his work has aroused have made Property Management, Remodeling and Repair friends for him, who now see him depart with sincere regrets. 4900 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. F.M. 2-4464 Potomac Office: Washington, D. C. 20016 Domestic Affairs 9300 Falls Rd., Potomac. Md. AX. 9-6000 At 3 p.m. on Sunday March 21, 1943, the Office of Price Administration announced by radio a ban effective at 12:01 - a.m. on store sales of butter to the public. Next day it granted exceptions to avert spoilage or undue hardship. The purpose was to allow stocks to be replenished. There was an acute shortage of both butter and meat at this time. RENTAL HOUSES Specialists on the West Coast developed a food concentrate which reached eastern stores. A teaspoon of it with a cup of Chevy Chase-Bethesda hot milk tasted a little like cocoa. It was composed of dehydrated soy beans, wheat germ, deep-sea kelp, mint Massachusetts Avenue Extended leaves, rhubarb, spinach, carrots, celery, and skim milk. A Chinese laundryman, Tom Lee, was arraigned in Brook- lyn on charges brought by Anthony Carp, a breeder of homing pigeons for the Army Signal Corps. Lee was charged A. C. Houghton & SOH, Inc. with buying some 40 stolen pigeons valued at $1,000 at two for 25 cents from small boys. Lee had baked them in pies to An Accredited Management Organization ease the food shortage. 1418 H Street, N.W., Washington 5, D. C. DI 7-9057 Patrolman Joseph J. Fleischer arrested a man for handing out free beer in Times Square and explained, "Give away Washington Real Estate Since 1907 something free in that section and you can't tell what will happen." Staff Sergeant E. M. Hufford arranged to get married at the Army Air Force base at Bryan, Texas. He arrived on INVESTMENT OBJECTIVES!!! schedule and checked needs: witnesses, ring, license. Every- thing was there except the bride. He had forgotten to get her WHAT ARE YOURS? a pass to enter the post. ❑ EDUCATION? A son, Joseph Woodbury, was born to Mr. • CAPITAL GROWTH? and Mrs. Joseph Palmer, 2nd, on March 30, ❑ RETIREMENT SUPPLEMENT? 1943, in Nairobi where his father was serv- ing as Vice Consul. He went to elementary Whatever it is, get in touch with Edmund J. Dorsz, Esquire, (Tel. 296-1300) schools in London and Washington. He had his secondary American Consul General—Retired, schooling at St. George's College, Southern Rhodesia, the Haight & Co., Inc. Gunnery School in Washington, Connecticut and the Shades 1101 - 17th Street, N.W., Washington, D. C. 20036 Valley High School in Birmingham, Alabama. He attended Please send me, without obligation, information on subjects the University of Tennessee and in 1965 enlisted in the United checked and a free Brochure describing the Investment Services your Firm Offers. States Navy. He had his basic training at Great Lakes, Illinois. He volunteered for duty in Vietnam and was sent to Name: Danang. Soon after his return he was married on May 6, Address: 1967 at the Navy Chapel in Washington, D. C., to Miss Mary

1.8 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March. 1968

Frances Corneliussen, daughter of Captain (USN, ret'd) and Mrs. Steven Corneliussen of Norfolk, Virginia. They are now Copies of stationed in Norfolk. They both plan to return to college and complete requirements for their degrees when he has com- "Foreign Service Diary" pleted his Navy service. His father's more recent and succes- sive responsibilities have been Ambassador to Nigeria, Direc- by tor General of the Foreign Service, and Assistant Secretary of Katharine M. Allen State for African Affairs. are available at DACOR, Inc., 1718 H A son, Harry Dmitri, was born to Mr. and Street, N.W., Washington, D. C. 20006. Mrs. Henry S. Villard on March 13, 1943, in Washington, D.C., where his father was $5.00 serving as Assistant Chief of the Division of Near Eastern Affairs and afterwards Chief of the Division of The experiences of a Foreign Service family in Greece, African Affairs. He received the major part of his secondary Egypt, Iran, Yugoslavia, India, and Washington, by school education at St. Albans in Washington and Le Rosey the wife of Amb. George V. Allen. in Switzerland. He then entered Harvard and graduated in the class of 1964. While at college he took the Reserve Officers Training Corps course and he now holds a reserve commission in the Army. After college he founded a rock and roll recording company. More recently he has worked on a number of projects in the Bahamas with Huntington Hart- ford. At present he is living in New York and is a member of a new investment banking firm on Wall Street, the Havenfield Corporation. Fine Stationers and Engravers Members of the Foreign Service of the United States of America can depend on Among Our Contributors Copenhaver for quality, service and cor- rect counseling on questions of protocol Our cover artist, GRETA NEWMAN, is the wife of FSO Joseph K. Newman. Mrs. Newman studied art under Benton for their calling cards, informals and invita- Spruance at Beaver College, Pennsylvania. She has exhibited tions, etc. in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Paris and London. Urgent