April 2016 REPORT

FARM SUCCESSION IN ROMANIA

Who will take over the lands from an aging peasant generation? FARM SUCCESSION IN ROMANIA Who will take over the lands from an aging peasant generation?

Author of the report: Katelyn Baker-Smith

Project coordinator: Szőcs – Boruss Miklós Attila

Editing and Design: Fetykó Gábor Áron

Photo: Dr. Peter Lengyel

On behalf of: Eco Ruralis – In support of peasant farming

With the support of: Grassroots Foundation

April, 2016 No parts of this report may be reproduced in any form without mentioning the source and without the permission of the authors. SUMMARY

The report “Farm succession in Romania. Who regarding peasant family farming and will take over the lands from an aging peasant generational renewal. generation?” has been elaborated by Eco Ruralis, At the beginning of the report the reader is a Romanian peasant association that was introduced to the current situation regarding founded in April 2009 in Cluj-Napoca. the 'aging peasantry' problem (Chapter 1) with a specific focus on Romania and also adding to the In the “Land Rights Campaign” Eco Ruralis discussion the matter of 'Farm Succession' researches the important aspect of generational (Chapter 2). The following part points out the renewal in peasant farming and its complex consequences of disappearing small family relation with land tenure and stewardship. Being farms, with a special focus on food and land aware of the multiple threats to small-scale, sovereignty and the rise of the land grabbing agroecological food production, Eco Ruralis also phenomenon in Romania (Chapter 3). exposes through documentation and analysis the deep implications of land grabbing in The significant benefits of small-scale farming Romania, creating transparency over secretive and intra-family farm succession (Chapter 4) are large scale land acquisitions which are reshaping presented in a holistic way, focusing on the the country's farming and social landscape. social, environmental and economic benefits. It is essential to understand that peasant farms First of all, we aim to disseminate the and small family farms are not disappearing out information to our members, Romanian of choice but are instead being forced out of peasants, and deepen their understanding and existence. The barriers and obstacles faced by capacity to react to the imminent threat in the peasants are addressed in Chapter 5 while in near future: the loss of peasant farms due to age Chapter 6 we focus on the positives, highlighting and the lack of generational renewal. Also, we good practices and examples from Romania and aim to strengthen the capacity of peasant other regions from all over the world. We farmers to defend themselves against unjust conclude the study with important land deals and land grabbing. Eco Ruralis also recommendations particularly based on the calls upon all citizens and media representatives FAO's Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible to stand up for traditional and agroecological Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and practices and peasant farming. Last but not least, Forests. the Association demands that the Romanian political leaders take responsibility for implementation of appropriate policies

01 1. INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM

understand how the term differs from the European Union's understanding of 'family farmers.' The EU's definition of 'family farmers' is based on a few factors: the amount of work performed by the family itself, the amount of land, and whether the family owns most of the operation.[5] La Via Campesina defines a peasant as a person “who has a direct and special relationship with the land and nature through the production of food and/or other agricultural products.”[6] Eco Ruralis uses the term 'peasant,' because it includes individuals who are not otherwise recognized in agricultural policies. 'Peasant' includes landless people, people who sell their products outside of the family, those with a minimal amount of land, and people whose working of the land is not recognized as an occupation by the Romanian government. As There is a growing crisis facing farms and part of La Via Campesina, Eco Ruralis is working peasants who work the land around the world. to reclaim the word 'peasant' and increase its use The problem is that peasant farmers are aging in the European context. and the future of their farms is in jeopardy. It is causing serious concerns about the current state This report looks specifically at Romania, which of farm succession. Globally, the average age of reflects the global statistics on aging peasants. farmers is 60 years,[1] with only slight variations In Romania, 66.4% of peasants are over 55 years across continents and countries. In Africa the old and only 7.3% are under 35 years of age. One average farmer's age is also 60 despite the fact noteworthy point, however, is the size of these that 60% of the rest of the population is under peasants' farms. Older peasants tend smaller twenty-four.[2] In the United States 84% of farms while younger peasants tend larger farms. farmers are over 45 years old, while in Taiwan a This is demonstrated by the fact that one third of massive 92% are over 45 years old.[3] Europe is farms over 100 hectares were run by individuals no exception, with only 7% of farmers under the under 45 years old. At the other end of the age age of 35, and half of all farmers poised to retire spectrum, 70% of farms less than 20 hectares within 10 years.[4] were run by peasants over 55 years old.[7] The It is first important to define 'peasants' and to reason that the average age is still so much older

02 is because of the sheer number of smaller farms. This report describes the types of farm An impressive majority of farms in Romania sit succession, the reason disappearing farms is a on less than 20 hectares of land: in 2010 these problem, why small peasant farming is highly totaled 99% of all agricultural holdings in beneficial, and what some of the obstacles are to Romania.[8] Thus, there are many more small- peasant farmers. The final sections include farm holders than medium or large-farm descriptions of current organizations and holders. With so many peasants on the verge of networks fighting to preserve peasant farming, retirement or death there is great uncertainty the concluding remarks, and finally, Eco Ruralis' about what will become of their farms, lands, and recommendations. products.

