Terminology and the Term As Its Basic Unit

MASARYK UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

Mgr. et Mgr. Eva Dávidová

Analysis of English Medical Terminology from the Field of Digestive System

Bachelor thesis

Supervisor: Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D.

Brno 2011

Declaration

Hereby I declare that I worked on this bachelor thesis independently and used only the sources listed in the bibliography.

27 October 2011, Brno Eva Dávidová

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank to my supervisor Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D., for his guidance, valuable advice and encouragement that he provided me with during work on this bachelor thesis.

Abstract

The aim of this bachelor thesis is to consider the extent of Greek-Latin influence on English medical terminology. Firstly, I will give different definitions of terminology from the linguistic point of view, and typical features of the term as its basic unit. Secondly, a brief history of medical terminology from its beginning until these days will be presented. I will concentrate on the influence of Latin and Greek on medical terminology in connection with ancient times, Christianity and the period of Humanism and the Renaissance. The theoretical part will be followed by the analysis of one segment of English medical terminology. For this purpose, I have chosen English anatomical and clinical terms from the area of gastroenterology. These medical terms will be analysed on the basis of the formal, semantic and etymological criterion, and compared with Greek-Latin equivalents. The findings will be used for the description of the relationship between English and Greek-Latin medical terminology, and the evaluation of the importance of Latin and Greek for the English language and medicine.

Key words English medical terminology, Greek-Latin medical terminology, anatomical terms, clinical terms, gastroenterology, synonyms, formal analysis, semantic analysis, etymological analysis, international students

Anotace

Cílem této bakalářské práce je zhodnotit rozsah vlivu řečtiny a latiny na anglickou lékařskou terminologii. Nejdříve předloţím různé definice terminologie z jazykového hlediska a typické znaky termínu jakoţto její základní jednotky. Dále bude stručně představena historie lékařské terminologie od jejího počátku aţ do současnosti. Zde se zaměřím především na vliv latiny a řečtiny na lékařskou terminologii v souvislosti s dobou antiky, křesťanstvím a obdobím humanismu a renesance.

Na teoretickou část bude navazovat analýza jednoho segmentu anglické lékařské terminologie. K tomuto účelu jsem si vybrala anglické anatomické a klinické termíny z oboru gastroenterologie. Tyto lékařské termíny budou analyzovány na základě formálního, sémantického a etymologického kritéria a budou srovnány s jejich řecko-latinskými ekvivalenty. Získané poznatky budou pouţity k popsání vztahu mezi anglickou a řecko-latinskou lékařskou terminologií a ke zhodnocení významu latiny a řečtiny pro anglický jazyk a rovněţ pro medicínu.

Klíčová slova Anglická lékařská terminologie, řecko-latinská lékařská terminologie, anatomické termíny, klinické termíny, gastroenterologie, synonyma, formální analýza, sémantická analýza, etymologická analýza, mezinárodní studenti

Dávidová, Eva. Analysis of English Medical Terminology from the Field of Gastroenterology. Brno: Masaryk University, 2011.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 9 2. Terminology and the term as its basic unit ...... 12 2.1 The definition of terminology ...... 12 2.2 The term and its basic features ...... 12 3. Sources of the English lexicon ...... 15 4. The influence of Greek-Latin on the English language ...... 17 4.1 Greek-Latin borrowings in the Anglo-Saxon period ...... 17 4.2 Greek-Latin borrowings in the Middle Ages ...... 18 4.3 Greek-Latin borrowings in the period of Humanism and the Renaissance ...... 18 5. A brief history of medical terminology ...... 21 5.1 The influence of Greek and Latin on medical terminology ...... 21 5.2 Latin medical terminology in the modern period ...... 24 6. Advantages of the use of Greek-Latin as the language of medicine ...... 25 7. English medical terminology ...... 27 7.1 Synonymous character of English medical terminology ...... 27 7.2 Eponyms in English medical terminology ...... 29 7.3 The structure of medical terms of Greek-Latin origin and their adaptation in English medical terminology ...... 30 7.3.1 Word-formation principles of English medical terms of Greek-Latin origin ...... 30 7.3.2 Adaptation of medical terms of Greek-Latin origin in English medical terminology ...... 31 8. The analysis of medical terms from the field of gastroenterology ...... 32 8.1. Formal criterion ...... 32 8.1.1 Representation of word classes ...... 32 8.1.2 Representation of open and closed word classes ...... 34 8.1.3 Representation of single-word and multi-word naming units ...... 35 8.1.4 Representation of common and proper nouns ...... 37 8.1.5 Representation of count and noncount nouns ...... 38 8.1.6 Representation of concrete and abstract nouns ...... 41 8.1.7 Representation of animate and inanimate nouns ...... 44 8.2 Semantic criterion ...... 44 8.2.1 Metaphor ...... 45 8.2.2 Metonymy ...... 47 8.2.3 Synecdoche ...... 50 8.3 Etymological criterion ...... 50

9. Tendencies in the development of Greek-Latin and English medical terminology ..... 56 10. Conclusion ...... 58 References ...... 60 Appendices ...... 66 Latin-English glossary of anatomical terms from the field of gastroenterology ...... 66 Latin-English glossary of clinical terms from the field of gastroenterology ...... 84

List of figures

Fig. 1. A total number of lexemes representing different word classes ...... 33 Fig. 2. A number of lexemes representing different word classes in anatomical terms ...... 34 Fig. 3. A number of lexemes representing different word classes in clinical terms ...... 34 Fig. 4. A total number of open and closed word classes ...... 35 Fig. 5. A total number of single-word and multi-word naming units ...... 36 Fig. 6. A number of single-word and multi-word naming units in anatomical terms ...... 37 Fig. 7. A number of single-word and multi-word naming units in clinical terms ...... 37 Fig. 8. A total number of common and proper nouns ...... 38 Fig. 9. A total number of countable and uncountable nouns ...... 40 Fig. 10. A number of countable and uncountable nouns in anatomical terms ...... 40 Fig. 11. A number of countable and uncountable nouns in clinical terms ...... 40 Fig. 12. A total number of concrete and abstract nouns ...... 43 Fig. 13. A number of concrete and abstract nouns in anatomical terms ...... 43 Fig. 14. A number of concrete and abstract nouns in clinical terms ...... 43 Fig. 15. A total number of inanimate and animate nouns ...... 44 Fig. 16. The origin of anatomical and clinical terms ...... 55

1. Introduction

The topic of this bachelor thesis is English medical terminology from the field of gastroenterology. The reason for the choice of this theme comes from my own experience which I gained as a teacher of the subject Basic Medical Terminology at the Faculty of Medicine in Brno. During my four-year teaching carrier in both Czech and English programmes I found out that students in the English programme have much more difficulties with medical Greek-Latin in comparison to Czech students. This can be partly explained by the fact that both Czech and Latin belong to the inflectional language type, while English falls into the analytic one. As a result, foreign students often struggle with grammar principles of Latin, which they have to understand if they are to translate multi-word English medical terms into Latin and vice versa. Above all, Latin cases seem to be very difficult for them since there are not any parallels in English except for the genitive case. However, while these students may have more problems with the grammar system of Latin, they are advantaged over Czech students at the same time due to their advanced knowledge of the English medical lexicon. To put it in another way, the similarities between Latin and English medical terminology are so numerous that the latter language cannot be separated from the former one. Therefore, I assume that both teachers and students in the English programme should become aware of these connections so that they turn the fact of being advanced speakers of English into the tool for easier acquisition of medical Greek- Latin. Having this in my mind, in both theoretical and practical parts I will try to prove that English medical terminology is so dependent on Greek-Latin one that a good acquisition of English medical terminology requires at least a basic knowledge of Greek-Latin one. These findings will hopefully lead to the better understanding of the relationship between Greek- Latin and English medical terminology, and the importance of the study of the former one for students in the English programme. With this aim, some theoretical chapters will be included in this thesis. Firstly, I will give some definitions of terminology in general, and the main features of the term as its basic unit. Secondly, different sources of the English lexicon will be considered in order to provide a background for next chapters. A special attention will be paid to the influence of Greek- Latin in the Anglo-Saxon period, Middle Ages and the period of Humanism and the Renaissance. Thirdly, a brief history of medical terminology from its beginning until these days will be given. The emphasis will be put on the most important medical works and

9 nomenclatures. The last chapter of the theoretical part will deal with the characteristics of English medical terminology. For instance, its synonymous character will be discussed, and some notes about eponyms will be made. Moreover, some information about the structure of English medical terms of Greek-Latin origin, and their adaptation in English medical terminology will be provided. The theoretical part will be followed by the practical one, which will concentrate on the analysis of medical terms from the area of gastroenterology on the basis of the formal, semantic, and etymological criterion. The choice of medical terms from the field of digestive system comes from the fact that I have already created a list of essential gastroenterology anatomical and clinical terms as the part of my work on the project COMPACT1. Their list is given in two Latin-English glossaries of anatomical and clinical terms at the end of this thesis. With the use of the results from the analysis, I will try to show that there are some prevailing tendencies in English medical terminology rather than irregularities as students often assume. Their understanding could help lectors of medical Greek-Latin in teaching English students, and also learners in the English programme in their acquisition of this language. Above all, the conclusions made on the basis of the etymological analysis could lead to the better motivation of English students in their studies of medical Greek-Latin. After the practical part, I will briefly consider some tendencies in the development of Greek-Latin and English medical terminology. Hopefully, the findings will contribute to the perception of medical Greek-Latin as the language which is essential for every student who wants to become a good doctor. As far as references are concerned, a large number of scholarly articles, publications and dictionaries will be used. The theoretical background will mainly be provided by Crystal´s Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Hauser´s Nauka o slovní zásobě, Knittlová´s Funkční styly v angličtině a češtině, Peprník´s English Lexicology, Poštolková, Roudný and Tejnor´s O české terminologii, and Vachek and Firbas´s Historický pohled na dnešní angličtinu. Similarly, many scholarly articles e.g. by Marečková, Šimon, Červený, Páč, and Řešetka will serve as the useful source of information about this topic. The practical part will be based on my own analysis. Despite this fact it will be necessary to verify some of my assumptions in dictionaries such as Friedrichsen and Burchfield´s Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Topolová´s Anglicko-český, česko-anglický lékařský slovník, Vokurka and Hugo´s

1 The aim of this project is the innovation of language courses at Masaryk University so that they reflect the connection with praxis. 10

Velký lékařský slovník, and Złotnicki´s Lexicon medicum: Anglicum, Russicum, Gallicum, Germanicum, Latinum, Polonium. As far as the corpus of anatomical and clinical terms is concerned, it has been created with the use of Terminologia Anatomica by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology, and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) published by the World Health Organisation.

2. Terminology and the term as its basic unit 2.1 The definition of terminology

Terminology is a linguistic discipline which studies, analyses and describes a specialised area of the lexicon, i.e. terms. The aim of terminological studies is standardisation of terms so that they are used uniformly. Consequently, terminological commission meet regularly, and discuss possible changes in terminology, which could reflect rapid progress in the knowledge of science. Furthermore, the naming unit “terminology” is often used for vocabulary itself from a certain scientific or technical field (Machová 138). The unique position of terminology among other linguistic studies is connected with the fact that it is based on the knowledge of linguistics as well as different non-linguistic disciplines, the vocabulary of which is studied. Since the knowledge of linguistics, mainly lexicology, lexicography and morphology, in connection with the basics of a concrete non- linguistic science is essential for anyone who studies terminology, it can be characterised as interdisciplinary. To put it in another way, the linguist who deals with a concrete area of terminology needs to understand its structure and meaning from the linguistic point of view. On top of that, it is also necessary to have at least a basic non-linguistic knowledge of the studied discipline. This is why the information about terms and its description are present in dictionaries of terminology as well as in general dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words and dictionaries of slangs (Machová 138).

2.2 The term and its basic features

The term as a basic unit of terminology names a concept which exists in the system of concepts of a scientific or technical discipline (Poštolková, Roudný, and Tejnor 26). There are some typical features of the term, which distinguish it from the non-term. They include unambiguousness, exactness, stability, word-formation potential and the lack of emotionality (Hauser 34-35; Peprník 73). As Hauser mentions, these features of the term are perceived as ideal since not all of them are always present in all terms (34). As far as unambiguousness is concerned, the term should name only one concept. However, since most words are polysemous, there are only few with one meaning. Therefore, it is more appropriate to talk about relative unambiguousness if a term is unambiguous in its field, not necessarily in the whole lexicon of a certain language.

Secondly, exactness means that the term should name the concept and reflect its content precisely. Therefore, significant features of the concept should be taken into consideration when a new term is being formed. Nevertheless, it is not always possible to include all features into one term. In order to compensate this limitation, synonyms are formed in terminology, which, however, does not correspond with the terminological requirement of the existence of one term for one concept. Moreover, if terms are to fulfil their function, they should be stable. Consequently, they are standardised and codified. Despite this fact, terms change as the knowledge in a certain science develops. Therefore, stability as the next typical feature of the term should be perceived relatively. At this point it is important to emphasize that the changes in forms of terms are not as radical as it is in the case of the general lexicon. While the intervention in the form of the term is usually the result of the commission´s decision, general words often undergo changes more spontaneously. Furthermore, the term should also have word-formation potential. This means it should be suitable for making derivatives and compounds. For instance, the Latin noun bronchus (from Greek βρό γχος ) has a good word-formation potential since it can be used as a basis for a large number of new terms, i.e. bronchiolus, bronchialis, bronchitis, bronchogenes, broncholithiasis, bronchodilatatio, bronchopneumonia, bronchopulmonalis, bronchospasmus, bronchotomia. Finally, as the main function of the term is to name the concept objectively, the presence of emotionality would be redundant and undesirable. Therefore, the term should be deprived of any subjective evaluation. In this aspect, terminology differs from slang, which a certain level of emotionality and expressivity is typical of. This is why diminutives are not suitable for formation of terms. Regardless of this fact, there exist some diminutives in English and Latin medical terminology, i.e. Latin/English cerebellum (“small brain”, from Latin cerebrum); Latin bronchiolus, English bronchiole (“small bronchus”, from Latin bronchus, Greek βρό γχος); Latin clavicula, English clavicle (“small key”, from Latin clavis); Latin papilla, English pupil (“small girl, doll”, from Latin pupa). These words are still used in medical terminology as they have a long tradition, and because of the fact that the original expressive feature ceased to be perceived (Hauser 35). On the basis of these features, the term can be characterised as a lexical unit with the exact conceptual meaning and a nominative function. In addition, it is restricted to a certain scientific or technical field in its specialised meaning. Furthermore, it is stable in its field and

13 standardised, does not imply any expressive or emotional connotations, is independent of context, and is typically used in the intellectual environment. Moreover, Poštolková, Roudný, and Tejnor add the international character and transparency to the main features of the term (67). These two requirements are present in the case of Latin medical terminology since its anatomical nomenclature and also clinical terms still serve as the intermediary of communication among doctors all over the world. In this sense, terminology enables the members of the same social group to exchange information. Furthermore, Latin medical terms are formed on the bases of a few rules, which make them transparent to anybody who has a basic knowledge of medical terminology. In this sense, Stoyanova speaks about “systematism” of terms. On top of that, she also points out the importance of shortness as the essential feature of the term (Stoyanova). To sum up, there are contradictory tendencies in terminology. Despite the fact that the existence of the only representative term for each concept is desirable, numerous synonyms occur in terminology as will be showed later. In addition, while the international character of terminology seems to be advantageous, national terminologies are gradually strengthening their positions. Finally, as new terms are being formed and the old ones cease to be used, there is a free movement between standard terms, non-standard ones, professionalisms and slang words (Machová 43). Because of this natural flow, stability of terminology is relative. Therefore, the set of typical features of the term need to be perceived as a potential which does not have to be fulfilled completely in the case of every term. Nevertheless, the more features are present, the more probable is that the word belongs to the specialised area of the lexicon, i.e. terminology.

3. Sources of the English lexicon

As far as the origin of English vocabulary is concerned, it has a mixed character. This means it is possible to distinguish two layers in the English language. The first one includes the words of domestic Anglo-Saxon origin, and the second one comprises borrowings from different languages. In addition, it is possible to divide loanwords into four groups: “domesticized words”, “words still felt as of foreign origin”, “internationalisms” and “exocitisms/foreignisms” (Peprník 81). As Hatch and Brown say, “English has words borrowed from almost every language of the world” (170). Despite the fact that English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo- European language family, more than 50 % of English naming units come from different languages, mainly from Latin (Ellegård 3). In English terminology, the influence of Latin is even more apparent. Andrews claims that 95 % of English terms are of Latin or foreign- language origin (qtd. in Knittlová 46). Moreover, in connection with the Norman occupation after William the Conqueror´s victory in 1066, there was a huge influx of French words into English in the Middle Ages, mainly from the area of court, law, property, military, church and cuisine. The English words of French origin such as sovereign, crown, state, government, accuse, plea, fee, enemy, soldier, guard, religion, service, trinity and virgin give the evidence of the legal status of Normans in Great Britain. Similarly, the words beef, mutton, pork, bacon and venison point at the Norman standard of living and its transmission to the Anglo-Saxons (Hatch, and Brown 170). Furthermore, an interesting tendency can be observed in English. A strong position of Latin as a scientific language, and increasing political importance of French were the reason for frequent simultaneous borrowings from these two languages in medieval, and later in Renaissance English. As a result, there often existed Latin-French-German triplets for one concept, which had the same denotative meaning, but differed in the style. The example is Anglo-Saxon kingly, French royal and Latin regal. While the Germanic adjective was used in everyday communication, the French word was preferred in writing, and the Latin one had a literary meaning and was the most learned (Crystal 48). However, French was not the only Romance language which English borrowed new words from. There were also some Italian, Spanish and Portuguese words, which were taken into English mainly during the Renaissance (see footnote no. 4).

Furthermore, there are other languages which influenced the English lexicon. While the words of Celtic origin are infrequent (e.g. loch, whisky, slogan, hooligan; Avon, Thames, London, Dover, Leeds, Kent), Old Norse left more visible traces in English. For instance, the words such as skirt, sky, skin, anger, cake, die, egg, fog, happy, leg, neck, sister, steak, window, they, them, their, get, give are of the Scandinavian origin (Crystal 8, 25). There are also many other languages which influenced English. For the detailed list see Crystal (126, 127).