requests filled promptly The Lorenz Gallery in Bethesda will have an exhibit of Mrs. ADams 2-1200 1521 CONNECTICUT AVE. Newman's work beginning April 18. Connecticut Avenue Courtesy Parking WASHINGTON, D. C. 20036 DR. ROBERT RALPH DAVIS, JR. is an Assistant Professor of History at Ohio Northern University. His special fields of interest are American intellectual and American diplomatic A SOUND EDUCATION history, as evidenced by his article on page 21. He has previ- ously published in PENNSYLVANIA HISTORY and has an article for English-Speaking Children on American diplomatic dress appearing in the AMERICAN KINDERGARTEN—EIGHTH GRADE QUARTERLY. Wherever you may be stationed, Calvert SCHOOL-AT-HOME GEORGE WYNNE, Courses can provide, by mail, a sound education for your child. G. who has made repeated appearances Courses maintain their quality because of continuous develop- in the JOURNAL'S pages on such diverse subjects as missing ment in Calvert's laboratory-school in Baltimore. Calvert guides your teaching with helpful step-by-step instructions. Courses Roman obelisks and the imaginary adventures of a nineteenth- stress the three R's and cultural subjects; are often used to century Vietnamese, wrote "A Space Age USIA?" because, enrich the educational experience of the above-average child. Children may start any time, transfer easily to other schools. he notes, he also thinks about office problems after hours. More than 100,000 children all over the world have used Calvert But, "now that I've got it out of my system perhaps I'll be Courses. 62nd year. Non-profit. Write for catalog (give age, grade). able to get back to the past." Mr. Wynne has just taken on a new assignment as press spokesman and information officer with the US Mission to the UN, Geneva. CALVERT SCHOOL The School That 130 Tuscany Road KINGDON W. SWAYNE joined the Foreign Service in 1946 Comes to You Baltimore, Md. 21210 and retired in 1966. His last assignment, Chief of the Political- Economic Section at Rangoon, culminated 15 years of labor in various Oriental vineyards. His article, on page 17 of this AUTHORIZED EXPORTER issue, is one product of a year of advanced study at Lehigh preparing for his new professional interest—teacher of politi- GENERAL ELECTRIC cal science and history at Bucks County Community College. -USA- JOSEPH W. BARR, whose speech on "The Calculus of Finan- Refrigerators—Freezers—Ranges cial Probabilities in Conduct of US Diplomacy" was given Washers—Dryers—Air Conditioners at the AFSA luncheon on January 25, is a graduate of dePauw Dishwashers—Radios—Phonos University, with an M.A. in theoretical economics from Small Appliances Harvard. He was a Member of Congress from Indiana from Available for All Electrical Currents 1958-1960. From 1961 to 1964 he was Assistant to the Local Warehousing for Immediate Shipment Secretary of the Treasury. In 1964-65 he served as Chairman of the FDIC and, since April, 1965, he has been Under Secretary of the Treasury. ALLIED EXPORT DISTRIBUTORS 522 Merchant St. WILLIAM C. TURPIN is the JOURNAL'S cliche expert in this San Francisco, Calif. 94111 issue.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, March, 1988 j() given serious consideration to prob- high threes, twos, or even ones. A lems raised in the JOURNAL? More three as a desk officer a few years ago simply, does any one give a hoot was a rarity; today it is common. about the JOURNAL except those of us The question should not be whether to e who read it as a house organ—even such people should be removed, but though much of its personnel news how to remove them without causing IIITCOR• may be found attractively displayed in excessive hardship at a critical junc- the Department's NEWS LETTER? ture in their lives. The answer certain- The idea Mr. Cutter has of anony- ly is not to keep them and give them 11' N mous articles is a good one. Even our jobs which could be better filled by own top flight George Kennan wrote others. After all, the objective of the his most thought provoking article as Foreign Service is not self-protection What The Journal Should Be "Mr. X." Is there any possible objec- (or why was it originally set up with a T AM writing somewhat belatedly to tion to this practice in the JOURNAL? selection-out process?), but rather the second warmly Curtis Cutter's let- Certainly a little thoughtful controver- best possible representation of US in- ter of last April entitled "What the sy within a prestigious professional terests abroad and superior response JOURNAL should be." In commenting on magazine on matters everybody is dis- to the President. Rank inflation serves the same problem I should like first to cussing anyway would bring us credit. neither goal. refer back to a questionnaire circulated Lastly, I would not favor dividing Secondly, Mr. Lee suggests that be- either by the Foreign Service Associa- the JOURNAL or seeking to start a new cause his generation suffered, future generations must suffer. This again tion itself or the JOURNAL about two publication as Mr. Cutter suggests, years ago in which suggestions were even though these ideas are worthy of probably will not