< 35 YEARS OLD > 55 YEARS OLD United Kingdom 4 59 ...... Germany 7 36 ...... France 9 39 ...... Spain 4 59 ...... Italy 5 63 ...... Romania 5 64 ...... Poland 12 34 ...... Hungary 6 60 ......

03 2. FARM SUCCESSION

Farm succession is the process of passing this form of farm succession has been the most agricultural land from one person to another common, it has been losing ground in recent person or entity. It differs from the concept of decades. In one study from 2010, there was only a inheritance in that the land being passed along will 26.5% rate of intra-family farm succession.[10] In continue to be used for agricultural purposes, cases where there is no family successor, the whereas inheriting land does not necessarily peasant is forced to turn to other options. ensure its continued agricultural use. An individual who inherits a farm is not required to Three of the other succession possibilities offer continue farming and in many cases will choose to alternatives to intra-family succession that may sell or lease the land. There are a number of ways in still maintain small, peasant agriculture. One which farm succession occurs but they can be option is for the farm to pass to a known and roughly categorized into five types. trusted individual outside of the family, perhaps a neighbor or friend. Or the farm could pass to an Types unknown individual, possibly a new peasant or The first type, and the main focus of this report, is someone wishing to relocate. The third option is intra-family farm succession. In this scenario the for the farm to pass to an alternative land farm passes on to another family member, redistribution program, examples of which can be typically in a younger generation. This is the ideal found in section 6's Positive Schemes. These scenario for a number of reasons that will be involve organizations or groups that purchase land explained later. Keeping farms as family and then sell or lease it to peasants or individuals, operations is even lauded in a European usually for agricultural or related purposes. Parliament publication where it is stated that However, alternative land redistribution programs “family farming […] can be an important factor in are non-existent in Romania. mitigating rural poverty,” and that family farms “contribute to food security at regional, national and European level[s].”[9] Although historically

ROMANIA AT A GLANCE (ROMANIAN NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STATISTICS)

Population 22,242,000 . .

...... Average gross monthly salary 2052 RON . .

...... Unemployment 6.5% . .

...... Poverty and social exclusion rate 22.4% . .

...... Area (hectares) 23,839,100 . .

...... Arable land 64.3%

04 The final succession scenario is the most damaging either partially or totally abandon agricultural and has been increasingly prevalent in recent production upon retirement.[14] Even those who decades. The farm could go to an industrial-sized did not plan to give up farming were still faced with agribusiness. A more accurate term for this type of uncertain situations. Only 40% of the heads of transaction is land grabbing, which has financial, households had successors and one-fifth of those environmental, and political repercussions that successors did not plan to work the family land at will be explained later in the report. Eco Ruralis all.[15] This shows that a majority of peasants did defines land grabbing as “large acquisitions or long not have anyone to take over their farming term leases and concessions of lands from public operations. Even those who had successors still or private entities for the development of large faced the problem of whether or not their agro-industrial projects or for speculative successor would continue agricultural work. These purposes.” A full-length report on land grabbing farms could be incorporated into larger farms, was published by Eco Ruralis in 2015 and provides abandoned, or developed for non-agricultural a great deal of important information.[11] purposes such as housing developments or businesses. Whether as a result of land grabbing, aging peasants or other reasons, small farms are disappearing. This distressing trend can only be expected to continue in not just Romania but the rest of the world as well. Between 2003-2013 the European Union's number of agricultural holdings decreased by over 4 million.[12] Romania lost over 625,000 farms between 2003 and 2010.[13] Furthermore, a 2009 study in four Romanian counties revealed 23.1% of peasants planned to