4. The influence of Greek-Latin on the English language 4.1 Greek-Latin borrowings in the Anglo-Saxon period

In the history of the English language, it is possible to observe a constant influence of Latin on English. The first Latin borrowings to English date back from the Anglo-Saxon period. The presence of the first Latin loanwords is closely connected with the expansion of the Roman Empire to the British Isles. It started with Gaius Julius Caesar in 55 B.C, who tried invading the British Isles without a bigger success. More importantly, the annexation of a large part of the British Isles by the emperor Claudius in the first half of the 1st century A.D., and their remaining under the Roman rule for the next 400 years had an impact on the Celtic and later on the Anglo-Saxon lexicon (Vachek, and Firbas 6). As Vachek and Firbas remark, the Anglo-Saxons borrowed some Latin words before they came from the continental Europe to the British Isles (14). The second layer of Latin words got into old English as late as the 6th century in connection with the Anglo-Saxons´ conversion to Christianity in the British Isles. The first layer of Latin borrowings includes the words which were connected with the trade of the Anglo-Saxons with the Romans (wine, from Latin vinum; pound, old-English pund, from Latin pondus; plum, from Latin prunus; pea, from Latin pisum). As Crystal points out, most of them were the names for plants, animals, food and drink, household items, and clothing (8). In addition, they also referred to buildings, and military and legal institutions (Crystal 8). Their number, however, was not too high. According to Crystal, the first Latin loanwords included approximately 200 words (Crystal 8). On the other hand, the Greek-Latin borrowings which belong to the second layer were much more numerous. The acceptance of Christianity was the reason for many classical borrowings, which were used to name new concepts. They comprise the old-English words such as apostol, discipul, papa, bisceop, maesse, which correspond with modern-English apostle, disciple, pope, bishop and mass. Nevertheless, some Christian Latin words were known to the Anglo-Saxons before the conversion, e.g. cyrice (modern-English church, from Greek κσριακή), dēofol (modern-English devil, from Latin diabolus), engel (modern-English angel, from Latin angelus) (all in Vachek, and Firbas 15).2

2 However, not all Christian English words are of Latin origin. Some of them were adopted from pagan terminology. For instance, the domestic words God or ēastron (modern-English Easter) were given a new meaning under the influence of Christianity (Vachek, and Firbas 15). Similarly, old-English gōdspell (modern- English gospel) is a loan translation/calque from Greek εὐ αγγέλιον “good news” (Vachek, and Firbas 16). 17

4.2 Greek-Latin borrowings in the Middle Ages

In the next centuries, the influence of Latin on English continued. At this point it should be mentioned that after 1,000 A.D. Greek-Latin borrowings started to differ significantly from the earlier ones. Since the former borrowings were taken from spoken Latin, they usually referred to everyday life. By contrast, after 1,000 written texts became the source of Greek-Latin loanwords. This is why these borrowings mostly had a scholarly character (Crystal 24). In the Middle Ages, Latin words from the field of administration and law, science, and religion were taken to English. Crystal provides the examples such as client, conviction, legal; diaphragm, dislocate, inferior, ligament, major, minor, tincture, depression, ulcer, infancy; immortal, pulpit, requiem and scripture (Crystal 48). However, while these words are still in use in English, there are thousands of professional and scientific expressions from the field of religion, medicine, law, and literature, which had a short existence. This can be explained by the fact that many of them were borrowed from Latin only with the aim to substitute domestic words so that a high style was created. Only some of them such as meditation or oriental survived (Crystal 48).

4.3 Greek-Latin borrowings in the period of Humanism and the Renaissance

The period of Humanism and the Renaissance is connected with the spread of the cultural movement, which had the origin in Italy in the first half of the 14th century. The aim of the humanistic movement was to enrich the knowledge about this world by the study of classical works, the content and language of which were analysed. Since medieval Latin was perceived as spoilt by Romance and other languages in the Renaissance, there was a return to the classical period of Latin literature, and its language. As a result, classical Latin became the ideal for European writers and scientists, who made the effort to imitate the language and style of classical writers. Above all, Cicero´s Latin was considered to be a source of perfection (Vachek, and Firbas 32). As a result, English was exposed to the huge influence of Latin from the end of the 15th century, and mainly during the 16th century, when a large number of classical works were translated. Thousands of Greek-Latin words were introduced to English at this time not only in connection with the admiration of classical languages, but also due to inability of English to express many scientific concepts by domestic words. This restriction of English was mainly

18 apparent in the field of medicine and theology. For instance, medical words such as capsule, delirium, epilepsy, external, immaturity, larynx, malignant, obstruction, pancreas, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, species, tendon, thermometer, tibia, ulna and virus were taken into English in the Renaissance because of the reason mentioned above (Crystal 60). It is important to point out that the enrichment of English by Latin was made easier by the influx of French words which significantly resembled Latin ones from the period of the Middle Ages onwards. This is why Latin loanwords were not perceived as foreign in English as it could have been in the case of other languages. Moreover, the enrichment of the English lexicon by Latin words was the part of the humanistic movement, not the result of enforcement of political powers as it was in connection with French influence (Vachek, and Firbas 32). This also facilitated the way of Latin words to English. The prestige of Latin as a scientific language was so great that Latin words were often preferred to Anglo-Saxon ones if new scholarly concepts were to be named. A high standard of Latin in English is also supported by the fact that many words of French origin were transformed according to their Latin equivalents (e.g. parfit > perfect, according to Latin perfectus) (Peprník 86-87). These adaptations stem from humanists´ perception of Romance words of Latin origin as distorted. Therefore, they tried to bring them closer to their ideal, i.e. Latin (Vachek, and Firbas 33-34). There is another tendency, which makes the period of the Renaissance different from the Middle Ages. While older Latin borrowings usually had a concrete meaning, Renaissance Latin loanwords were more abstract (Peprník 86-87). In this aspect, the latter words are more similar to the words of Romance origin, which usually implied a lower level of abstractness, impersonality, and literacy. On the contrary, the English words of Anglo-Saxon origin form the opposite to Renaissance Latin loanwords by their concrete meaning, intelligibility, and shortness. While such words create the nucleus of the English lexicon, English words of Greek-Latin origin belong to the periphery as their use is restricted to certain scientific functions, and to a small group of users. The tendency to match Germanic words with the nucleus, and classical expressions with the periphery is also supported by a statistic finding by Thorndike and Lorge: “Among the first hundred English words, there is only one of Latin origin (just). In the next 400, the words of Latin (including Romance) origin are around 100, in the next 500 there are c. 35 %. And in the next 9000, they account for something like 60 % of the entries (qtd. in Ellegård 5).” Consequently, in English it is possible to encounter many Germanic-Romance- Latin/Greek synonyms from the period of the Renaissance, which differ in style (e.g. ask –

19 question – interrogate; time – age – epoch (Vachek, and Firbas 35-36). Out of such triplets, Latin words significantly differ from French and Anglo-Saxon ones as far as their position in the English language is concerned. While Germanic and also often French words are used by a large range of English speakers, Greek-Latin ones are primarily restricted to a “scientific communication” (Dţuganová “A brief outline” 226). As a result, it can be assumed that Greek-Latin words are not so deeply rooted in English as German and French words are (Dţuganová “A brief outline” 226). In addition, it is also possible to find numerous pairs of nouns-adjectives in the English Renaissance lexicon with the potential to create different stylistic nuances, and emphasize the difference between the layman and specialist. In such pairs, the noun of Germanic origin has a general meaning, while the adjective of Latin origin is associated with the specialised scholarly use. Such pairs are body – corporal (from Latin corpus “body”); death – mortal (from Latin mors “death”); eye – ocular (from Latin oculus “eye”); hand – manual (from Latin manus “hand”) and mind – mental (from Latin mens “mind”) (Peprník 86-87).3 Similarly, in the period of the Renaissance the terms of Greek-Latin origin were used to name diseases, which had the relation to Germanic expressions for certain organs, e.g. kidney – nephritis; lung – pneumonia. This tendency also continues in the present English medical terminology. In conclusion, regardless of the fact that Latin humanism was later substituted by national humanism, which preferred to use domestic sources, it influenced English and other European languages so much that its impact is apparent until these days in the scientific language. Above all, English medical terminology is the best example of the conservation of Greek-Latin in its changed form in the modern period.

3 In the case of some nouns, there exist adjectives of home origin next to Latin ones. They are often formed by the prefixes –ly or –ish. However, their meaning and use may differ from Latin adjectives, e.g. father – paternal – fartherly; child – childish – infantile (Peprník 86-87). 20

5. A brief history of medical terminology

In this chapter, I will briefly outline the history of medical terminology from its beginning until these days. I will especially concentrate on the influence of Latin and Greek on medical terminology in connection with ancient times, Christianity and the period of Humanism and the Renaissance. The description of the development of Greek-Latin medical terminology will be used as the basis for the explanation of the origin of English medical terminology and the structure of its terms. Although Knittlová says that present scholars prefer using naming units of home origin to ones of Greek-Latin origin for forming new terms (48), medical terminology does not correspond with this finding as it will be proved later. Despite the fact that national medical terminologies exist, Greek-Latin medical terminology still serves as the basis due to its international character. This is supported by the use of Greek-Latin medical terminology in communication among specialists. On the contrary, national medical terminologies are preferred in the case of the exchange of information between the specialist and layman, and among two and more laymen (Machová 150).

5.1 The influence of Greek and Latin on medical terminology

The development of medical terminology corresponds with the level of medicine as a science. This is why it is impossible to separate medical terminology from medicine since the changes in medical terminology reflect perpetual progress in the knowledge of medicine. Therefore, a 2,500-year tradition of medicine is also a tradition of medical terminology (Šimon, “O historickom výskume” 48). In addition, the present state of medical terminology is the result of its long-lasting development in connection with historical and cultural events, from which the first ones date back to the ancient times. It is necessary to emphasize that medical terminology was mainly influenced by the growth and fall of the ancient Greek and Roman civilisations, the traditional use of Latin as a scientific language throughout the Middle Ages, and the return to classical Greek and Latin in the period of the Renaissance. These three factors contributed to the fact that Greek-Latin medical terminology has kept its superior position among national terminologies from its beginning until these days. Therefore, if we are to understand the

21 origin of medical terminology and its present state, it is essential to understand the importance of Latin and Greek for the European culture and science. According to Banay, approximately three-fourths of medical terminology comes from Greek. This can be explained by the fact that the ancient Greeks stood at the beginning of scientific medicine in the second half of the 5th century B.C. The basics of medicine were set thanks to Hippocrates of Kos and his medical school at the golden time of the Greek civilisation. He introduced e.g. new words for inflammatory diseases such as arthritis, nephritis, pleuritis, and some names of organs, e.g. bronchus or peritonaeum. Under his name, a collection of 53 medical works called Corpus Hippocraticum remained to us (Canfora 273). The introduction of Greek medical terminology in ancient Greece is traditionally connected with the first phase of the development of medical terminology. As Šimon mentions, the separation of medical terms from the layer of common words was typical of this phase (“O historickom výskume” 49). Aristotle (384-322) also contributed to this process by using terms such as diaphragma, pancreas and aorta in his biological works (Kachlík et al. 159). Rufus of Efesos, a Greek physician in the late first century A.D., is considered to be Hippocrates´s follower, who, however, often disagreed with his predecessor. He provided useful information concerning anatomy and its terminology in his work On the names of the parts of the body (Περὶ òνομασίας τῶν τοῦ ἀ νθρώποσ μορίων) (Canfora 844). Furthermore, in connection with the increasing political and cultural power of the Roman Empire, ancient Rome gradually became the centre of the development of medical terminology. However, the influence of Greek continued even after this change, and the majority of medical works was still written in Greek. In fact, Greek stayed the language of medicine until the fall of the Roman Empire although Greek-Latin medical terminology started to develop in ancient Rome. The reason for the superior position of Greek medical terminology over the Latin one lies in the fact that the first doctors in Rome were not the Romans, but Greeks coming from Greek centres of science such as Athens, Alexandria and Asia Minor. In addition, Roman rulers eager to keep and extend the Roman Empire always paid much more attention to military and political problems than to science and medicine. Nevertheless, having spread plague in Rome in 293 B.C., the Romans were forced to call a larger number of educated physicians from Greece, who gradually transmitted their knowledge to the Romans. As a

22 result, medicine started to develop in Rome successfully since the first century B.C., which is connected with the beginning of the second phase (Dţuganová, “A brief outline” 223). The bilingual Greek-Latin terminology tradition is represented e.g. by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B.C. - circa 50 A.D.), the author of the encyclopaedia called Artes, in which he contemplates medicine next to other sciences. Although the author uses Greek literary sources, his work shows a few typical Roman features (Conte 353). His contribution also lies in the fact that he enriched medical terminology by Latin words, such as sutura, patella or cartilago (Kachlík et al. 159). The physician and philosopher Galen of Pergamon, the Greek from Asia Minor, also has a merit in the transition of Greek medical terminology and knowledge to the Romans. Not only did he work as Marcus Aurelius´s personal doctor in Rome in the second century A.D. (Canfora 821), but he also introduced anatomical terms such as epiphysis, hypophysis, coccyx, tarsus, pylorus, aponeurosis and epididymis (Kachlík et al. 159). Despite the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D., Latin kept its position as the scientific language for the next centuries, and throughout the Middle Ages. The win of Christianity over paganism contributed to the spread of Latin, which finally become the official language of the Church. In this way, Latin changed into the language used in international communication among educated people. It existed next to national languages, which started to develop in the Middle Ages, and functioned as a scholarly language. On the contrary, the use of national languages was restricted to everyday communication at the beginning of their development. As far as ancient Greek is concerned, the influence of this language on medical terminology decreased after the decline of the Roman Empire, and “it retained its position only in the East-Roman Empire in Constantinople till the Turks defeated it in 1453” (Schott, qtd. in Dţuganová, “A brief outline” 224). Otherwise, Greek ceased to be used as a scientific language, and was substituted by Latin. After the period of the Middle Ages, Humanism and the Renaissance provided very good conditions for the development of Greek-Latin medical terminology. At this time, the first true scholarly medical works were written. In this phase, classical Latin, not medieval Latin, was taken as the example. In addition, the rebirth of Greek as a scientific language took place in the Renaissance. On the one hand, these changes led to purifying Latin from medieval Latin forms and Romance features. On the other hand, the strict imitation of the dead classical languages caused that medieval Latin, which lived its own life during the Middle Ages, stopped to develop naturally. Suddenly, the gap between living languages and

Renaissance Latin was so large that it was finally substituted by living languages. To put it in another way, Humanism and the Renaissance created perfect conditions for formation of Humanistic Latin in its purified form. At the same time, they helped national languages in their victory over Latin. However, regardless of the fact that living languages finally won over Latin and formed their own terminologies, Latin has kept its position as the international language of medicine until these days (Šimon, “O historickom výskume” 49). The era of the Renaissance brought many famous scientists, who contributed to the establishment of modern medicine. For example, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1565) provided the first modern description of the human body in his work De fabrica corporis humani libri septem. By the substitution of many Greek and Arabic words with Latin ones, anatomical terminology has been based on Latin from this time. The contribution to the development of Latin medical terminology was also made by Johannes Jessenius (1566-1621), who organised the first public dissection in Prague in 1600, and later published it in his work Anatomiae Pragae, Anno MDC ab se solemniter administratae historia (Kachlík et al. 159).

5.2 Latin medical terminology in the modern period

In the modern period, there has been a huge influx of synonyms in the field of medicine. Consequently, it was common that one concept was often named by more terms. Since this is against the basic principle of terminology, there has been the effort to unify anatomical terms. For this reason, German anatomists published the first Latin anatomical nomenclature in 1895 under the name the Basiliensia Nomina Anatomica (BNA). This nomenclature was followed by the I(J)enaiensia Nomina Anatomica (I(J)NA) in 1935, which significantly differed from the BNA, and Parisiensia Nomina Anatomica (PNA) in 1955. In the latter nomenclature, it was made a decision to return to the conservative BNA and revise it only in a small extant. Later, in connection with a rapid research in medicine in the second half of 20th century, more frequent revisions of nomenclature were needed. As a result, further revisions of the BNA were issued under the name the Nomina Anatomica in 1961, 1966, 1977, 1983, 1989, and as the Terminologia Anatomica (TA) in 1998. The total number of the Latin anatomical terms included in the TA is 7,635. On top of that, there are accompanied by their English equivalents in this revision (Kachlík et al. 159).

6. Advantages of the use of Greek-Latin as the language of medicine

Having given a brief history of Greek-Latin medical terminology, I will try to explain why Greek-Latin defended its position and has been used as the language of medicine until these days. Firstly, Greek-Latin medical terms have a long tradition, which gives them the advantage over new terms formed in national languages. Since Greek-Latin medical terminology belongs to the permanent European cultural heritage, there has never been as strong aversion against it as it has happened in the case of living languages, e.g. Arabic and English. The reason for this is that a dead language, which is actually “freed” of its nation, cannot threat the political or cultural independence of other nations as living languages with their nations can. In this sense, Whitmore talks about “neutrality” of Latin in comparison to national languages (qtd. in Marečková, Šimon, and Červený, “Latin as the language of medical terminology” 583). Secondly, since Latin is a dead language, it does not undergo many changes like living languages. Consequently, Latin is more stable, and suitable for international communication. As Poláčková emphasizes, the international character of Greek-Latin medical terminology also prevents it from the isolation which can appear in the case of some national medical terminologies in the relation to others. Undoubtedly, the absence of the connection with its nation makes the position of Latin as the international language more stable. The existence of Latin as a dead language also brings another positive aspect. Latin and Greek roots, prefixes and suffixes can be combined together on the basis of analogy without many restrictions, which living languages often have. In addition, there exist a sufficient number of Greek-Latin word-formation elements. Therefore, new terms can be formed easily whenever it is necessary to name a new idea in the medical science. For this purpose, compound Greek words are very convenient as they are able to express complex concepts on the basis of analogy with already existing terms. The principle of analogy can also be used to understand the words formed in the same way. As a result, in medical terminology there are not only the words which come from classical Latin and Greek, but also the words formed from morphemes of these languages in the Renaissance and later (Poštolková, Roudný, and Tejnor 68). For instance, a large number of new Greek-Latin medical terms concerning diseases and medical methods were introduced during the 20th century in connection with the huge progress in medical research. According

25 to Banay, approximately 50 % of English medical terminology was formed not sooner than a hundred years ago (2). At this point it is important to remark that new words usually follow the word-formation models of old words. This is why it is difficult to distinguish the older layer of medical terms from the new one, which e.g. appendicitis and streptococcus belong to (Marcovecchio 78, 824). To sum up, the possibility to use the same word-formation principles, which were applied hundreds of years ago, contributes to the stability of medical terminology. This also advantages Latin as the language of medicine. Furthermore, Latin medical terminology can serve as a tool for a “secret” communication among doctors in front of the patient. This function of medical Greek-Latin is discussed by Marečková, Šimon, and Červený: “The incomprehensibility of the two languages [Latin and Greek] for the patient is a specific moment of preference, as it is not always in his or her interest to understand the utterances of physicians. Thus the doctor speaks an incomprehensible language and, through a reverse logical process, the impression may arise that if somebody uses an incomprehensible terminology, she or he is a good doctor.” (“Latin as the language of medical terminology” 582). In a nutshell, the use of Greek-Latin by doctors in patient´s presence can be extremely beneficial for the patient´s psychical state and his or her trust in the doctor´s abilities. For the reasons mentioned above, most of anatomical and clinical terms come from Latin and Greek. This means that they are either ancient terms, or the words newly formed according to the principles of ancient Latin and Greek. To sum up, despite the fact that medical Latin has to compete with national languages, especially with English,4 it still keeps its position as the language of international medical communication.