inspire those con- solicited for the organization of For- consideration. It is too difficult and templating a career in the Foreign eign Affairs seminars or conferences sometimes, in this field, a bit too self Service for it implies that change, and for the format, and/or the need, conscious, to launch a new publica- progress, and concern for newcomers and their future is irrelevant, and that for a professional foreign affairs jour- tion—even as a supplement. We have the Foreign Service is unable to fight nal put out by the Association. I a good thing going in the JOURNAL. It for its cause, to seek self- would hope that my rather detailed is becoming increasingly interesting, improvement, and to admit to past suggestions were considered at the even though articles are on "safe" sub- weaknesses. Additionally, it is to be jects, as Mr. Cutter describes them. time and may even still be available, hoped that junior officers entering the The August issue is a good illustra- since I do not have a copy. Alas, I have Service are not doing so because they tion. Bob Cleveland's article on "Un- never seen an analysis or even any will be secure, no matter how poorly derstanding Bu$ine$$ Better"; David kind of a summary of the results of they perform. The good ones, of Simcox's article on "My Own, My that questionnaire. One aspect of my course, have nothing to fear and Affluent Homeland"; Lansing Collins' comments I do remember: getting should know it. readership for thoughtful British Ambassador Faces the Harem" JOURNAL ar- EDWARD V. NEF and Ambassador Steeves' "New Re- ticles among top Department policy Washington makers and encouraging articles on sponsibilities for An Old Service" are controversial subjects. all good reading containing comment, Turning to Mr. Cutter's letter, he is suggestions and, in Mr. Collins', not What the Zealous Eagerly Await concerned with obtaining professional only a laugh but a few still useful caveats. HILE displaying un peu de zele, respect and readership and attention I attempted to persuade several to serious consideration of our many It would be encouraging to obtain W views and suggestions from our col- colleagues to join AFSA. Too often I controversial foreign policy problems. was met with comments such as All of us are well aware of the frus- leagues and "from the Administration" on Mr. Cutter's and these views. "AFSA is a seventh floor housepet," tration felt in trying to get new ideas "a club for the Foreign Service 'estab- considered "up stairs." One Secretary JOHN M. CATES, JR. New York lishment,' " etc. In my anger I found of State, in replying to a question it difficult to accept these allegations from a most junior Foreign Service Rank Inflation —and equally difficult to refute them. officer as to whom he should go with RMISTEAD LEE'S letter in the July Implementation of the recommen- suggestions, is said to have stated, A JOURNAL was disconcerting, for dations in the Lightner Report would "Find the nearest FSO 7." Alas, it his proposals would only add to the eliminate justification for the kinds of would not do him much more good to Foreign Service's problems. To sug- criticism quoted above. The operative go to the nearest FSO 2 or even 1. gest as he does that positions be rank- phrase in the report seems to me to be Readership will be obtained if it is inflated serves only to protect individ- "the Association must concentrate in known that top policy officials read uals who should be gracefully and the years immediately ahead on be- the JOURNAL. Interest will really be honorably removed, as they would be coming an organization with a serious stimulated if it became known they in almost any institution or profit- intellectual base and an active—even encouraged thoughtful writing on cur- minded business. Mr. Lee dismisses all combative—concern for the people at rent problems—and then let the writ- too lightly that to give them less the heart of foreign affairs, regardless er know it. For a minor example, does meaningful jobs at high rank only of their agency affiliation." The key it advance any one's career to have frustrates lower ranking individuals; word is "combative." contributed to the JOURNAL or is it he also neglects to mention that such I firmly believe that an Association even known by personnel officers and procedures mean the work may not be organized and operated along the lines promotion boards? Have any JOURNAL very well executed and do nothing to of the Lightner Report would certain- articles been picked up and quoted or respond to criticisms of the Depart- ly strengthen the institution of reproduced by professional foreign ment. Finally, rank inflation has been AFSA. I also believe that the Lightner affairs publications or by such status too extensive already: seven or eight reforms would contribute to the de- magazines as the READERS' DIGEST? years ago in ARA chiefs-of-section velopment of an attitude, a profes- Has the Policy Planning group ever could be fours. Today they are all sional ethic, in the foreign services