INDICATORS IN TOTAL FARMS FARMS OWNED BY PEOPLE FARMS OWNED BY COMPANIES ROMANIA 2010 2013 2010 2013 2010 2013

Number of farms 3 859 000 3 630 000 3 828 000 3 602 000 31 000 28 000 ...... Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA) 13 306 000 13 056 000 7 450 000 7 271 000 5 856 000 5 785 000 ...... Arable land 8 306 000 8 198 000 4 725 000 4 558 000 3 581 000 3 640 000 ...... Pastures and hayfields 4 506 000 4 398 000 2 307 000 2 315 000 2 199 000 2 083 000 ...... Permanent crops 312 000 302 000 236 000 240 000 76 000 62 000 ...... Family gardens 182 000 158 000 182 000 158 000 - - ...... Average UAD/farm 3,45 3,6 1,95 2,02 190,78 207,49

05 3. CONSEQUENCES OF DISAPPEARING SMALL, FAMILY FARMS

The most obvious reason to be concerned about 3.1 Food Sovereignty disappearing farms, peasants, and the state of farm Disappearing small farms pose a significant threat succession is because family farms are major food to food sovereignty. La Via Campesina briefly providers. There are an estimated 500 million defines food sovereignty as “the right of peoples to family farms around the world that are responsible healthy and culturally appropriate food produced for feeding billions of people. In India these through sustainable methods and their right to peasant farmers supply half of the food supplies. In d e fi n e t h e i r ow n fo o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r e Latin American they supply almost 70% of the food systems.”[18] Ideally this would mean people and supplies. Each of these percentages is almost communities would determine which kinds of food certainly an underestimate since it is extremely they wanted access to, how those foods would be difficult and time consuming to obtain produced, and their prices. There are other policies information on small gardens or farms. In that are essential to successful food sovereignty, Romania, small farms of between one and ten such as gender equality and fair access to land. All hectares contribute at least 30% of national food together, food sovereignty is a holistic approach to consumption, though the actual amount is more nutrition, land, food, and natural resources. It puts because many peasants in Romania are the power of food choice and access into the hands subsistence farmers who do not sell their products. of communities. As these numbers show, small peasant farmers are an irreplaceable source of food. Without them, the world would quickly face a massive food shortage.

COUNTRY FOOD PRODUCTION BY SMALL FARMS VS AMOUNT OF LAND THEY HAVE

Belarus With 17% of the land, small farmers produce: 87,5% of fruits and berries; 82% of potatoes; 80% of vegetables and 32% of eggs . .

...... Botswana . Small farms are 93% of all farmers, have less than 8% of the agricultural land, and produce: 100$ of groundnuts; 99% of maize; 90% of millet; 73% of beans and 25% of sorghum . .

...... Brazil . 84% of farms are small and control 24% of the land, yet they produce: 87% of cassava; 69% of beans; 67% of goat milk; 59% of pork; 58% of cowmilk; 50% of chickens; 46% of corn; 38% of coffee; 33,8% of rice and 30% of cattle . .

...... Romania . Family farms are 99% of all farms, and have 53% of the land, and they keep: 99% of sheep; 99% of goats; 99% of bees; 90% of cattles; 70% of pigs and 61% of poultry . .

...... Ukraine . Small farmers operate 16% of agricultural land, but provide 55% of agricultural output, including: 97% of potatoes; 97% of honey; 88% of vegetables; 83% of fruits and berries and 80% of milk