4 While English medical terms are used more and more (stress; shock; screening; AIDS “acquired immunodeficiency syndrome”; CT “computer tomography”; VP shunt “ventriculoperitoneal shunt”), terms of Arabic origin (Latin alcohol, from Arabic alkuhl, alkohl; Latin alchymia, from Arabic alkimiyā; in English alcohol; alchemy), French origin (Latin migraena, English migraine) and Italian origin (Latin malaria, from Italian mala aria “bad air”) still stay in minority (Kábrt, and Kábrt jr. 157, 597, 566). 26

7. English medical terminology

As it has been shown before, nearly the whole English medical terminology is based on Latin and Greek elements, which often penetrated to English through French. In this place it is important to mention that French served as an excellent intermediary between English and Greek-Latin medical terminology from the Middle Ages until the Renaissance when it was substituted by direct loanwords from Latin. Despite the fact that Latin has been influencing the English lexicon from the Anglo- Saxon times onwards, the impact of Latin on English became the most distinctive as late as the period of the Renaissance, when English medical terminology was formed. As Crystal says, most anatomical terms penetrated to English until the end of the 17th century (87). From this point of view, the Renaissance and the period shortly after it contributed to the formation of English medical terminology the most. There are, however, many medical terms, which were borrowed from Greek-Latin to English later. For instance, gastritis dates back from 1806, and cirrhosis from 1839 (Crystal 87). Moreover, the process of forming new English medical terms on the basis of Greek-Latin models continues until these days. This reflects constant progress in medical research. In this place it should be pointed at a double character of medical terminologies, which comes from the period of the Renaissance, and exists until now in English and other European languages. On the one hand, Greek-Latin loanwords were taken directly from the classical languages into English. Alternatively, they were newly formed according to Greek-Latin models. These medical terms stayed, in fact, Latin as they respected original Latin forms. Since they were the same everywhere, they gained the international character. On the other hand, the Renaissance also provided good conditions for the creation of English medical terminology as it has already been mentioned. This led to the creation of synonymous expressions of Greek-Latin origin on one hand, and Germanic origin on the other hand, e.g. clavicula/clavicle – collar bone; ankylosis – joint-stiffening; lordosis – hollow-back (Crystal 2). Next chapters will deal with English medical terminology in more detail.

7.1 Synonymous character of English medical terminology

As it has been discussed above, the reason for the synonymous character of English medical terminology lies in the existence of parallel Greek-Latin and Germanic equivalents

27 such as scapula – shoulder blade. In this case, both synonyms are commonly used in English medical terminology. However, sometimes one expression is preferred to another one. For instance, the Latin loanword tuberculosis is much more frequent in present English medical terminology than consumption of the same origin. Despite the fact that the latter term still exists in English, it has an archaic meaning (Peprník 75).5 Nevertheless, there is rather a tendency to keep both equivalents as the presence of a large number of synonymous expressions in English medical terminology implies. Now, some negatives of the existence of synonyms in English medical terminology will be considered. Firstly, the parallel use of medical terms goes against the basic terminological principle that one concept should be named by one term. In this way, the exactness of the term may be disrupted. Therefore, most linguists consider synonymy in terminology to be a drawback (Stoyanova). From this point of view, terminology differs from literary and common language, in which synonyms are usually desirable since they are the source of different connotations, and richness of the language. This is why synonymy is defined in different ways in these two areas. While synonyms in the literary and everyday language often have the same denotative, but different associative meaning, synonyms in terminology should be identical in both meanings, and independent of the context (Stoyanova). In this way, we talk about so called partial and absolute synonymy. At this point it is important to note that parallel terms which differ only in their origin are often regarded as absolute synonyms (see the example scapula – shoulder blade). However, in English medical terminology and terminology in general this statement is questionable since synonyms of Greek-Latin origin usually have different stylistic character in comparison to their domestic equivalents. For instance, while loanwords of classical origin usually occur in specialised English texts, home terms have more general meaning. This is why the existence of total synonymy is often denied in linguistics. As far as the history of synonymy in medical terminology is concerned, it has a long tradition, and is as old as the science of medicine. The presence of synonyms in this field is connected with unsolved questions in medicine and its continuous development. In Greek-Latin medical terminology, the first synonyms come from the ancient times, when parallel Greek-Latin medical terms existed. In the Renaissance, the tendency to use a pair of Greek-Latin synonyms even became stronger as the terms such as pharmacon (from

5 A similar stylistic change can be observed in Czech. As in English, the term of Latin origin tuberkulóza is preferred to Czech souchotiny, which is perceived as archaic today. 28

Greek θάρμακον) – medicamentum; omoplata (from Greek ὠμοπλάηη) – scapula imply (Marcovecchio 659, 601). Similarly, there has been growth in synonymy in English medical terminology since its formation in the Renaissance. However, the period of Rationalism brought the tendency to make medical terminology more systematic. This also included the effort to reduce the number of synonymous pairs/triplets in English medical terminology which differed only in spelling (e.g. Greek-Latin thrombopathia – thrombopathy with the English ending) or in suffixes with the same meaning (e.g. embolia – emblus – embolism). Despite this effort, the number of synonyms was still increasing as it also happens in present English medical terminology. In comparison to the past, there is, however, the tendency to substitute Greek-Latin medical terms not only by their anglicised forms, but also by their Germanic equivalents (e.g. erythrocyte – red blood cell; coagulation – blood clotting) (Dţuganová, “A brief outline” 226). As a result, adapted terms of Greek-Latin origin are often used next to their Anglo-Saxon synonyms. Stoyanova´s investigation of synonyms in the field of traumatology also gives the evidence of the high frequency of synonymy in English medical terminology. It is surprising that as much as 44 % of the terms included 7 and more synonyms, 19 % occurred in synonymous pairs, 10 % were 4 and 5-member synonyms, 9 % consisted of 6 synonymous terms, and 8 % had 3-member synonyms. The existence of a large number of synonyms in medical terminology is also emphasized by Manuila, who claims that they form a quarter to half of the whole medical terminology (qtd. in Šimon, “O historickom výskume” 50).

7.2 Eponyms in English medical terminology

Another source of synonymy in English medical terminology, mainly in clinical praxis, is so called eponymy. It is based on the use of a proper name for the denotation of a newly discovered disease, symptom, diagnostic method or an anatomical structure. For example, Grierson-Gopalan syndrome “burning feet syndrome” is also called Gorlin´s syndrome, and Gorlin-Holt syndrom (Stoyanova). It is usually formed on the basis of the discoverer´s name or the person who described a new concept as the first one (Down syndrome; Hippocratic face). However, the motivation can also be different. For instance, Achilles tendon is called after the legendary fighter in Homer´s Iliad, who was vulnerable only on his heel (Řešetka, “K otázce uţívání eponym” 720).

In present medical terminology, there is a tendency to avoid eponyms since they name concepts only with the use of one type of relation, and do not include significant features of different concepts in their names. Yet, same eponyms are so deeply rooted that it is nearly impossible to remove them from medical terminology.

7.3 The structure of medical terms of Greek-Latin origin and their adaptation in English medical terminology

While the words of Anglo-Saxon origin form approximately one third of colloquial English, it is less than 5 % in English medical terminology. They usually denote the basic parts of the human body such as arm, chin, finger, foot, gut, hair, head, hip, liver, mouth and wrist. Similarly, there are only few anatomical expressions of the Scandinavian origin in English, e.g. leg, kidney, skin and scull. As far as English clinical terms is concerned, hardly any Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian word can be found there (Andrews, qtd. in Dţuganová, “A brief outline” 224). Since the majority of both English anatomical and clinical terms are of Greek-Latin origin, their word-formation principles will differ from the ones which are applied in everyday English.

7.3.1 Word-formation principles of English medical terms of Greek-Latin origin

Greek-Latin origin of many English medical terms implies that classical loanwords have been the main source of English medical terminology. For instance, the simple (opaque) naming units like femur, humerus, occiput, placenta, sinus, thorax and pus were directly taken to English from Greek/Latin. Moreover, Greek-Latin borrowings to English include derived expressions (e.g. encephalitis - a Greek suffix; dialysis - a Greek prefix) as well as compound lexemes (e.g. claustr|o|phobia, leuc|aemia). While both Greek and Latin affixes are present in derived words, Greek roots are much more suitable for the formation of compound terms, which often relate to pathological changes. In addition, there are also many derivational compounds of Greek-Latin origin in English medical terminology. They are formed by the means of composition and derivational affixes (e.g. cerebrospinal, from Latin cerebrospinalis). Furthermore, the parallel development of Greek-Latin terminology is also the reason for the existence of many hybrid medical terms in English. In linguistics, the term hybrid is used for the naming unit which comprises word-formation elements (prefixes, suffixes, roots)

30 from different languages. For instance, the derived term appendicitis has a hybrid character since it comes from the Latin appendix and Greek -itis. Similarly, the compound word arteriosclerosis has the origin from these two languages (Latin arteria, Greek ζκληρός, and Greek suffix -osis). Such hybrid Greek-Latin compound words are often used as the model for the formation of new hybrids, which can even include an English root (e.g. fibrofatty, heartometer, microneedle, macrotooth) (Řešetka, “Několik poznámek” 117).

7.3.2 Adaptation of medical terms of Greek-Latin origin in English medical terminology

Greek-Latin medical loanwords behave in different ways in English. Some of them are taken directly to English without any change in spelling, so that the original Greek-Latin terms conserve their written form. In such cases, only their pronunciation is adapted to English (e.g. pus /pʌ s/, humerus /ˈhju:mərəs/). Nevertheless, most borrowings adapt to English to a larger extent. Sometimes, the spelling of the loanword is changed. For example, diphthongs and consonant groups are usually simplified in American English, but kept in British English (Latin caecum > American-English cecum x British-English caecum; similarly rhaphe > raphe). Alternatively, a Latin suffix or ending is substituted by its anglicised form (albinismus > albinism; luxatio > luxation; obesitas > obesity) or by an English ending (mandibula > mandible; pulsus > pulse; stomatologia > stomatology; pleuritis > pleurisy). This kind of adaptation is probably the most frequent. It is, however, also possible to find some examples of Greek-Latin medical terms which significantly changed their form in English (e.g. paralysis > palsy; rhachitis > rickets). To sum up, most medical terms of Greek-Latin origin undergo phonetic- morphological adaptation to English. In this way, the loanwords are domesticated, so that they become the source for the formation of other new words with the same Greek-Latin root, but a domestic affix (e.g. English aggressiveness from aggressive < Latin aggressivus).

8. The analysis of medical terms from the field of gastroenterology

Having given some theoretical information about English medical terminology, I will concentrate on the analysis of medical terms from the area of gastroenterology, which comprise 599 anatomical and 310 clinical terms. They will be described on the basis on three criteria: The formal, semantic, and etymological one. The aim of this analysis is to find out whether there are any typical features of English medical terms, and tendencies in their use. On the basis of these findings, I will evaluate the present state of Greek-Latin and English as the languages of medicine.

8.1. Formal criterion

As far as the formal criterion is concerned, the lexemes will be analysed from several points of view. Firstly, a number of lexemes representing different word classes will be counted. With the use of these results, the representation of open and closed word classes in English medical terminology will be discussed. Secondly, a share of single-word and multi- word naming units will be determined. Afterwards, more attention will be paid to nouns, which will be divided into proper and common ones. Having done so, count and noncount nouns as well as concrete and abstract ones will be distinguished in the group of common nouns. Some problems connected with this division will also be discussed. Finally, the examples of animate vs. inanimate nouns will be found in the studied material.

8.1.1 Representation of word classes

In the corpus of terms, the presence of five parts of speech was registered: the noun, adjective, preposition, numeral and conjunction (see fig. 1, 2, 3). In both anatomical and clinical terms, the noun appears the most frequently (878 anatomical terms, i.e. 51.9 %; 366 clinical terms, i.e. 64.1 %). The noun is followed by the adjective, which also occurs quite often in English medical terminology (554 anatomical terms, i.e. 32.8 %; 166 clinical terms, i.e. 29.1 %). On the contrary, the preposition belongs to word classes with considerably lower occurrence in comparison to the noun and adjective (249 prepositions in anatomical terms, i.e.

14.7 %; 39 prepositions in clinical terms, i.e. 6.8 %). Their function is to connect simple terms into complex ones. The presence of other parts of speech such as the numeral and conjunction is exceptional (9 numerals and 1 conjunction in anatomical terms, i.e. 0.5 % and 0.1 %). As a whole, regardless of differences between anatomical and clinical terms, the noun and adjective6 are used the most often in English medical terminology (1244 nouns, i.e. 55.0 %; 720 adjectives, i.e. 31.8 %). This is connected with the importance of the referential function of medical terms. Since the noun refers to a concept and the adjective makes it more specific, these two parts of speech are very suitable for the fixation of terms. Furthermore, the existence of multi-word medical terms, the naming units of which must be put into relation, is the main reason for the occurrence of the preposition as the third most frequent word class in English medical terminology (288 prepositions, i.e. 12.7 %). The preposition of, which substitutes the most common genitive case in Latin medical terminology, forms the majority (e.g. tip of tongue). Other prepositions such as for (fissure for round ligament), on (cardiac impression on diaphragmatic surface of liver), with (acute appendicitis with perforation), in (disturbances in tooth eruption), and due to (peritonitis due to bile) are very rare. Finally, the numeral and conjunction belong to marginal parts of speech as their total number implies (9 numerals, i.e. 0.4 %; 1 conjugation, i.e. 0.04 %). The use of the numeral in gastroenterology stems from the need to name different parts of liver (e.g. segment VII of liver) or a certain tooth (third molar tooth). The only example of the conjunction is additive and in the term muscles of soft palate and fauces.

Fig. 1. A total number of lexemes representing different word classes

0.4 % 0.04 %

12.7 % Nouns Adjectives 31.8 % 55.0 % Prepositions Numerals Conjunctions

6 Beside the lexemes which are adjectives by their origin (e.g. hard palate), there are also some adjectives formed from verbs (e.g. descending colon; hidden part of duodenum). 33

Fig. 2. A number of lexemes representing different word classes in anatomical terms 0.5 % 0.1 %

14.7 % Nouns 51.9 % Adjectives 32.8 % Prepositions Numerals Conjunctions

Fig. 3. A number of lexemes representing different word classes in clinical terms

6.8 %

29.1 % Nouns 64.1 % Adjectives Prepositions

8.1.2 Representation of open and closed word classes

On the basis of the analysis of parts of speech, further conclusions can be made. Since the majority of the terms are nouns or adjectives (1964 terms, i.e. 86.8 %), open classes or so called lexical/content/full/autosemantic words form the nucleus of English medical terminology (see fig. 4). On the contrary, closed classes or so called grammatical/function/form/synsemantic words are represented by a very low number of prepositions and conjunctions (289 words, i.e. 12.8 %). Similarly, numerals, which do not fall into either of the two categories, form a marginal group (9 cases, i.e. 0.4 %). The prevalence of open classes over closed ones stems from the referential function of medical terms, and reflects the need to name new medical concepts or rename old ones in

34 accordance with modern medicine. This is why the constant “flow” of naming units is common in open classes. On the other hand, the members of closed classes are more stable and unchanging. As a result, a large number of lexical words contrast with a restricted number of function words. Moreover, while lexical words carry the meaning, function words mainly have the grammar function. The importance of content over grammar nuances is also another reason for the majority of lexical words in medical terminology and in terminology in general.

Fig. 4. A total number of open and closed word classes

0.4 %

12.8 % Open classes

Closed classes

86.8 % Minor category (numerals)

8.1.3 Representation of single-word and multi-word naming units

The analysis of the number of naming units in the English medical terms has been done with the aim to give the evidence about the complex character of medical terms. There is a general tendency to use multi-word terms over single-word ones in order to name a concept precisely, and avoid any doubts about the reference to the object. In general, a range of one-word to seven-word terms was revealed in the studied material (see fig. 5). Moreover, the analysis has shown that two-word terms appear the most often in English medical terminology (371 terms, i.e. 40.8 %). They are followed by one-word terms (199 terms, i.e. 21.9 %), four-word ones (159 terms, i.e. 17.5 %), and three-word ones (121 terms, i.e. 13.3 %). Five, six and seven-word terms form a minority (40, 11 and 8 terms, i.e. 4.4 %, 1.2 % and 0.9 %). However, it should be mentioned that there are big differences between anatomical and clinical terms, which has a great impact on the overall results above. Foremost, anatomical terms show much stronger tendency to use multi-word terms than it is in the case of clinical terms. This can be explained by the fact that a correct localisation of a certain

35 anatomical structure often requires a longer descriptive term. On the contrary, names of diseases usually become clear with the use of a term with a small number of naming units. Consequently, while two-word terms appear the most often in anatomical terms (41.4 %; see fig. 6), in clinical terms the first place is occupied by one-word terms (42.6 %; see fig. 7). Anatomical and clinical terms also differ in further positions as it is apparent from the following numbers. While four-word terms form the second most numerous group in anatomical terms (23.2 %), there are two-word terms in clinical terms in this place (39.7 %). Furthermore, anatomical terms include 14.4 % of three-word terms, only 11.2 % of one-word terms, 6.7 % of five-word terms, 1.8 % of six-word terms, and 1.3 % of seven-word terms. On the other hand, the range of multi-word terms is much more restricted in clinical terms, which comprise only one to four-word terms. In addition, three and four-word terms form only a minority in comparison to one and two-word terms (11.3 % of three-word terms; 6.5 % of four-word terms). Despite the differences between anatomical and clinical terms, the overall results confirm the tendency to use multi-word terms instead of single-word ones in English medical terminology. This corresponds with the requirement of preciseness and unambiguousness as typical features of terms.