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rOeCiFfli \' xi themselves which would be character- I would subscribe to the "five-point Importance of Asia ized by (to paraphrase the Lightner set of 'feelings"' of the slate of 18 AROLD NICOLSON quotes George Report) an active—even combative (FSJ, 11/67, p. 37), and most of the N. Curzon in "Curzon: A Study concern with the problem at the heart proposals of the Committees on Plan- Hin Post War Diplomacy" Constable & of foreign affairs, the advocacy and ning and Career Principles. As a rela- Co., 1934, as saying in 1898: implementation of policy. tive newcomer to this field, I only "Parliament . . . will have to know The zealous eagerly await the im- wonder that most of these ideas and Asia almost as well as it knows plementation of the Lightner propos- proposals have not heretofore been Europe; and the time will come als. advocated by the Association. As your when Asiatic sympathies and THOMAS D. BOYATT Task Forces have an opportunity to knowledge will be, not the hobby of Nicosia prepare more specific and detailed a few individuals, but the interest of proposals for change in the FSJ, I the entire nation...." (p. 38) strongly suggest that the AFSA sub- Dickens, Not Conrad H.N. didn't think much of it. He mit them publicly to the Department called it "the perhaps disproportionate RCHIDS to Mary Stuart for her re- and/or the Congress and invite a pub- significance which he (Curzon) was Ofreshing piece in the December lic response. wont to attach to Asiatic as distinct issue of the JOURNAL! A minor quib- As for the FSJ itself, I would like to from European problems." ble: if I correctly identify the allusion see a report or an editorial opinion on Strange, when you think about it. in the last paragraph as coming from the concept of "mission-trimming," as In 1898, the British crown had been in Charles Dickens' "A Christmas Carol," exemplified by the study currently un- India for thirty years and in Hong I believe the ghostly gentleman was derway in Brazil and promised for Kong for more than a half century. named Marley, not Marlow. Stave more missions. The battle of Manila Bay was in One, I think. TOBY T. ZETTLER 1898. Now, almost seventy years TIMOTHY W. CHILDS later, there are still some H.N.'s Tegucigalpa, Honduras Tehran among us. RALPH BLOCK Homage To Charles Moffly In Praise of "The Doggerel Dip" Washington rr HE sudden death of Charlie Moffly s a former (1960-61) member of Les Neiges d'Antan I last Christmas Day deprives all of A the JOURNAL'S Editorial Board, OUR readers might be interested us who knew him of a kind and gentle let me congratulate you and your cur- Y in the following message from friend and colleague. Whether in Eu- rent colleagues on having included William L. Dayton, Minister to rope, where he served the longest, or "The Doggerel Dip" in the September France, to Secretary of State William in Africa, where he was last assigned issue. Even with the always-welcome H. Seward, dated Paris, July 13, 1864: until his recent retirement, he leaves "Life and Love" series and the car- "Your telegram to me in cipher was enduring memories of a warm, unas- toons and your occasional "Fables," I duly recived, and after a great search suming and good-natured man, a loyal think that there is room and scope the office copy of the cipher was and devoted public servant. for additional humorous looks at our- found, or at least enough of it to en- Many in the Foreign Service can at- selves and our profession and Service able me to read your last telegram.... test to the universal popularity and institutional foibles, and there is no The last despatch in cipher from this esteem he personally enjoyed among sharper lens for making such observa- office, which I found, is in the days of not only officialdom at all level, but tions (in both senses of the term) than Mr. Crawford, about fifty years ago. also with the "man in the street," in- that contained in a timely piece of Despatches in cipher from your de- cluding, significantly, those who served light verse or doggerel. I was conse- partment, may, perhaps, be found him as either staff or servant. quently pleased to see Mr. Blancke's among the records of a later date, Having in mind the qualities of edu- clever contribution featured in your though I have seen none." cation, character, and intelligence September issue. These were indeed "the good old which Charlie embodied, I invite con- JAMES F. O'CONNOR days." tributions to a Charles Knox Moffly Asuncion, Paraguay WILLIAM M. LEARY, JR. Scholarship, to be awarded through the Foreign Service Association. JI JULIAN P. FROMER Washington

Five Points Fit the New Member INCE I joined the Foreign Service S about a year ago, I have refrained from joining the AFSA because it seemed too passive and "establish- ment" to be much of a force for constructive change. However the "activist" principles and proposals that I've read about recently appeal to me as the start of a movement that could properly represent a group of profes- sionals employed in a vital field of activity by a monolithic employer. As evidence of my support, I enclose a check for my dues for the coming year. FP

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