Fig. 5. A total number of single-word and multi-word naming units 4.4 % 1.2 % 0.9 %

21.9 % 1 word 17.5 % 2 words 3 words 13.3 % 4 words 40.8 % 5 words 6 words 7 words

Fig. 6. A number of single-word and multi-word naming units in anatomical terms 1.3 % 6.7 % 1.8 %

11.2 % 1 word 23.2 % 2 words 3 words 41.4 % 4 words 14.4 % 5 words 6 words 7 words

Fig. 7. A number of single-word and multi-word naming units in clinical terms

6.5 % 11.3 % 42.6 % 1 word 2 words 39.7 % 3 words 4 words

8.1.4 Representation of common and proper nouns

The analysis of the number of common and proper nouns proved that nearly all medical nouns are common ones (1243 common nouns, i.e. 99.9 %; see fig. 8). If an exceptional case of the proper name occurred (1 proper noun, i.e. 0.08 %) it was an eponym, which was used to call a disease according to its discoverer (Crohn’s disease). In addition, three cases of clinical terms which had the origin in proper nouns have been registered. However, despite the fact that the underlined lexemes in the clinical terms salmonella enteritidis; salmonella typhimurium and salmonellosis come from the proper name of the scientist Daniel Elmer Salmon (Vokurka 930), they cannot be perceived as proper names since by adding the suffixes -ella, -osis the semantic change of the proper noun in the

37 common one took place. This is why the connection with the proper name ceased to be perceived. Consequently, these nouns must be classified as common ones.

Fig. 8. A total number of common and proper nouns

0.08 %

Common Proper

99.9 %

8.1.5 Representation of count and noncount nouns

The possibility vs. impossibility to count nouns was another way of the analysis of the terms. According to the relation to “individual, countable entities” on one hand, and “undifferentiated mass or notion” on the other hand, it is possible to distinguish count/countable nouns from noncount/uncountable/mass nouns (Crystal 209). As it was in the case of the opposition single-word and multi-word naming units, many differences between anatomical and clinical terms have been found (see fig. 10,11). While the majority of anatomical terms are countable (800 terms, i.e. 91.3 %), it is only 27.3 % (i.e. 100 terms) of clinical terms. Similarly, the number of uncountable nouns significantly differs in these two groups. While anatomical terms comprise only 2.3 % of them (i.e. 20 terms), it is as much as 63.9 % of clinical terms (i.e. 234 terms). The reverse share of countable and uncountable nouns in anatomical and clinical terms can be explained easily. The reason for this discrepancy is the fact that most anatomical terms refer to individual structures which can be counted. This means that they can be connected with the indefinite article and changed into plural. On the contrary, clinical terms name different kinds of diseases, which lack this possibility. Moreover, some cases of nouns which can be both countable and uncountable have been registered in both groups (e.g. hepatic coma; gastric haemorrhage; abdominal hernia;

38 pylorospasm; mucous membrane of tongue; see Longman). They include 5.8 % of anatomical terms (51 ones), and 8.7 % of clinical terms (32 ones). Similarly, the nouns such flexure (e.g. anorectal flexure), constriction (e.g. broncho- aortic constriction of oesophagus), abrasion (e.g. dental abrasion), perforation (e.g. acute appendicitis with perforation), invagination (e.g. invagination of colon) can be classified as countable or uncountable according to the meaning. They are perceived as countable if they name a concrete anatomical structure or a damaged part of the body. On the other hand, it they refer to an action or condition, they should be regarded as uncountable. For instance, invagination defined as “a cavity or pouch” is countable, while with the meaning “the action of process of being turned inside out or folded back on itself to form a cavity or pouch” it is uncountable (“Invagination”). In addition, some cases of nouns which occur only in the plural form have been found in anatomical terms (5 terms, i.e. 0.6 %). They include the noun fauces “the back of the mouth leading to pharynx” of Latin origin, which is actually the plural form from singular faux. Since this noun is usually used in plural in Latin, its plural form perceived as singular was also transmitted to English. The loss of the difference between singular and plural in Latin and then in English was made possible due to the fact that anatomical terms are usually used as generic ones. This means that they mostly occur only in singular if such a structure exists as the only one on or inside the body. It is also the case of this term. Despite the differences between anatomical and clinical terms, the overall results show that the majority of nouns are countable (900 ones, i.e. 72.5 %; see fig. 9). In general, uncountable nouns seem to appear not so frequently in English medical terminology (254 nouns, i.e. 20.5 %). Finally, it has also been confirmed that the cases of both countable and uncountable nouns, and plural nouns with singular meaning are rather exceptional (83 nouns, i.e. 6.7 %; 5 nouns, i.e. 0.4 %).

Fig. 9. A total number of countable and uncountable nouns

0.4 % 6.7 % 20.5 % Countable Uncountable 72.5 % Both Plural

Fig. 10. A number of countable and uncountable nouns in anatomical terms

5.8 % 2.3 % 0.6 %

Countable Uncountable Both 91.3 % Plural

Fig. 11. A number of countable and uncountable nouns in clinical terms

8.7 % 27.3 %

Countable Uncountable 63.9 % Both

8.1.6 Representation of concrete and abstract nouns

As far as the level of concreteness and abstractness is concerned, big differences between anatomical and clinical terms have also been revealed (see fig. 13, 14). While nearly all anatomical terms have been classified as concrete (874 terms, i.e. 99.3 %), there is only 35.2 % (i.e. 128 ones) of concrete nouns in clinical terms. This can be explained by the fact that most anatomical terms refer to concrete observable anatomic structures, while clinical terms name pathological states, which are usually difficult to be measured and observed. Therefore, if some cases of abstract nouns occurred in anatomical terms, they were extremely exceptional (6 cases, i.e. 0.7 %). The examples include the underlined nouns in the following terms: wisdom tooth; left lateral division of liver, and anal transition zone. As Crystal says, the suffix -dom, which is present in the first term, is typical of abstract nouns (198). On the contrary, abstract nouns dominate in clinical terms (230 ones, i.e. 63.2 %). In the studied material, the suffixes -ia (ageusia), -ism (cherubism), -itis (colitis) and -osis (halitosis) seem to be typical of abstract nouns. In addition, in clinical terms some cases of nouns which could be both concrete and abstract have been found (6 cases, i.e. 1.6 %). The decision about abstractness or concreteness depends on the meaning of the noun as it is in the case of countable vs. uncountable nouns (see above). This means that the nouns abrasion (e.g. dental abrasion), perforation (e.g. acute appendicitis with perforation), and invagination (e.g. invagination of colon) can be perceived as concrete if they refer to a damaged part of the body, but abstract if they name the process of the formation of the pathological state. Furthermore, in the case of anatomical terms there are some nouns which are concrete in the following medical terms, but possibly abstract in another context. The examples include gastric impression of liver; pharyngeal opening of auditory tube, and uncinate process of pancreas. These nouns could be easily turned into the abstract ones with the change of their meaning. Although the division of nouns into concrete and abstract ones seems to be simple, it is often very difficult to decide whether the noun falls into the first or the second group. Above all, this has been found problematic in the case of some clinical terms, which name diseases with more or less observable symptoms. However, since their level of concreteness is much lower in comparison to anatomical terms, most nouns in clinical terms have been classified as abstract ones in this thesis. On the other hand, the terms such cyst (e.g. gingival cyst), hernia

(e.g. femoral hernia) or insulinoma “a tumour which produces insulin” relate to the observable manifestation of an illness rather than a disease itself. This is why such nouns are regarded as concrete ones. Similarly, the term haemoperitoneum “the presence of blood in peritoneum” could be considered concrete in Latin and English since it names the organ peritoneum in a pathological state. On contrary, the noun haemorrhage (e.g. gastric haemorrhage) must be connected with abstract nouns as it refers to a pathological process itself. Finally, it is interesting to observe how some synonymous terms can differ in their level of concreteness and abstractness. For instance, while the term hyposalivation of Greek- Latin origin is abstract, its Germanic equivalent dry mouth comprises a concrete noun. Another example is Greek-Latin leucokeratosis nicotinica palati with the abstract name of disease, and concrete smoker´s palate of Germanic origin. This supports the tendency in English to use Germanic words for common and concrete concepts instead of sophisticated abstract terms of Greek-Latin origin. Regardless of differences between anatomical and clinical terms, and some disputable cases, the overall conclusion can be made. Having counted the total number of concrete nouns, the evidence of their majority in medical terms has been provided (see fig. 12). More precisely, 80.5 % of concrete nouns (i.e. 1002 ones) stand against 19.0 % of abstract nouns (i.e. 236 ones). The prevalence of concrete nouns over abstract ones can be regarded as typical of terminologies of natural sciences in comparison to social sciences, which the presence of more abstract nouns can be anticipated in. Finally, despite the fact that the division between concrete and abstract nouns is not always straightforward, the cases of the nouns which could be both concrete and abstract are marginal (6 nouns, i.e. 0.5 %). This means they do not have any impact on the overall results.

Fig. 12. A total number of concrete and abstract nouns

0.5 %

19.0 %

Concrete Abstract 80.5 % Both

Fig. 13. A number of concrete and abstract nouns in anatomical terms

0.7 %

Concrete Abstract

99.3 %

Fig. 14. A number of concrete and abstract nouns in clinical terms

1.6 %

35.2 %

Concrete 63.2 % Abstract Both

8.1.7 Representation of animate and inanimate nouns

Finally, the analysis of the natural gender proved that the vast majority of nouns (99.8 %) are represented by inanimate nouns (see fig. 15). The reason is that medical terms usually refer to anatomical structures and names of diseases, i.e. objects and concepts rather than living beings. This is why animate nouns included only three cases: smoker´s palate; Crohn´s disease and salmonella typhimurium. However, in the last case the connection with animate murium, which is genitive of plural from Latin mus “mouse”, is hidden for anyone who does not have the knowledge of Latin. Moreover, the connection of this word with typhi in the written form makes the term even less transparent.

Fig. 15. A total number of inanimate and animate nouns

0.2 %

Inanimate nouns Animate nouns 99.8 %

To sum up, the analysis of the English medical terms according to the formal criterion has shown that nouns and adjectives, i.e. open word classes, prevail in the corpus of medical terms from the field of gastroenterology. Moreover, the overall results proved that multi-word naming units have the higher frequency over single-word ones. As far as nouns are concerned, proper nouns seem to be exceptional in comparison to common ones. Similarly, animate nouns were found to be marginal to inanimate ones. Finally, it has been given the evidence that countable and concrete nouns exceed the total number of uncountable and abstract nouns.

8.2 Semantic criterion

English medical terms from the field of gastroenterology are the rich source of changes in meaning. This means that existing English expressions often gain new specified

44 meanings in medical terminology, so that a new medical concept is named by an old form (neck/cervix “a part of the tooth between the crown and the root”). While the specification of existing terms is very frequent, the cases of formation of completely new English medical terms are extremely rare.

8.2.1 Metaphor

The narrowing of meaning/specification is closely connected with metaphor, which lies on the transmission of the meaning from one object to another one on the basis of the external (subjective) similarity. According to Bachmanová, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of metaphors: Lexical (“dead”) metaphor and textual metaphor (258). While lexical metaphor has already ceased to be perceived as a figure of speech as its meaning has been lexicalised, the textual metaphor still keeps the tension between two compared objects. As a result, only the latter metaphor is the source of the poetic function of the language. On the contrary, lexical metaphor suits the purposes of the referential function, which is very important in medical communication. This is why numerous examples of lexical metaphor, but hardly any case of textual metaphor can be found in the studied material. The examples of lexical metaphors, which are represented by both nouns and adjectives, can be divided into three groups according to the similarity with things and places, plants, and animals. Moreover, a name for a certain part of the human or animal body can be transmitted to another more specified anatomical term. These cases have also been included in the metaphoric change. The first group (things and places), which seems to be the most numerous, is represented by the terms maxillary dental arcade; palatoglossal arch; anal columns; tonsill crypts; posterior pillar of fauces; anterior wall of stomach; anal canal; vault of pharynx; fornix of stomach; cement and enamel. These anatomical terms have the origin in architecture and art. Other terms which penetrated to medical terminology from the general language include tooth socket (out of medicine “a place on a surface or machine with holes for connecting a piece of electrical equipment”; Macmillan 1419); duodenal cap; angle of mouth; cystohepatic triangle; buccopharyngeal fascia (in general English “the dashboard of a car”/“a board above a shop on which the shop´s name is written”; Macmillan 537); lesser sac; crown; buccal fat pad; tonsillar bed; paracolic gutters (in non-medical sense “the edge of the road, where water flows away”/“the open pieces of pipe that are fixed along the edge of a roof to carry rain water away”; Macmillan 674); muscular coat of oesophagus; anorectal junction;

45 pancreatic islets (insulae pancreaticae in Latin; Langerhansovy ostrůvky in Czech); anal valves7 (> Latin valvae “a door with two leaves”); ampulla of duodenum (in medicine “a widened end part of a duct”; in general English “a bottle for ointment or oil”); sublingual dental calculus8 (a diminutive from Latin calx “a stone, mineral”); frenulum of lower lip (“a small bridle”); haustra of colon (Latin haustrum “a pump, bucket”, metaphorically “a pouch of the colon”); infundibulum of gallbladder (“a funnel”); rugae of gallbladder (in general Latin “wrinkles”; in medical Latin and English “folds on a certain organ”); lingual septum (> Latin saeptum “an enclosure for cattle” > saepīre “surround”); free taenia (in general Latin “a ribbon”; in medical Latin and English “an anatomic structure similar to a ribbon”) and epiglottic vallecula “a groove, furrow” (a diminutive from Latin vallis “valley”). At this point it is necessary to emphasize that the transmission of meaning differs in the case of domestic English words, and the ones of Greek-Latin origin. While the former expressions gained the metaphoric meaning in English itself (e.g. tonsillar bed; duodenal cap), words of Greek-Latin origin were usually enriched by it in Latin, e.g. anal valves; sublingual dental calculus. Afterwards, Greek-Latin expressions with their metaphoric meanings were borrowed to English. Alternatively, the English word of domestic origin started to be used metaphorically on the basis of the analogy with the metaphoric use in Latin (e.g. caput pancreatis - head of pancreas; corona dentis - crown; radix dentis - root). Beside the cases of the parallel occurrence of metaphors in both Latin and English medical terms, an example of metaphor applied only in the Greek-Latin term was found (e.g. Latin tunica9 muscularis pharyngis - English muscle layer of pharynx). In addition, there are some adjectives which are based on external similarity with a certain thing. More specifically, most of them express a connection with a shape of the object. These include spiral fold; semilunar fold; triangular fold; falciform ligament (> Latin falx “a sickle”); filiform papillae (> Latin fīlum “a floss”); vallate papillae (> Latin vallum “a rampart”); sigmoid colon; uncinate process of pancreas (> Latin uncīnus “a small hook”); geographic10 tongue and median rhomboid11 glossitis (> Greek ῥόμβος “a rhomb”; εἱ δος

7 In general English, it is used for “the part of a machine or piece of equipment that opens and closes in order to control the flow of air or liquid” (Macmillan 1653). In medical Latin and English, it fulfills a similar function inside vessels of the human or animal body. 8 Its metaphoric meaning is based on specification of the original general meaning. 9 It is used in the metaphoric meaning “layer” here. However, it originally related to Roman clothes, which was similer to a shirt. On the contrary, this connotation is absent in the case of the English term. 10 Lingua geographica is the Latin equivalent to this term. This disease was named after white maps which surround bald patches on the affected tongue. 11 It corresponds with Latin glossitis rhombica mediana. The term was formed according to inflammatory lesions of a rhombic shape which occur on the surface of the tongue as a typical symptom of this disease. 46

“similarity”). In these cases, the connection with the object does not have to be obvious to every speaker of English since these adjectives are of Greek-Latin origin. This is why the knowledge of Latin is necessary if this metaphoric meaning is to be revealed. By contrast, the domestic adjectives are easier to understand (see black hairy tongue below). The similarity with plants and their parts is apparent in the case of the terms (tooth) root; root of tongue; rectal stalk12; pulp degeneration; fungiform papillae (> Latin fungus “a mushroom”; forma “a form”); piriform fossa (> Latin pirum “a pear”; forma “a form”) and hypertrophy of foliate papillae (> Latin folium “a leaf”). Furthermore, there are some metaphors based on connection with animals and parts of their body. Most of them are adjectives. They include tail of pancreas; vermiform appendix (> Latin vermis “a worm”; forma “a form”); canine tooth (> Latin canis “a dog”); villous folds of stomach (> Latin villus “an animal hair”); caudate lobe (> Latin cauda “a tail”) and black hairy tongue (lingua villosa nigra in Latin; černý chlupatý jazyk in Czech). The metaphoric meaning of the last term lies in the fact that the tongue is not hairy, but looks hairy. In the case of Latin clinical terms ranula (a diminutive from Latin rāna “a frog”) and taurodontism (> Latin taurus “a bull” > Greek ηαῦ ρος; Greek ὀ δού ς “a tooth”), the metaphoric meaning based on similarity with an animal is hidden to an English speaker without the knowledge of Latin. While the former term relates to a cyst under the tongue caused by the obstruction of a salivary gland (Vokurka 886), the latter one is used to name a congenital anomaly of crowns and roots of molar teeth, which resemble a bull´s head by their shape (Vokurka 1023). In addition, the meaning of general expressions for the parts of the human or animal body is specified in the case of head of pancreas; (tooth) neck/cervix; neck of pancreas; body of stomach and dorsum of tongue. These examples can also be considered metaphors. Alternatively, some names for natural processes can be transmitted to clinical terms on the basis of external similarity (e.g. disturbances in tooth eruption; dental erosion).

8.2.2 Metonymy

Metonymy is another change of meaning which is applied in the formation of English medical terms. In comparison to metaphor, metonymy lies in transmission of the meaning

12 The original meaning is “a long thin part of a plant with a flower, fruit, or leaf at the end (Macmillan 1452)”. 47 from one object to another one on the basis of internal (objective) relations (i.e. space, time or cause connections). In the studied material, there was a large number of metonymic expressions which named various muscles of the digestive system. All of them were borrowings of Greek-Latin origin, which kept Greek-Latin adjectives specifying the muscle, but omitted the noun muscle (mūsculus in Latin), so that conversion of the adjective into the noun took place. To put it in another way, the original Latin adjective gained the function of the noun in English due to the ellipsis of the noun muscle. This is why the converted adjective not only specifies the kind of the muscle, but it also expresses the relation to the muscle in general. At the same time, the original Latin adjective ending has been kept in English. Such cases of metonymy include genioglossus; broncho-oesophageus; ceratoglossus; chondroglossus; inferior constrictor; middle constrictor; hyoglossus; palatoglossus; palapharyngeus; pleura-oesophageus; rectococcygeus; rectoperinealis; recto-urethralis superior; rectovesicalis; salpingopharyngeus; styloglossus; stylopharyngeus; cricopharyngeus and thyropharyngeus. In Latin, all of these expressions are preceded by the term musculus, which, however, can also be omitted as it happened in English. Therefore, it can be assumed that Latin, not English, was the original source of this metonymic change. Similarly, the word tunica is omitted in English in the case of the following expressions: Pharyngeal mucosa (from Latin tunica mucosa pharyngea); serosa of oesophagus (from Latin tunica serosa oesophageae); adventitia of oesophagus (from Latin tunica adventitia oesophageae). However, this change also stems from Latin since the form with omitted tunica also occurs in Latin. Other examples of Latin metonymic expressions, which were later taken to English in their elliptic forms, include Latin and English caecum (< Latin caecus, a, um “blind”); jejunum (< Latin jējūnus, a, um “hungry; empty, dry”) and rectum (< Latin rēctus, a, um “straight”). Metonymy in these terms is based on omission of Latin intestinum and English intestine, so that both specific and general meaning is expressed by the single-word term. In the field of clinical terms, the cases with ellipsis occur in both Latin and English: Latin (dens) distomolaris; (dens) paramolaris - English distomolar; paramolar. However, while the presence of dens is optional in Latin, it is always omitted in English. Another example of metonymy is English wisdom teeth (originally teeth of wisdom), which is the translation of modern-Latin dentes sapientiae (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 1009). The use of metonymic expression sapientia in Latin, and wisdom in English stems from the belief that adolescents and young adults, to whom wisdom teeth start to grow

(usually at the age of 16 to 25), are becoming more sensible and wiser at this time. The late dentition of wisdom teeth also reflects its Latin synonym dens serotinus (from Latin sērō “late”). Latin and English philtrum “the vertical groove extending from the nasal septum to the upper lip” is also based on metonymy as the origin of the term from Greek θί ληρον “love potion” proves (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 675). This is supported by the fact that the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that there is a connection between love and the groove (Marcovecchio 662). The metonymic meaning is, however, lexicalised in English medical terminology. Furthermore, the main symptom is sometimes used to name a disease, which can also be perceived as a kind of metonymy. This is apparent in the metonymic term dry mouth, an equivalent to hyposalivation (from Latin hyposalivatio). A similar example is globus13 hystericus used in both Latin and English, which occurs as one of many symptoms of hysteria. The metonymic meaning of this term lies in the fact that globus is not identical with a real object, but the feeling of the presence of a round object in the throat. In addition, the clinical term smoker´s palate is based on the generic name for the group of patients who are affected by this disease. Since this term names only the affected organ, not the disease itself, it can also be perceived as metonymy. It corresponds with Latin and English leucokeratosis nicotinica palati, which, by contrast, includes the name of the disease and its cause. In the following English terms of Greek-Latin origin, the metonymic meaning is lexicalized, so that it is transparent only to the person with the knowledge of Latin. It is the case of Latin processus “process, advance, progress” (from Latin procedere “go forward”) and recessus “retreat” (from Latin recedere “go back, withdraw”), which denotes “outgrowth” and “groove, hollow” in medical terminology on the basis of space relations (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 712,745). However, the connection with the original meaning has been hidden in English anatomical terms such as caudate process of caudate lobe of liver and hepatorenal recess. Moreover, Latin and English term duodenum can also be perceived as metonymy since it was created as the shortened form from medieval-Latin intestinum duodenum digitorum “intestine of twelve digits” (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 294). The information about the length of duodenum thus became the source of metonymy based on space relations.

13 In Latin, globus refers to “an object of the round shape”. 49

Finally, symptoms of Latin and English proctalgia fugax, which quickly appearing and disappearing pain in rectum is typical of, are the source of the metonymic use of the Latin adjective fugāx “fleeting”.

8.2.3 Synecdoche

Furthermore, some English medical terms are based on synecdoche. It relates to the use of the whole for the part or the part for the whole. In the studied material, only some cases of the substitution of the part by the whole were noticed. However, it should be noticed that the part and the whole stay, in fact, identical in the examples, and the exchange lies only in the denotation of the part of the organ as if it were an independent organ. For instance, right/left liver; posterior liver was used as the English equivalents to Latin pars hepatis dextra/sinistra “right/left part of liver”; pars posterior hepatis “posterior part of liver”. Other cases include terminal ileum (Latin pars terminalis ilei); laryngopharynx/hypopharynx (Latin pars laryngea pharyngis); nasopharynx (Latin pars nasalis pharyngis) and oropharynx (Latin pars oralis pharyngis).

8.3 Etymological criterion

Finally, I will provide the analysis of the studied material as far as its origin is concerned. The results will be evaluated statistically so that the influence of various languages on English medical terminology is clearer (see fig. 16). The main attention will be paid to the terms of Greek-Latin origin, which are the important source of English medical terminology. To put it briefly, eight groups can be distinguished in the studied material. The most numerous were the terms of Greek-Latin origin with anglicised forms. This means that as much as 28.6 % (i.e. 256 terms: 168 anatomical terms, and 88 clinical ones) include Greek- Latin loanwords which adapted their form to English. This usually happened by the means of English or anglicised suffixes or endings (e.g. colon ascendens - ascending colon; areae gastricae - gastric areas; constrictio pharyngooesophagealis - pharyngo-oesophageal constriction). Alternatively, a very frequent Latin genitive case was substituted by the English of-construction (e.g. isthmus faucium - isthmus of fauces) or the adjective with an anglicised ending (e. g. calculus dentis - dental calculus). The change of word order in English, which is based on preposition of qualitative adjectives instead of postposition as in Latin, is the natural part of adaptation of Greek-Latin terms to English (e.g. periodontitis apicalis acuta - acute

50 apical periodontitis). However, the original word order stays unchanged in some cases (e.g. Latin cavitas oris propria - English oral cavity proper). In this example, postposition of the adjective proper is obligatory if the meaning “the real or main part of something, not other parts before, after, or near to it” is to be kept (Longmann 1392). Beside anglicised terms of Greek-Latin origin, there were a large number of multi-word terms of mixed origin. More precisely, 26.5 % (i.e. 237 terms: 216 anatomical terms, and 21 clinical ones) consisted of one Greek-Latin expression and the one of Germanic origin at least. A high percentage of these terms are connected with the fact that the basic parts of gastrointestinal system and the adjectives describing their position, shape and features are often named by the expressions of Germanic origin, which must be present in most terms if the relationship to a certain organ is to be expressed. These general expressions include e.g. liver; gallbladder; gum; mouth; lip; tooth; tongue; root; tail; head; neck; body; opening; groove; layer; fold; right; left; middle; broad; soft; hard; small; greater; lesser; hidden and hairy. In connection with their frequent occurrence, the number of mixed terms is relatively high (see e.g. cingulum of tooth; head of pancreas; body of stomach; tonsillar bed; glands of mouth; small intestine; left lobe of liver and empyema of gallbladder). This group is followed by original Greek-Latin terms, which were taken directly from Greek-Latin to English without any morphological or syntactic change. The only difference between Greek-Latin terms and English borrowings is apparent in pronunciation, which is adapted to English rules. This group is represented by 17.9 %, which corresponds with 160 terms (36 anatomical terms, and 124 clinical ones). A significantly higher number of original Greek-Latin clinical terms over anatomical ones support the tendency in English to name diseases by Greek-Latin terms instead of Germanic ones as it has been implied before (see page 20). On the contrary, the use of words of Germanic or mixed origin for the basic parts of the human body is more common. The examples of the original Greek-Latin terms include appendix; anus; caecum; colon; duodenum; fauces; ileum; jejunum; ligamentum venosum; levator veli palatini; pancreas; periodontium; porta hepatis; taeniae coli; torus levatorius;, alveolitis; anodontia; cheilosis; diarrhoea; epulis fibromatosa; glossitis areata exfoliativa; haemoperitoneum; materia alba; periadenitis mucosa necrotica recurrens and salmonella typhimurium. Furthermore, the occurrence of Greek-Latin terms which penetrated to English through French or another Romance language was detected. The examples are bile duct (English bile > French bile > Latin bīlis; see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 94); anorectoperineal muscles (English muscle > old and modern-French muscle > Latin

51 mūsculus, diminutive of Latin mūs “mouse”; see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 598); juxta-oral organ (English organ > old-French organe, orgene; Provencal orgue; Spanish órgano; Italian organo > Latin organum > Greek ὄ ργανον; see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 632); posterior pillar of fauces (English pillar > Anglo-Norman piler; old and modern-French pilier; Provencal and Spanish pilar > Latin pīla “pillar”; see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 681). These terms represent 17.9 % of the studied material (i.e. 160 terms: 108 anatomical terms, and 52 clinical ones), which is the same percentage as in the case of the original Greek- Latin terms. This finding supports the fact that the influence of French on English medical terminology and on English in general was huge from its beginning in connection with the Norman occupation in 1066, and its political and cultural power in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. In addition, the number of English loanwords of Greek-Latin origin increased during the era of the Renaissance, when it was common that Greek-Latin terms were borrowed either directly from Latin or through French as the intermediary. As the authors of The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology say, “since literate Englishmen have been acquainted with both French and Latin throughout the Middle Ages and down to our own times, either channel [French or Latin], or both, could be assumed as the means of entry into English (...)” (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield VII-VIII). This is why it is often difficult to determine the exact way of the medical term from its ancient source to English. As a result, different interpretations of the origin of some words can be found in different etymology dictionaries. For instance, while the word atrophy, which is present e.g. in the clinical term atrophy of salivary gland, is considered to have been taken to English directly from Latin atrophia (> Greek ἀ ηροθί α) in one etymology dictionary (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 60), according to another source, the way of this word to English was intermediated by French atrophie (Harper). Sometimes, it is not even possible to decide whether the borrowing is direct or indirect. In such cases (or if it has been proved that Latin as well as French contributed to the borrowing to English), both Latin and French are given as sources. In the studied material, 3.5 % (i.e. 31 terms: 19 anatomical terms, and 12 clinical ones) belong to this group. The examples are anal columns (English column partly from old-French columpne, partly from Latin columna; see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 192); fissure for ligament teres (English fissure > old and modern-French fissure or Latin fissūra; see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 358); similarly canine fossa; lymphoid nodules of lingual tonsil; alimentary system; oral vestibule; median rhomboid glossitis and peptic ulcer (see Friedrichsen, and Burchfield).

Moreover, 3.0 % (i.e. 27 terms: 20 anatomical terms, and 7 clinical ones) is represented by the terms which consist only of expressions of Germanic origin. As it has been said before, most of them are names for basic parts of the human body or domestic names of diseases (tip of tongue; cheek; neck of gallbladder; lower/upper lip; right/left liver; black hairy tongue). Nevertheless, anatomical and mainly clinical terms of domestic origin often have their international Greek-Latin equivalents, which differ as far as the style is concerned (wisdom tooth - third molar tooth; gum - gingiva; bad breath - halitosis; burning tongue - glossopyrosis; dry mouth - hyposalivation; toothache - odontalgia/odontodynia; drooling - ptyalism). In addition, some specific cases were found in the studied material. They represent 2.3 %, i.e. 21 terms (17 anatomical terms, and 4 clinical ones). Most of them are of Germanic origin, and were introduced to English through French. For instance, English coat (e.g. in the term muscular coat of oesophagus) comes from old-French cote, which is of Frankish origin (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 312). On the contrary, English plaque14 (e.g. in the term dental plaque) penetrated to English through French plaque, which originates from Dutch plak (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 687). Similarly, English sprue15 from late 19th century comes from Dutch spruw “thrush”, which is probably related to Flemish spruwen “sprinkle”

(“Sprue2”). An interesting etymology can also be observed in the case of the term perlèche, which is used as the equivalent to Greek-Latin cheilitis angularis “inflammation in the corner of the mouth”. The term was formed from French perlicher “to lick one´s lips”, which comes from Latin prefix per- “thoroughly”, and licher “to lick” of Germanic origin. This verb has a relation to old-Saxon likkon “to lick” (“Perleche”). Sometimes, the way of the term of Greek-Latin origin to English is not intermediated by a Romance, but another Germanic language or old English itself. This can be illustrated by English word pit (e.g. in the term tonsillar pit), which occurred as pytt in old English, and corresponded to similar forms in other Germanic languages. This old-English expression was taken directly from Latin puteus “well, pit”, and gradually developed into the present form (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 684). Similarly, the lexeme wall (e.g. in the term posterior wall of stomach) is the old-English word, which was borrowed from Latin vallum “rampart”

14 The original meaning is “ornamental plate or tablet”; the meaning “bacteria deposits on teeth” is secondary (Harper). 15 There are two forms of this disease. For so called tropical sprue, the formation of ulcers in the mouth and chronic enteritis is typical. It usually occurs in connection with the stay in tropical regions. Non-tropical sprue or coeliac disease is characterized as “a disease in which the small intestine is hypersensitive to gluten, leading to difficulty in digesting food” (“Sprue2”). 53 independently of Romance languages (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 990). These terms have also been included in the group of specific cases. Finally, the exceptional cases of borrowings from other languages were found (0.2 %, i.e. 2 clinical terms). The term bezoar, which is used for a structure similar to a stone formed from fibre and hair in the stomach or intestines of some mammals, has the origin in Arabic bēzahr, which comes from Persian pādzahr (from pād “protector” + zahr “stone”) (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 92). The connection of the term with the Persian words is explained by believe that this calculus had the power to protect against antidotes (Vokurka 120). The origin of the term cherubism (cherub16 + suffix -ism), which the abnormal enlargement of lower or upper jaw, and swelling of the lower part of the face is typical of, is connected with Old-Testament Hebrew kerūb (> Accadian karūbu “gracious”, kirūbu “propitious”) (Friedrichsen, and Burchfield 167). In conclusion, a high percentage of terms of Greek-Latin origin prove that English medical terminology is significantly dependant on these two languages. On top of that, the influence of Greek-Latin on English is strengthened due to French as the politically and culturally powerful intermediary of classical terms. Moreover, while Greek-Latin terms have the capacity to name highly specified anatomical structures and diseases, words of Germanic origin are able to name only basic concepts. The occurrence of these Germanic terms is, however, very high, which is the only reason for approximately the same number of mixed terms as anglicised Greek-Latin ones. The influence of other languages than Greek-Latin, Romance and Germanic ones is only marginal in English medical terminology. To sum up, the etymological analysis has given the evidence that English medical terminology is based on Greek-Latin one. Moreover, it forms a special layer of the English lexicon, in which terms of Greek-Latin origin keep the ability to express scholarly concepts the best.

16 A cherub is a mythical being, an angel partly with a human body, partly with an animal body. His task was to carry the God´s throne and guard sacred places (Ottova všeobecná encyklopedie 496). 54

Fig. 16. The origin of anatomical and clinical terms

Terms of Greek-Latin origin with adapted form 0.2 % 3.0 % 2.3 % Terms of mixed origin 3.5 %

Original Greek-Latin terms 28.6 % 17.9 % Terms of Greek-Latin origin which penetrated to English through a Romance language

17.9 % Terms of Greek-Latin origin which penetrated to English directly through Latin or indirectly 26.5 % through a Romance language Terms of Germanic origin

Specific cases

Terms borrowed from other languages

9. Tendencies in the development of Greek-Latin and English medical terminology

As it has been showed before, English medical terminology can be characterized as fully developed and functioning in its field. It can be even assumed that out of all national medical terminologies its influence is the most significant. The reason for this is the global spread of general English as the lingua franca all over the world after the Second World War. In the second half of the 20th century, English became the lingua franca in connection with the increasing economic and political power of the USA, and their rapid progress in the field of science, technology and media. This is why it is often said that English also fulfils the function of the international language in medicine, which has been a privilege of Greek-Latin since the ancient times. However, despite the fact that English has been a rich source of new terms recently, there are still some limitations in medical English. In this aspect, medical English differs from general English, which, in fact, deserves to be called the lingua franca. As the analysis proved, the share of Greek-Latin words in English medical terminology is so high that it can be hardly considered to be independent of Latin. Although terms of Greek-Latin origin are often adapted to English, their basis remains Greek-Latin. This is why the knowledge of Greek-Latin medical terms and principles of their formation are essential for anyone who studies English medical terminology. Otherwise, English terms of Greek-Latin origin will be perceived as unmotivated, which can make the process of their learning and remembering extremely difficult. Moreover, English has preserved not only Greek-Latin anatomical and clinical terms in their nominative forms, but it also respects Latin inflexion to a certain extent. This can be observed in nominative of plural of the words such as pharynx – pharynges and rectum – recta (also rectums). On top of that, there are also many Greek-Latin expressions in medical English which were taken directly from its source without the change of Latin endings. For instance, the following terms keep both nominative of plural, and genitive of singular and plural: taeniae coli; musculus uvulae; porta hepatis; leucokeratosis nicotinica palati; salmonella typhimurium. In addition, some of them also express the agreement of the adjective with the noun: amelogenesis imperfecta; dens evaginatus; epulis gigantocellularis. This means that if one is to understand the structure of English medical terms, he/she also needs to become familiar with basic Greek-Latin grammar.

Furthermore, as far as synonymy is concerned, the lack of system is observed in English medical terminology (Marečková, Šimon, and Červený, “Latin as the language of medical terminology” 582). As it is apparent from the list of gastrointestinal terms, it is difficult to define a rule about the preference of one synonym to another one. To put it in another way, it is hard to explain why one Greek-Latin term is kept in its original form (Latin/English porta hepatis), another one is substituted by the Germanic/anglicised form (Latin alveolus dentalis – English tooth socket; Latin ampulla recti – English rectal ampulla), and the third one brings both Greek-Latin and Germanic equivalents (Latin/English leucokeratosis nicotinica palati – English smoker´s palate). This limitation also disadvantages English medical terminology over Greek-Latin one. In connection with the reasons mentioned above, I suppose that English will not push Greek-Latin out of its position as the international medical language. This is also supported by an extremely long tradition of Greek-Latin medical terminology, which has already resisted the Romance and Arabic pressure in the Middle Ages. Therefore, regardless of the fact that English has a strong position in present medicine, and many pessimistic views on the future of Greek-Latin medical terminology exist, I assume that it will outlive the English influence, and be used by future generations. This assumption is also supported by Marečková, Šimon, and Červený (“Latin as the language of medical terminology” 582).

10. Conclusion

On the basis of the results gained in theoretical and practical analysis, several conclusions can be made. Firstly, beside the general features of the term such as unambiguousness, exactness, stability, word-formation potential and the lack of emotionality, English medical terms show some specific features. They include e.g. synonymous character, which, in fact, stands against the principles of unambiguousness and exactness. Nevertheless, the existence of equivalent terms needs to be perceived as the part of the natural development of English medical terminology from Greek-Latin one. During this process, newly formed domestic terms started to occur next to original Greek-Latin ones. As a result, English medical terminology comprises a large number of synonyms of different origin. However, despite the strong position of English as the language of international communication, the etymological analysis has shown that the majority of English medical terms are still dependent on Greek-Latin. Moreover, if the adaptation of Greek-Latin terms in English medical terminology took place, their changes were not as radical as they could disrupt the connection of Greek-Latin terms with the original languages. This is why the understanding of the meaning and structure of most English medical terms requires the comparison with parallel Greek-Latin terms. Consequently, every student of medicine is strongly recommended studying medical Greek-Latin properly since it still keeps the international character and strong position due to its long tradition. Therefore, I assume that if the student becomes aware of the constant influence of Greek-Latin on general English lexicon and English medical terminology, the process of the acquisition of Greek-Latin medical terminology will be made simpler. With this aim, I incorporated the chapter about the influence of Greek-Latin on the English language into this thesis. In addition, the findings gained in the formal and semantic analysis have proved that English medical terms suit the purposes of the scientific language. For instance, the majority of nouns and adjectives reflect the importance of the referential function of terms. This means that both Latin teacher and student should mainly concentrate on teaching and studying these two parts of speech. Similarly, the prevalence of multi-word naming units over single-word ones should also motivate the teacher in his effort to explain their structure and the function of equivalent Latin forms properly.

On top of that, the student of Greek-Latin medical terminology should also realise that medical terms often share many features with general lexemes, and there are often formed from them. For instance, it has been shown that many medical terms are based on a semantic change (e.g. metaphor or metonymy), which is also common in the general lexicon. Similarly, medical terms are also countable or uncountable, concrete or abstract as naming units from the general lexicon are. This could bring students closer in their understanding of English and Greek-Latin medical terms. Searching similarities between medical English and Greek-Latin, and medical terminology and the general lexicon could lead a foreign student, who struggles with the Latin grammar system but is advantaged by his/her good knowledge of English, to better comprehension of medical Greek-Latin, and more positive attitude to it. In addition, medical Greek-Latin could also help him/her to acquire other medical subjects, which are still based on Greek-Latin terminology. For this reason, a Latin teacher should try hard to make the student´s acquisition of medical Greek-Latin easier. The tools for reaching this aim would be the topic of another thesis. Hopefully, this thesis has confirmed that there is the importance of studies of medical Greek-Latin terminology even in the world at the beginning of the 21st century, when English may seem to be taking over its position. On the contrary, I assume that medicine cannot be taught and understood well without Greek-Latin since the separation from its roots would make medicine less comprehensible. This is why I fully agree with the Neo-Latin adage “Invia est in medicina via sine lingua Latina” (“The way without Latin is impassable in medicine”).

References

Andrews, Edmund. A history of scientific English. The story of its evolution based on a study of biomedical terminology. New York: Richard R. Smith, 1947. Print.

Bachmanová, Jarmila et al. Encyklopedický slovník češtiny. Ed. Petr Karlík, Marek Nekula, and Jana Pleskalová. Praha: Lidové noviny, 2002. Print.

Banay, L. George. “An Introduction to Medical Terminology I. Greek and Latin Derivations.”

Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 36.1 (1948): 1-27. Web. 28 May 2011.

Canfora, Luciano. Dějiny řecké literatury. Trans. Dagmar Bartoňková et al. Praha: KLP, 2004. Print.

Conte, Gian Biagio. Dějiny římské literatury. Trans. Dagmar Bartoňková et al. Praha: KLP, 2003. Print.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Print.

Dítě, Petr. Gastroenterologie: Učební text pro studující lékařství. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2000. Print.

Dţuganová, Boţena. “A Brief Outline of the Development of Medical English.” Bratislavské lékařské listy 103.6 (2002): 223-227. Web. 25 May 2011.

Dţuganová, Boţena. “Synonymy of Negative Prefixes Concerns Also Medical English.”

Bratislavské lékařské listy 109.5 (2008): 242-244. Web. 25 May 2011.

Ellegård, Avar. English, Latin and Morphemic Analysis. Göteborg: Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, 1963. Print.

Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology. Terminologia Anatomica. International Anatomical Terminology. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, 1998. Print.

Friedrichsen, George Washington Salisbury, and Burchfield, Robert W. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Ed. Charles Talbut Onions. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1966. Print.

Hahn, Udo et al. “Subword Segmentation - Leveling out Morphological Variations for

Medical Document Retrieval.” Proceedings of the AMIA Symposium (2001): 229-233. Web. 25 May 2011.

Hanzlová, Jitka, and Jan Hemza. Základy anatomie soustavy trávicí, žláz s vnitřní sekrecí a soustavy močopohlavní II. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2006. Print.

Harper, Douglas. Online Etymology Dictionary, 2001-2010. Web. 15 July 2011.

Hatch, Evelyn, and Cheryl Brown. Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education. Camridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Print.

Hauser, Přemysl. Nauka o slovní zásobě. Praha: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, 1980. Print.

“Invagination.” Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press, 2006. Web. 16 July 2011.

Kábrt, Jan, and Jan Kábrt jr. Lexicon medicum. Praha: Galén, 2004. Print.

Kachlík, David et al. “Mistakes in the Usage of Anatomical Terminology in Clinical Practice.” Biomedical Papers 153.2 (2009): 157–162. Web. 21 May 2011.

Kachlík, David, and Pavel Čech. České anatomické názvosloví, 2004. Web. 25 May 2011.

Knittlová, Dagmar. Funkční styly v angličtině a češtině. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého, 1990. Print.

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: New Edition. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2009. Print.

Lukáš, Karel, and Aleš Ţák. Gastroenterologie a hepatologie. Praha: Grada, 2007. Print.

Machová, Svatava. “Terminografie.” Manuál lexikografie. Ed. František Čermák, and Renata Blatná. Praha: H&H, 1995. 137-157. Print.

Macmillan English dictionary for advanced learners: New edition. Oxford: Macmillan, 2007. Print.

Manuila, Alexander. “Medical Terminology and Medical Dictionaries: An Assesment of Problems, Needs and Prospects.” Medical Terminology and Lexicography. Proceedings of an International group of experts convened by the Council for International Organisations of Medical Sciences, Paris, 15-17 November 1965. Basel: Karger, 1966. Print.

Marcovecchio, Enrico. Dizionario etimologico storico dei termini medici. Firenze: Festina Lente, 1993. Print.

Marečková, Elena. “A linguistic View of the Latin Anatomical Nomenclature, Part I.” Scripta Medica 69 (1996): 325-334. Print.

Marečková, Elena. “A linguistic View of the Latin Anatomical Nomenclature, Part II.” Scripta Medica 72 (1999): 137-150. Print.

Marečková, Elena, František Šimon, and Ladislav Červený. “On the New Anatomical

Nomenclature.” Annals of Anatomy 183.3 (2001): 201-207. Web. 25 May 2011.

Marečková, Elena, František Šimon, and Ladislav Červený. “Latin as the Language of Medical Terminology: Some Remarks on its Role and Prospects.” Swiss Medical Weekly 132 (2002): 581-587. Print.

Marečková, Elena, and Libor Páč. “A linguistic View of the Latin Anatomical Nomenclature, Part III.” Scripta Medica 71 (1998): 103-111. Print.

“Medical dictionary.” The Free Dictionary by Farlex. Web. 27 April 2011.

Murray, Jonathan P. Angličtina pro lékařskou praxi (English in Medical Practice). Praha: LEDA, 2009. Print.

Ottova všeobecná encyklopedie ve dvou svazcích, A-L. Praha: OTTOVO NAKLADATELSTVÍ, 2003. Print.

Peprník, Jaroslav. English Lexicology. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého, 2006. Print.

“Perleche.” Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002. Web. 16 July 2011.

Poláčková, Gabriela. “Synonymy of Medical Terminology from the Point of View of

Comparative Linguistics.” Bratislavské lékařské listy 102.3 (2001): 174-177. Web. 25 May 2011.

Poštolková, Běla, Miroslav Roudný, and Antonín Tejnor. O české terminologii. Praha: Academia, 1983. Print.

Rask, Nina. “Analysis of a Medical Translation. Terminology and Cultural Aspects.” Essays.se, 4 June 2008, 11-19. Web 21 May 2011.

Řešetka, Miroslav. “K otázce uţívání eponym a popisných názvů v anglické lékařské terminologii.” Bratislavské lékařské listy 67 (1977): 720-722. Print.

Řešetka, Miroslav. “Několik poznámek k výskytu a pouţívání hybridních názvů v anglické lékařské terminologii.” Bratislavské lékařské listy 71 (1979): 115-117. Print.

Richard, L. Kurt et al. “Problems and Solutions with Intergrating Terminologies into Evolving

Knowledge Bases.” Proceedings, MedInfo: 2004, 420-424. Web. 25 May 2011.

Rosse, Cornelius. “Terminologia Anatomica: Considered from the Perspective of Next- Generation Knowledge Sources.” Clinical Anatomy 14 (2000): 120-133. Web. 28 May 2011.

Salager, Françoise. “The Lexis of Fundamental Medical English: Classificatory Framework approach.” Reading in a Foreign Language 1.1 (1983): 54-64. Web. 28 May 2011.

Schott, Heinz. Kronika medicíny. Trans. Bohuslav Hruška. Bratislava: Fortuna Print, 1994. Print.

Šimon, František. “Z dejín lekárskej terminológie (Piorryho pokus o orgánovo-patologickú nomenklatúru).” Farmakoterapeutické zprávy 28 (1982): 182-187. Print.

Šimon, František. “Z dejín lekárskej terminológie II. Sauvagesove pravidlá pre lekárskou terminológii.” Farmakoterapeutické zprávy 33 (1987): 242-244. Print.

Šimon, František. “O historickom výskume medzinárodnej lekárskej terminologie.” Bratislavské lékařské listy 90.1 (1989): 48-55. Print.

“Sprue2.” Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press, 2006. Web. 16 July 2011.

Stedman, Thomas Lathrop. Stedman´s Medical Dictionary. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1990. Print.

Stoyanova, Inga. “Notes on Synonymy in English Medical Terminology.” Ebookbrowse. Web 21 May 2011.

Thorndike, Robert L., and Lorge, Irving. The Teacher´s Word Book of 30 000 Words. New York: Columbia University, 1944. Print.

Topilová, Věra. Anglicko-český, česko-anglický lékařský slovník. Praha: Grada, 1999. Print.

Ústav zdravotnických informací a statistiky České republiky. Mezinárodní statistická klasifikace nemocí a přidružených zdravotních problémů: MKN - 10. Desátá revize. Tabelární část. Praha: BOMTON agency, s.r.o., 2008. Print. Vachek, Josef, and Jan Firbas. Historický pohled na dnešní angličtinu.Praha: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, 1962. Print.

Vogel, Radek. Basics of Lexicology. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2007. Print.

Vokurka, Martin, and Jan Hugo. Velký lékařský slovník. 9th ed. Praha: MAXDORF, 2009. Print.

Whitmore, Ian. “Terminologia anatomica: New terminology for the new anatomist.” The anatomical record 257.2 (1999): 50-53. Print.

World Health Organisation. “Diseases of the digestive system.” International Classification of Diseases (ICD). 2nd ed., 2004. Web. 21 April 2011.

Złotnicki, Bolesław. Lexicon medicum: Anglicum, Russicum, Gallicum, Germanicum, Latinum, Polonium. Warszawa: Państwowy zakład wydawnictw lekarskich, 1971. Print.

Appendices

Latin-English glossary of anatomical terms from the field of gastroenterology

Alveolus dentalis Tooth socket Ampulla duodeni; Bulbus duodeni Ampulla of duodenum; Duodenal cap Ampulla hepatopancreatica; Ampulla Hepatopancreatic ampulla; biliaropancreatica Biliaropancreatic ampulla Ampulla recti Rectal ampulla Angulus oris Angle of mouth Antrum pyloricum Pyloric antrum Anus Anus Apex cuspidis dentis Apex of cusp of tooth Apex linguae Apex of tongue; Tip of tongue Apex radicis dentis Root apex Aponeurosis linguae Lingual aponeurosis Aponeurosis palatina Palatine aponeurosis Appendices omentales; Appendices adiposae coli; Omental appendices; Fatty appendices of colon Appendix fibrosa hepatis Fibrous appendix of liver Appendix vermiformis Appendix; Vermiform appendix Arcus dentalis mandibularis; Arcus dentalis Mandibular dental arcade; Lower dental inferior arcade Arcus dentalis maxillaris; Arcus dentalis superior Maxillary dental arcade; Upper dental arcade Arcus palatoglossus; Plica anterior faucium Palatoglossal arch; Posterior pillar of fauces Arcus palatopharyngeus; Plica posterior faucium Palatopharyngeal arch; Posterior pillar of fauces Area contingens dentis Contact zone of tooth Areae gastricae Gastric areas Area nuda faciei diaphragmaticae hepatis Bare area of diaphragmatic surface of liver

Artariae interlobulares hepatis Interlobular arteries of liver Bucca Cheek Bursa omentalis Omental bursa; Lesser sac Bursa pharyngealis Pharyngeal bursa Caecum Caecum Canalis analis Anal canal Canalis gastricus Gastric canal Canalis pyloricus Pyloric canal Canalis radicis dentis Root canal; Pulp canal Capsula fibrosa perivascularis hepatis Perivascular fibrous capsule of liver Capsula tonsillae Tonsillar capsule Caput pancreatis Head of pancreas Cardia; Pars cardiaca gastricae Cardia; Cardial part of stomach Caruncula sublingualis Sublingual caruncle Cauda pancreatis Tail of pancreas Cavitas coronae Pulp cavity of crown Cavitas dentis; Cavitas pulparis Pulp cavity Cavitas oris propria Oral cavity proper Cavitas oris Oral cavity Cavitas pharyngis Cavity of pharynx Cementum Cement Cervix dentis Neck; Cervix Cingulum dentis Cingulum of tooth Collum pancreatis Neck of pancreas Collum vesicae biliaris; Collum vesicae felleae Neck of gallbladder Colon ascendens Ascending colon Colon descendens Descending colon Colon sigmoideum Sigmoid colon Colon transversum Transverse colon Colon Colon Columnae anales Anal columns Commissura labiorum Labial commissure Constrictio bronchoaortica oesophageae Broncho-aortic constriction of oesophagus Constrictio partis thoracicae oesophageae; Thoracic constriction of oesophagus;

Constrictio pharyngooesophagealis Pharyngo-oesophageal constriction Constrictio phrenica oesophageae; Diaphragmatic constriction of oesophagus Constrictio diaphragmatica oesophageae Corona clinica dentis Clinical crown of tooth Corona dentis Crown Corpus adiposum buccae Buccal fat pad Corpus gastricum Body of stomach Corpus linguae Body of tongue Corpus pancreatis Body of pancreas Corpus vesicae biliaris; Corpus vesicae felleae Body of gallbladder Crista marginalis dentis Marginal ridge of tooth Crista obliqua dentis Oblique ridge of tooth Crista palatopharyngea Palatopharyngeal ridge Crista transversalis dentis Transverse ridge of tooth Crista triangularis dentis Triangular ridge of tooth Cryptae tonsillae Tonsillar crypts Curvatura maior gastricae Greater curvature of stomach Curvatura minor gastricae Lesser curvature of stomach Curvea occlusalis Occlusal curves Cuspis accessoria dentis Accessory cusp of tooth Cuspis buccalis Buccal cusp Cuspis dentis Cusp of tooth; Cuspid Cuspis distalis Distal cusp; Hypoconulid Cuspis distobuccalis Distobuccal cusp Cuspis distolingualis Distolingual cusp Cuspis distopalatinalis Distopalatal cusp Cuspis lingualis Lingual cusp Cuspis mesiobuccalis Mesiobuccal cusp Cuspis mesiolingualis Mesiolingual cusp Cuspis mesiopalatalis Mesiopalatal cusp Cuspis palatinalis Palatal cusp Cuspis paramolaris; Tuberculum paramolare Paramolar cusp; Paramolar tubercle Dens caninus Canine tooth Dens incisivus Incisor toothh

Dens molaris tertius; Dens serotinus Third molar tooth; Wisdom tooth Dens molaris Molar tooth Dens premolaris Premolar tooth Dentes decidui Deciduous teeth Dentes permanents Permanent teeth Dentes Teeth Dentinum Dentine Diverticulum ilei Ileal diverticulum Divisio lateralis dextra hepatis Right lateral division of liver Divisio lateralis sinistra hepatis Left lateral division of liver Divisio medialis dextra hepatis Right medial division of liver Divisio medialis sinistra hepatis Left medial division of liver Dorsum linguae Dorsum of tongue Ductus biliferi interlobulares Interlobular bile ducts Ductus choledochus; Ductus biliaris Bile duct Ductus cysticus Cystic duct Ductus hepaticus communis Common hepatic duct Ductus hepaticus dexter Right hepatic duct Ductus hepaticus sinister Left hepatic duct Ductus lobi caudati dexter hepatis Right duct of caudate lobe of liver Ductus lobi caudati sinister hepatis Left duct of caudate lobe of liver Ductus pancreaticus accessorius Accessory pancreatic duct Ductus pancreaticus Pancreatic duct Ductus parotideus Parotid duct Ductus sublinguales minores Minor sublingual ducts Ductus sublingualis major Major sublingual duct Ductus submandibularis Submandibular duct Ductus thyroglossalis Thyroglossal duct Duodenum Duodenum Enamelum Enamel Excavatio rectouterina Recto-uterine pouch Excavatio rectovesicalis Recto-vesical pouch Excavatio vesicouterina Vesico-uterine pouch Facies anteroinferior corporis pancreatis Anteroinferior surface of body of pancreas

Facies anterosuperior corporis pancreatis Anterosuperior surface of body of pancreas Facies approximalis dentis Approximal surface of tooth; Interproximal surface of tooth Facies buccalis dentis Buccal surface of tooth Facies diaphragmatica hepatis Diaphragmatic surface of liver Facies distalis dentis Distal surface of tooth Facies inferior linguae Inferior surface of tongue Facies labialis dentis Labial surface of tooth Facies lingualis dentis Lingual surface of tooth Facies mesialis dentis Mesial surface of tooth Facies occlusalis dentis Occlusal surface of tooth Facies palatinalis dentis Palatal surface of tooth Facies posterior corporis pancreatis Posterior surface of body of pancreas Facies vestibularis dentis Vestibular surface of tooth Facies visceralis hepatis Visceral surface of liver Fascia buccopharyngealis Buccopharyngeal fascia Fascia pharyngobasilaris Pharyngobasilar fascia Fascia precaecocolica Precaecocolic fascia Fauces Fauces Fibrae obliquae musculi sphincteris pylorici Oblique fibres of pyloric sphincter Fissura ligamenti teretis Fissure for ligamentum teres; Fissure for round ligament Fissura ligamenti venosi Fissure for ligamentum venosum Fissura occlusalis Occlusal fissure Fissura portalis dextra Right portal fissure Fissura portalis principalis Main portal fissure Fissura tonsillaris; Fissura intratonsillaris Tonsillar cleft; Intratonsillar cleft Fissura umbilicalis Umbilical fissure Flexura anorectalis; Flexura perinealis Anorectal flexure; Perineal flexure Flexura coli dextra; Flexura coli hepatica Right colic flexure; Hepatic flexure Flexura coli sinistra; Flexura coli splenica Left colic flexure; Splenic flexure Flexura duodeni inferior Inferior duodenal flexure Flexura duodeni superior Superior duodenal flexure

Flexura duodenojejunalis Duodenojejunal flexure Flexurae laterales recti Lateral flexures of rectum Flexura inferodextra lateralis recti; Flexura Inferodextral lateral flexure of rectum; inferior lateralis recti Inferior lateral flexure of rectum Flexura intermediosinistra lateralis recti; Flexura Intermediosinistral lateral flexure intermedia lateralis recti of rectum; Intermediate lateral flexure of rectum Flexura sacralis recti Sacral flexure of rectum Flexura superodextra lateralis recti; Flexura Superodextral lateral flexure of rectum; superior lateralis recti Superior lateral flexure of rectum Foramen apicis dentis Apical foramen Foramen caecum linguae Foramen caecum of tongue Foramen omentale; Foramen epiploicum Omental foramen; Epiploic foramen Fornix gastricus Fornix of stomach Fornix pharyngis Vault of pharynx Fossa canina Canine fossa Fossa inguinalis lateralis Lateral inguinal fossa Fossa inguinalis medialis Medial inguinal fossa Fossa occlusalis Occlusal fossa Fossa ovarica Ovarian fossa Fossa pararectalis Pararectal fossa Fossa paravesicalis Paravesical fossa Fossa supratonsillaris Supratonsillar fossa Fossa supravesicalis Supravesical fossa Fossa tonsillaris; Sinus tonsillaris Tonsillar sinus; Tonsillar fossa; Tonsillar bed Fossa vesicae biliaris; Fossa vesicae felleae Fossa for gallbladder Fossulae tonsillae Tonsillar pits Fovea distalis dentis Distal fovea of tooth Fovea mesialis dentis Mesial fovea of tooth Foveolae gastricae Gastric pits Frenulum labii inferioris Frenulum of lower lip Frenulum labii superioris Frenulum of upper lip Frenulum linguae Frenulum of tongue

Frenulum ostii ilealis Frenulum of ileal orifice Fundus gastricus Fundus of stomach Fundus vesicae biliaris; Fundus vesicae felleae Fundus of gallbladder Gaster Stomach Gingiva Gingiva; Gum Glandula parotidea Parotid gland Glandula parotidea accessoria Accessory parotid gland Glandula sublingualis Sublingual gland Glandula submandibularis Submandibular gland Glandulae buccales Buccal glands Glandulae ductus choledochi; Glandulae Glands of bile duct ductus biliaris Glandulae duodenales Duodenal glands Glandulae gastricae Gastric glands Glandulae intestinales Intestinal glands Glandulae labiales Labial glands Glandulae linguales Lingual glands Glandulae molares Molar glands Glandulae oesophageae Oesophageal glands Glandulae oris Glands of mouth Glandulae palatinae Palatine glands Glandulae pharyngeales Pharyngeal glands Glandulae salivariae majores Major salivary glands Glandulae salivariae minores Minor salivary glands Haustra coli Haustra of colon Hepar Liver Hypophysis pharyngealis Pharyngeal hypophysis Ileum Ileum Impressio cardiaca faciei diaphragmaticae hepatis Cardiac impression on diaphragmatic surface of liver Impressio colica hepatis Colic impression of liver Impressio duodenalis hepatis Duodenal impression of liver Impressio gastrica hepatis Gastric impression of liver Impressio oesophageale hepatis Oesophageal impression of liver

Impressio renalis hepatis Renal impression of liver Impressio suprarenalis hepatis Suprarenal impression of liver Incisura angularis gastricae Angular incisure of stomach Incisura cardialis Cardial notch Incisura ligamenti teretis Notch for ligamentum teres Incisura pancreatis Pancreatic notch Infundibulum vesicae felleae; Infundibulum Infundibulum of gallbladder vesicae biliaris Insulae pancreaticae Pancreatic islets Intestinum crassum Large intestine Intestinum tenue Small intestine Isthmus faucium Isthmus of fauces; Oropharyngeal isthmus Jejunum Jejunum Junctio anorectalis Anorectal junction Labia oris Lips Labium inferius Lower lip Labium superius Upper lip Labrum ileocaecale; Labrum inferius ostii ilealis Ileocaecal lip; Inferior lip of ileal orifice Labrum ileocolicum; Labrum superius ostii ilealis Ileocolic lip; Superior lip of ileal orifice Lamina muscularis mucosae oesophageae Muscularis mucosae of oesophagus Ligamenta hepatis Peritoneal attachments of liver Ligamentum coronarium hepatis Coronary ligament of liver Ligamentum falciforme hepatis Falciform ligament of liver Ligamentum gastrocolicum Gastrocolic ligament Ligamentum gastrophrenicum Gastrophrenic ligament Ligamentum gastrosplenicum; Ligamentum Gastrosplenic ligament gastrolienale Ligamentum hepatocolicum Hepatocolic ligament Ligamentum hepatoduodenale Hepatoduodenal ligament Ligamentum hepatoesophageale Hepato-oesophageal ligament Ligamentum hepatogastricum Hepatogastric ligament Ligamentum hepatophrenicum Hepatophrenic ligament Ligamentum hepatorenale Hepatorenal ligament Ligamentum latum uteri Broad ligament of uterus

Ligamentum pancreaticocolicum Pancreaticocolic ligament Ligamentum pancreaticosplenicum Pancreaticosplenic ligament Ligamentum phrenicocolicum Phrenicocolic ligament Ligamentum phrenicosplenicum Phrenicosplenic ligament Ligamentum recti laterale Lateral ligament of rectum; Rectal stalk Ligamentum splenocolicum Splenocolic ligament Ligamentum splenorenale; Ligamentum Splenorenal ligament; Lienorenal ligament lienorenale Ligamentum suspensorium ovarii Suspensory ligament of ovary; Infundibulopelvic ligament Ligamentum teres hepatis Round ligament of liver Ligamentum triangulare dextrum hepatis Right triangular ligament of liver Ligamentum triangulare sinistrum hepatis Left triangular ligament of liver Ligamentum venosum Ligamentum venosum Linea anocutanea Anocutaneus line Linea pectinata analis canalis Pectinate line of anal canal Lingua Tongue Lobuli hepatis Lobules of liver Lobus caudatus hepatis Caudate lobe of liver Lobus hepatis dexter Right lobe of liver Lobus hepatis sinister Left lobe of liver Lobus quadratus hepatis Quadrate lobe of liver Margo anterior corporis pancreatis Anterior border of body of pancreas Margo gingivalis Gingival margin Margo incisalis dentis Incisal margin of tooth Margo inferior hepatis Inferior border of liver Margo linguae Margin of tongue Margo superior corporis pancreatis Superior border of body of pancreas Mesenterium Mesentery Mesoappendix Meso-appendix Mesocolon ascendens Ascending mesocolon Mesocolon descendens Descending mesocolon Mesocolon sigmoideum Sigmoid mesocolon

Mesocolon transversum Transverse mesocolon Mesocolon Mesocolon Mesometrium Mesometrium Mesosalpinx Mesosalpinx Mesovarium Mesovarium Musculi anorectoperineales; Musculi Anorectoperineal muscles; Recto-urethral rectourethrales muscles Musculi linguae Muscles of tongue Musculi palati mollis et faucium Muscles of soft palate and fauces Musculi pharyngis; Tunica muscularis pharyngis Pharyngeal muscles; Muscle layer of pharynx Musculus anoperinealis; Musculus Anoperinealis; Recto-urethralis inferior rectourethralis inferior Musculus genioglossus Genioglossus Musculus bronchoesophageus Broncho-oesophageus Musculus ceratoglossus Ceratoglossus Musculus chondroglossus Chondroglossus Musculus constrictor pharyngis interior Inferior constrictor Musculus constrictor pharyngis medius Middle constrictor Musculus constrictor pharyngis superior Superior constrictor Musculus hyoglossus Hyoglossus Musculus levator veli palatini Levator veli palatini Musculus longitudalis inferior linguae Inferior longitudinal muscle of tongue Musculus longitudalis superior linguae Superior longitudinal muscle of tongue Musculus palatoglossus Palatoglossus Musculus palatopharyngeus Palatopharyngeus Musculus pleurooesophageus Pleuro-oesophageus Musculus rectococcygeus Rectococcygeus Musculus rectoperinealis; Musculus Rectoperinealis; Recto-urethralis superior rectourethralis superior Musculus rectovesicalis Rectovesicalis Musculus salpingopharyngeus Salpingopharyngeus Musculus sphincter ampullae hepatopancreaticae Sphincter of hepatopancreatic ampulla Musculus sphincter ani externus External anal sphincter

Musculus sphincter ani internus Internal anal sphincter Musculus sphincter pyloricus Pyloric sphincter Musculus sphincter superior ductus choledochi Superior sphincter of bile duct Musculus sphincter ductus choledochi; Sphincter of bile duct Musculus sphincter ductus biliaris Musculus spincter ductus pancreatici Sphincter of pancreatic duct Musculus spincter inferior ductus choledochi Inferior sphincter of bile duct Musculus styloglossus Styloglossus Musculus stylopharyngeus Stylopharyngeus Musculus suspensorius duodeni; Ligamentum Suspensory muscle of duodenum; suspensorium duodeni Suspensory ligament of duodenum Musculus tensor veli palatini Tensor veli palatini Musculus transversus linguae Transverse muscle Musculus uvulae Musculus uvulae Musculus verticalis linguae Vertical muscle Noduli lymphoidei aggregati intestini tenuis Aggregated lymphoid nodules of small intestine Noduli lymphoidei pharyngeales Pharyngeal lymphoid nodules Noduli lymphoidei solitarii intestini tenuis Solitary lymphoid nodules of small intestine Noduli lymphoidei tonsilae lingualis Lymphoid nodules of lingual tonsil Oesophagus Oesophagus Omentum majus Greater omentum Omentum minus Lesser omentum Organum juxtaorale Juxta-oral organ Os Mouth Ostium appendicis vermiformis Orifice of vermiform appendix Ostium cardiacum Cardial orifice Ostium ileale Ileal orifice; Orifice of ileal papilla Ostium pharyngeum tubae auditivae; Pharyngeal opening of auditory tube Ostium pharyngeum tubae auditoriae Ostium pyloricum Pyloric orifice Palatum durum Hard palate Palatum molle; Velum palatinum Soft palate

Palatum Palate Pancreas accesorium Accessory pancreas Pancreas Pancreas Papilae foliatae Foliate papillae Papilla dentis Dental papilla Papilla ductus parotidei Papilla of parotid duct Papilla duodeni major Major duodenal papilla Papilla duodeni minor Minor duodenal papilla Papilla gingivalis; Papilla interdentalis Gingival papilla; Interdental papilla Papilla ilealis Ileal papilla Papilla incisiva Incisive papilla Papillae filiformes Filiform papillae Papillae fungiformes Fungiform papillae Papillae linguales Papillae of tongue; Lingual papillae Papillae vallatae Vallate papillae Paries anterior gastricae Anterior wall of stomach Paries posterior gastricae Posterior wall of stomach Pars abdominalis oesophageae Abdominal part of oesophagus Pars ascendens duodeni Ascending part of duodenum Pars buccopharyngea musculi constrictoris Buccopharyngeal part of superior pharyngis superioris constrictor Pars ceratopharyngea musculi constrictoris Ceratopharyngeal part of middle pharyngis medii constrictor Pars cervicalis oesophageae; Pars colli Cervical part of oesophagus oesophageae Pars chondropharyngea musculi constrictoris Chondropharyngeal part of middle pharyngis medii constrictor Pars coeliacoduodenalis musculi suspensorii Coeliacoduodenal part of suspensory duodeni muscle of duodenum Pars cricopharyngea musculi constrictoris Cricopharyngeal part of inferior pharyngis inferioris; Musculus cricopharyngeus constrictor; Cricopharyngeus Pars descendens duodeni Descending part of duodenum Pars glossopharyngea musculi constrictoris Glossopharyngeal part of superior pharyngis superioris constrictor

Pars hepatis dextra Right liver; Right part of liver Pars hepatis sinistra Left liver; Left part of liver Pars horizontalis duodeni; Pars inferior duodeni Inferior part of duodenum; Horizontal part of duodenum; Transverse part of duodenum Pars laryngea pharyngis Laryngopharynx; Hypopharynx Pars mylopharyngea musculi constrictoris Mylopharyngeal part of superior pharyngis superioris constrictor Pars nasalis pharyngis Nasopharynx Pars oralis pharyngis Oropharynx Pars phrenicocoeliaca musculi suspensorii Phrenicocoeliac part of suspensory muscle duodeni of duodenum Pars posterior hepatis; Lobus caudatus hepatis Posterior liver; Posterior part of liver; Caudate lobe of liver Pars pterygopharyngea musculi constrictoris Pterygopharyngeal part of superior pharyngis superioris constrictor Pars pyloric gastricae Pyloric part of stomach Pars superior duodeni Superior part of duodenum Pars tecta duodeni Hidden part of duodenum Pars terminalis ilei Terminal ileum Pars thoracica oesophageae Thoracic part of oesophagus Pars thyropharyngea musculi constrictoris Thyropharyngeal part of inferior pharyngis inferioris; Musculus thyropharyngeus constrictor; Thyropharyngeus Pecten analis Anal pecten Periodontium Periodontium Peritoneum parietale Parietal peritoneum Peritoneum urogenitale Urogenital peritoneum Peritoneum viscerale Visceral peritoneum Peritoneum Peritoneum Pharynx Pharynx Philtrum Philtrum Plica caecalis vascularis Vascular fold of caecum Plica duodenalis inferior; Plica Inferior duodenal fold; Duodenomesocolic duodenomesocolica fold

Plica duodenalis superior; Plica duodenojejunalis Superior duodenal fold; Duodenojejunal fold Plicae mucosae vesicae biliaris; Rugae vesicae Mucosal folds of gallbladder; Rugae biliaris of gallbladder Plica fimbriata linguae Fimbriated fold of tongue Plica gastropancreatica Gastropancreatic fold Plica glossoepiglottica mediana Median glosso-epiglottic fold Plica glossoepigottica lateralis Lateral glosso-epiglottic fold Plica hepatopancreatica Hepatopancreatic fold Plica ileocaecalis Ileocaecal fold Plica longitudinalis duodeni Longitudinal fold of duodenum Plica nervi laryngei superioris Fold of superior laryngeal nerve Plica paraduodenalis Paraduodenal fold Plica presplenica Presplenic fold Plica rectouterina Recto-uterine fold Plica salpingopalatina Salpingopalatine fold Plica salpingopharyngea Salpingopharyngeal fold Plica semilunaris Semilunar fold Plica spiralis Spiral fold Plica sublingualis Sublingual fold Plica triangularis Triangular fold Plica umbilicalis lateralis; Plica epigastrica Lateral umbilical fold; Epigastric fold Plica umbilicalis medialis Medial umbilical fold Plica umbilicalis mediana Median umbilical fold Plica vesicalis transversa Transverse vesical fold Plicae caecales Caecal folds Plicae circulares intestini tenuis Circular folds of small intestine Plicae gastricae Gastric folds; Gastric rugae Plicae palatinae transversae; Rugae palatinae Transverse palatine folds; Palatine rugae Plicae semilunares coli Semilunar folds of colon Plicae transversae recti Transversal folds of rectum Plicae villosae gastricae Villous folds of stomach Porta hepatis Porta hepatis Processus caudatus lobi caudati hepatis Caudate process of caudate lobe of liver

Processus papillaris lobi caudati hepatis Papillary process of caudate lobe of liver Processus uncinatus pancreatis Uncinate process of pancreas Pulpa coronalis Crown pulp Pulpa dentis Dental pulp Pulpa radicularis Root pulp Pylorus Pylorus Radix accesoria dentis Accessory root of tooth Radix buccalis dentis Buccal root of tooth Radix clinica dentis Clinical root of tooth Radix dentis Root Radix distalis dentis Distal root of tooth Radix linguae Root of tongue Radix mesenterii Root of mesentery Radix mesialis dentis Mesial root of tooth Radix mesiobuccalis dentis Mesiobuccal root of tooth Radix mesiolingualis dentis Mesiolingual root of tooth Radix palatinalis dentis Palatal root of tooth Raphe palati Palatine raphe Raphe pharyngis Pharyngeal raphe Raphe pterygomandibularis Pterygomandibular raphe Recessus duodenalis inferior Inferior duodenal fossa Recessus duodenalis superior Superior duodenal fossa Recessus hepatorenalis Hepatorenal recess Recessus ileocaecalis inferior Inferior ileocaecal recess Recessus ileocaecalis superior Superior ileocaecal recess Recessus inferior bursae omentalis Inferior recess of omental bursa Recessus intersigmoideus Intersigmoid recess Recessus paraduodenalis Paraduodenal recess Recessus pharyngeus Pharyngeal recess Recessus piriformis Piriform fossa; Piriform recess Recessus retrocaecalis Retrocaecal recess Recessus retroduodenalis Retroduodenal recess Recessus splenicus bursae omentalis; Splenic recess of omental bursa Recessus lienalis bursae omentalis

Recessus subhepaticus Subhepatic space Recessus subphrenicus Subphrenic space Recessus superior bursae omentalis Superior recess of omental bursa Rectum Rectum Rima oris Oral fissure; Oral opening Segmentum anterius laterale dextrum hepatis; Anterior lateral segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis VI Segment VI of liver Segmentum anterius laterale sinistrum hepatis; Left anterior lateral segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis III Segment III of liver Segmentum anterius mediale dextrum hepatis; Anterior medial segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis V Segment V of liver Segmentum mediale sinistrum hepatis; Left medial segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis IV Segment IV of liver Segmentum posterius hepatis; Lobus caudatus Posterior segment of liver; Caudate lobe hepatis; Segmentum hepatis I of liver; Segment I of liver Segmentum posterius laterale dextrum hepatis; Posterior lateral segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis VII Segment VII of liver Segmentum posterius laterale sinistrum hepatis; Left posterior lateral segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis II Segment II of liver Segmentum posterius mediale dextrum hepatis; Posterior medial segment of liver; Segmentum hepatis VIII Segment VIII of liver Septum linguae Lingual septum Sinus anales Anal sinuses Spatium lateropharyngeum; Spatium Parapharyngeal space; Lateral pharyngeal pharyngeum laterale; Spatium parapharyngeum space Spatium peripharyngeum Peripharyngeal space Spatium retropharyngeum Retropharyngeal space Stratum circulare gastricae Circular layer of stomach Stratum longitudinale gastricae Longitudinal layer of stomach Stria canina; Sulcus caninus Canine groove Sulci paracolici Paracolic gutters Sulcus gingivalis Gingival sulcus; Gingival groove Sulcus intersphinctericus analis Anal intersphincteric groove

Sulcus medianus linguae Midline groove of tongue; Median sulcus of tongue Sulcus terminalis linguae Terminal sulcus of tongue Sulcus venae cavae Groove for vena cava Systema digestorium Alimentary system Taenia libera Free taenia Taenia mesocolica Mesocolic taenia Taenia omentalis Omental taenia Taeniae coli Taeniae coli Tela submucosa pharyngea Submucosa of pharynx Tela subserosa oesophageae Subserosa of oesophagus; Subserous layer of oesophagus Tendo cricooesophageus Crico-oesophageal tendon Tonsilla lingualis Lingual tonsil Tonsilla palatina Palatine tonsil Tonsilla pharyngealis Pharyngeal tonsil Tonsilla tubaria Tubal tonsil Torus levatorius Torus levatorius Torus tubarius Torus tubarius Trigonum cystohepaticum Cystohepatic triangle Trigonum inguinale Inguinal triangle Trigonum parietale laterale pelvis Pelvic lateral wall triangle Tuber omentale hepatis Omental tuberosity of liver Tuberculum anomale dentis Anomalous tubercle of tooth Tuberculum dentis Tubercle Tuberculum labii superioris Tubercle of upper lip Tuberculum molare Molar tubercle Tunica adventitia oesophageae Adventitia of oesophagus Tunica fibrosa hepatis Fibrous capsule of liver Tunica mucosa linguae Mucous membrane of tongue Tunica mucosa oris Mucous membrane of mouth Tunica mucosa pharyngea Pharyngeal mucosa; Mucous membrane of pharynx

Tunica muscularis oesophageae Muscular layer of oesophagus; Muscular coat of oesophagus Tunica serosa oesophageae Serosa of oesophagus; Serous coat of oesophagus Uvula palatina Uvula palatina Vallecula epiglottica Epiglottic vallecula Valvulae anales Anal valves Venae centrales hepatis Central veins of liver Venae interlobulares hepatis Interlobular veins of liver Vesica biliaris; Vesica fellea Gallbladder Vestibulum bursae omentalis Vestibule of omental bursa Vestibulum oris Oral vestibule Villi intestinales Intestinal villi Zona transitionalis analis Anal transition zone

Latin-English glossary of clinical terms from the field of gastroenterology

(Dens) distomolaris Distomolar (Dens) paramolaris Paramolar Abrasio dentis Dental abrasion Abscessus anorectalis Anorectal abscess Abscessus fossae ischiorectalis Abscess of ischiorectal fossa Abscessus glandulae salivariae Abscessus of salivary gland Abscessus hepatis Hepatic abscess/abscess of liver Achalasia cardiae Achalasia of cardia Achlorhydria Achlorhydria Ageusia Ageusia Alveolitis Alveolitis Angina abdominalis Abdominal angina Angiocholecystitis Angiocholecystitis Ankylosis dentis Dental ankylosis Anodontia Anodontia Aplasia cementi Aplasia of cementum Appendicitis acuta perforans Acute appendicitis with perforation Appendicitis acuta Acute appendicitis Appendicitis chronica Chronic appendicitis Ascariasis; Ascaridosis Ascariasis; Ascaridosis Atrophia glandulae salivariae Atrophy of salivary gland Atrophia linguae Atrophy of tongue Atrophia papillarum lingualium Atrophy of tongue papillae Attritio excessiva dentium Excessive attrition of teeth Bezoar Bezoar Borborygmus Borborygmus Carcinoidum Carcinoid Cardiospasmus Cardiospasm Caries cementi Caries of cementum Caries dentini Caries of dentine Caries dentis Dental caries Cheilitis exfoliata Exfoliative cheilitis

Cheilitis glandularis Glandular cheilitis Cheilitis Cheilitis Cheilosis Cheilosis Cherubismus Cherubism Cholangitis Cholangitis Cholecystitis acuta Acute cholecystitis Cholecystitis chronica Chronic cholecystitis Cholecystolithiasis Cholecystolithiasis Choledocholithiasis Choledocholithiasis Cholelithiasis Cholelithiasis Cholera Cholera Cholestasis Cholestasis Cholesterolosis Cholesterolosis Cirrhosis hepatis biliaris Biliary cirrhosis Cirrhosis hepatis cardialis Cardiac cirrhosis of liver Cirrhosis hepatis macronodularis Macronodular cirrhosis of liver Cirrhosis hepatis micronodularis Micronodular cirrhosis of liver Cirrhosis hepatis postnecrotica Postnecrotic cirrhosis of liver Cirrhosis hepatis Cirrhosis of liver Coeliakia Coeliac disease Colica biliaris Colic of gallbladder Colitis ulcerosa Ulcerative colitis Colitis Colitis Coma hepaticum Hepatic coma Constipatio Constipation Cystis follicularis Follicular cyst Cystis gingivalis Gingival cyst Cystis radicularis Root cyst; Radicular cyst Defectus eruptionis dentium Disturbances in tooth eruption Defectus odontogenesis Disorder of odontogenesis Degeneratio hepatolenticularis Hepatolenticular degeneration Degeneratio pulpae dentis Pulp degeneration Dens evaginatus Dens evaginatus Dens invaginatus; Dens in dente Dens invaginatus; Dens in dente

Dentinogenesis imperfecta Dentinogenesis imperfecta Dentitio praecox Precocious dentition Diarrhoea Diarrhoea Diastema Diastema Diverticulitis Diverticulitis Diverticulosis Diverticulosis Duodenitis Duodenitis Dyspepsia Dyspepsia Dysphagia Dysphagia Dysplasia dentini Dentine dysplasia Empyema vesicae felleae Empyema of gallbladder Enteritis regionalis Regional enteritis; Crohn’s disease Enteritis Enteritis Enterobiosis; Oxyuriasis Enterobiosis; Oxyuriasis Enterocele Enterocele Enterolithiasis Enterolithiasis Enteropathia Enteropathy Enteroptosis Enteroptosis Enterorrhagia Enterorrhagia Enterostenosis Enterostenosis Epiplocele Epiplocele Epulis fibromatosa Epulis fibromatosa Epulis gigantocellularis Epulis gigantocellularis Erosio dentis Dental erosion Erythroplakia Erythroplakia Exostosis maxilae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular exostosis Fissura ani Anal fissure Fistula ani Anal fistula Fistula glandulae salivariae Fistula of salivary gland Flatulentia Flatulence Foetor ex ore; Halitosis Bad breath; Halitosis Gangraena pulpae dentis Pulpal gangrene Gastrinoma Gastrinoma Gastritis atrophica Atrophic gastritis

Gastritis corrosiva Corrosive gastritis Gastritis hypertrophica Hypertrophic gastritis Gastritis phlegmonosa Phlegmonous gastritis Gastritis Gastritis Gastroduodenitis Gastroduodenitis Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Gastroptosis Gastroptosis Gingivitis acuta Acute gingivitis Gingivitis chronica Chronic gingivitis Gingivitis Gingivitis Globus hystericus Globus hystericus Glossalgia; Glossodynia Glossalgia; Glossodynia Glossitis areata exfoliativa; Lingua Glossitis areata exfoliativa; Geographic geographica; Glossitis migrans tongue; Benign migratory glossitis Glossitis atrophica Atrophic glossitis Glossitis rhombica mediana Median rhomboid glossitis Glossitis Glossitis Glossopathia Glossopathy Glossopyrosis Glossopyrosis; Burning tongue Granuloma apicis dentis Apical granuloma Granuloma pyogenicum Granuloma pyogenicum; Septic granuloma Haematemesis Haematemesis Haemoperitoneum Haemoperitoneum Haemorrhagia gastrica Gastric haemorrhage Haemorrhagia intestinalis Intestinal haemorrhage Helminthosis Helminthosis Hepatitis fulminans Fulminant hepatitis Hepatodystrophia Hepatodystrophy Hepatoptosis Hepatoptosis Hepatosis Hepatosis Hernia abdominalis Abdominal hernia Hernia acquisita Acquired hernia Hernia congenita Congenital hernia

Hernia diaphragmatica Diaphragmatic hernia Hernia epigastrica Epigastric hernia Hernia femoralis Femoral hernia Hernia incarcerata Incarcerated hernia Hernia inguinalis Inguinal hernia Hernia inguinalis directa Direct inguinal hernia Hernia inguinalis indirecta Indirect inguinal hernia Hernia inguinalis obliqua Oblique inguinal hernia Hernia ischiadica Ischiadic hernia Hernia lumbalis Lumbar hernia Hernia obturatoria Obturator hernia Hernia paraumbilicalis Paraumbilical hernia Hernia scrotalis Scrotal hernia Hernia umbilicalis Umbilical hernia Hernia ventralis Ventral hernia Hydrops vesicae felleae Hydrops of gallbladder Hyperplasia appendicis Hyperplasia of appendix Hyperplasia cementi Cementum hyperplasia Hyperplasia maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular hyperplasia Hyperplasia tunicae mucosae oris Hyperplasia of oral mucosa Hypertrophia glandulae salivariae Hypertrophy of salivary gland Hypertrophia linguae Hypertrophy of tongue Hypertrophia papillarum foliatarum Hypertrophy of foliate papillae Hypertrophia papillarum lingualium Hypertrophy of tongue papillae Hypodontia Hypodontia Hypoplasia cementi Hypoplasia of cementum Hypoplasia enameli Enamel hypoplasia Hypoplasia maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular hypoplasia Hyposalivatio Hyposalivation; Dry mouth Icterus Icterus; Jaundice Ileitis terminalis Terminal ileitis Ileitis Ileitis Ileus Ileus Ileus paralyticus Paralytic ileus

Insulinoma; Nesidioma Insulinoma; Nesidioma Intussusceptio; Invaginatio Intussusception; Invagination Invaginatio colica Invagination of colon Invaginatio enterica Invagination of small intestine Jejunitis Jejunitis Leucokeratosis nicotinica palati Leucokeratosis nicotinica palati; Smoker´s palate Leucoplakia Leukoplakia Lingua plicata Plicated tongue Lingua villosa nigra Black hairy tongue Macrodontia Macrodontia Macrognathia maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular macrognathia Malocclusio Malocclusion Materia alba Dental plaque; Materia alba Megacolon Megacolon Melaena Melaena Melanosis coli Melanosis coli Mesiocclusio Mesiocclusion; Mesial occlusion Mesiodens Mesiodens Meteorismus Meteorism; Tympanites Microdontia Microdontia Micrognathia maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular micrognathia Mucocele glandulae salivariae Mucocele of salivary gland Nausea Nausea Necrosis pulpae dentis Necrosis of pulp Occlusio intestini Occlusion of intestine Odontalgia; Odontodynia Odontalgia; Odontodynia; Toothache Odontoclasis Odontoclasis Odontodysplasia regionalis Regional odontodysplasia Odontogenesis imperfecta Odontogenesis imperfecta Odontolithos subgingivalis Sublingual dental calculus Odontolithos supragingivalis Supragingival dental calculus Odontolithos; Calculus dentis Odontolith/Dental calculus/Tartar Odynophagia Odynophagia

Oesophagitis peptica Peptic oesophagitis Oesophagitis Oesophagitis Oligodontia Oligodontia Osteomyelitis maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular osteomyelitis Osteoradionecrosis maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular osteoradionecrosis Ostitis Ostitis Pancreatitis acuta Acute pancreatitis Pancreatitis chronica Chronic pancreatitis Pancreatitis haemorrhagica acuta Acute haemorrhagic pancreatitis Pancreatitis purulenta Suppurative pancreatitis Periadenitis mucosa necrotica recurrens Periadenitis mucosa necrotica recurrens Periadenitis Periadenitis Pericoronitis acuta Acute pericoronitis Pericoronitis chronica Chronic pericoronitis Pericoronitis Pericoronitis Periodontitis acuta Acute periodontitis Periodontitis apicalis acuta Acute apical periodontitis Periodontitis apicalis chronica Chronic apical periodontitis Periodontitis chronica Chronic periodontitis Periodontitis Periodontitis Periostitis maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular periostitis Peritonitis biliaris Biliary peritonitis; Bile peritonitis; Peritonitis due to bile Peritonitis purulenta Suppurative peritonitis Peritonitis tuberculosa Tuberculous peritonitis Peritonitis Peritonitis Perlèche/Cheilitis angularis Perlèche/Cheilitis angularis Porphyria cutanea tarda Porphyria cutanea tarda Proctalgia fugax Proctalgia fugax Proctalgia Proctalgia Proctitis Proctitis Proctocolitis Proctocolitis Progenia Progenia Prognathia Prognathia

Prolapsus recti Rectal prolapse Pruritus ani Pruritus ani Ptyalismus Ptyalism; Drooling Pulpitis acuta Acute pulpitis Pulpitis chronica Chronic pulpitis Pulpitis Pulpitis Pylephlebitis Pylephlebitis Pylorospasmus Pylorospasm Pyrosis Pyrosis; Heartburn; Acid indigestion Ranula Ranula Rectosigmoiditis Rectosigmoiditis Regurgitatio Regurgitation Retrognathia maxillae/mandibulae Maxillary/mandibular retrognathia Ructus; Eructatio Ructus; Eructation Salmonella enteritidis Salmonella enteritidis Salmonella typhimurium Salmonella typhimurium Salmonellosis Salmonellosis Scybalum Scybalum Sial(o)adenitis Sial(o)adenitis Sialectasia; Sialectasis Sialectasia; Sialectasis Sialolithiasis Sialolithiasis Sigmoiditis Sigmoiditis Sprue Sprue Steatorrhoea Steatorrhoea Stenosis pylori Pyloric stenosis Stercolithos Stercolith Stomatitis aphthosa Aphthous stomatitis Stomatitis herpetica Herpetic stomatitis Stomatitis ulcerosa Ulcerative stomatitis Stomatitis vesiculosa Vesicular stomatitis Stomatitis Stomatitis Taeniasis Teniasis Taurodontia Taurodontism Tenesmus Tenesmus

Torus mandibularis Torus mandibularis Torus palatinus Palatine torus; Torus palatinus Trichinosis; Trichinellosis Trichinosis; Trichinellosis Trichuriasis Trichuriasis Uceratio linguae (traumatica) (Traumatic) ulceration of tongue Ulcus duodeni Duodenal ulcer Ulcus pepticum Peptic ulcer Ulcus ventriculi chronica Chronic gastric ulcer Ulcus ventriculi Gastric ulcer Volvulus intestini Volvulus of intestine Xerostomia Xerostomia