06 Food sovereignty faces a precarious situation in essential for thriving communities. Concerns for Romania. Prior to joining the EU in 2007, Romania water and food supplies are growing as the global was a major grower of GMOs, a practice outlawed population increases. If individuals are not within the EU. Now, industrial farms in Romania granted land sovereignty, they risk poverty, use hybrid seeds and have limited varieties of malnutrition, pollution, starvation, and products in order to increase efficiency. Fewer crop marginalization. variations mean more streamlined operations without the hassle of adjusting equipment, timing, 3.3 Land Grabbing or strategy. Rather than planting traditional, Land grabbing is a critical issue that also causes indigenous crops these farms plant hundreds or problems with both food and land sovereignty. In thousands of hectares of the same crop, preferring the European Union, 1% of farmers hold an those products that will be popular exports. One incredible 65% of agricultural land.[22] Romania is example is the Roundup Ready soybean produced a popular land grabbing destination, with an by Monsanto, which was grown on over 137,000 estimated 700,000 hectares of agricultural land hectares in 2006.[19] Another example is the held by foreign companies.[23] One of the main company TCE 3 Brazi, which controlled 57,000 repercussions is how it limits access to agricultural hectares of land near the Danube Delta on which it land both literally and financially. The European only grew a handful of different crops. In 2013 they Parliament publication acknowledged: “Large estimated that just their wheat crop would total non-family farms are able to influence land rental 117,000 tons. Similarly, Cerealcom Dolj grew prices and rental contract conditions, which 23,000 hectares of exclusively wheat, maize, and d i s t o r t s t h e m a r ke t s fo r l a n d .” [ 2 4 ] A s sunflower.[20] Monocultures, or such mass agribusinesses and companies purchase land they production of limited crops, undermine food remove it from the market, and because there is sovereignty, health, and sustainability, which will less land available the price of the remaining land be discussed in later sections. increases. Padova Agricultura is an excellent example of this phenomenon. In its area of 3.2 Land Sovereignty operation land prices soared in just five years from Land sovereignty is also threatened by the €200 in 2003 to €1,000 in 2008,[25] and have disappearance of peasants and small farms. The continued to increase since then. As a result, small Transnational Institute defines land sovereignty peasant farmers find themselves unable to afford as “the right of working peoples to have effective new land or maintain their newly expensive land access to, use of, and control over land and the and are forced to abandon their farms.[26] Further benefits of its use and occupation, where land is information on land grabbing is found throughout u n d e r s t o o d a s r e s o u r ce , t e r r i t o r y, a n d this report, but a comprehensive account is landscape.”[21] Land provides food, fuel, income, available in Eco Ruralis' report on its fact-finding water, shelter, and a cultural space, all of which are mission, “Land Grabbing in Romania.”[27]

07 3.4 Environmental 3.5 Financial Land grabbing, industrial farming, and thus There are also great financial implications of small disappearing peasant farms, all have severe farms disappearing. In addition to an increase in environmental consequences. According to the the cost of agricultural land, there would be an International Commission for the Protection of increase in food prices for consumers, causing even the Danube River, “The modernization and greater rural poverty.[31] Larger farms have much intensification of agriculture…is expected to bring lower production costs and much higher EU about an increase in the loads of agricultural subsidies under CAP. They are therefore able to sell pollutants.”[28] Industrial farming uses more their goods at significantly lower prices. Small machines and creates more pollution than small family farmers will be forced to decrease their own farms in order to maintain their vast swathes of prices in order to compete, but will eventually be land. A peasant's small field of hay can be cut by unable to sustain their farms or livelihoods. As hand, but a larger field requires at least one peasants disappear and competition decreases, machine. Large farms also require more storage the larger agribusinesses will be able to increase space that must be kept at a certain temperature prices as they wish. Since 20% of Romania's and humidity, requiring more energy and emitting agricultural area is considered subsistence more pollutants.[29] This contributes to the farming,[32] peasants no longer supplying their ongoing pollution of the Danube river system, and own food would have to pay exponentially higher water and land areas elsewhere, where much of the prices to obtain the same amount of nutrition. industrial runoff in the area settles. Large farms With global food expenses per family already also drastically change the natural landscape, such totaling 35.5% of household incomes,[33] and as when marshland along the Danube was dried totaling 45% in Romania,[34] the combination of out and converted to cropland.[30] The amount of price increases and lack of subsistence farms space required by agribusinesses causes vast would be devastating. The country already has a landscapes to be flattened, resulting in entire poverty rate of 44 percent,[35] and does not need ecosystems' destruction. Other issues include soil any type of increase. degradation and lack of crop rotation, both typical of large, monoculture farms.

08 4. BENEFITS OF SMALL FARMS AND INTRA-FAMILY SUCCESSION

Large farms (companies) Small farms (peasants) employer in Romania. In 2010 there were 7.1 28 000 360 200 million people employed in agriculture, an incredible 73% of the active working population. Plus, of the agricultural labor force, 98.5% were considered family.[40] To summarize, the majority of working people in Romania are employed in agriculture, and only a small fraction of those workers are non-family.

This signals that farms, particularly family farms, are essential to the economic wellbeing of not only those individuals but also Romania. If peasant farms were to disappear, the jobs they supply would also disappear. This would in turn put greater pressure on the government to supply benefits, pensions, and aid to the unemployed and their families. Unfortunately, the number of farms is already on the decline. Between 2003 and 2010 over 625,000 farms in Romania were lost, causing There are significant benefits to having greater 1.7 million people to no longer be employed in numbers of small farms, particularly family-owned agriculture.[41] The overall unemployment may and operated, but it is first essential to understand seem hopeful at only 7.7% in 2011, however the the scope of small farming in Romania. With youth unemployment rate is a shocking 23.7%.[42] approximately 14.6 million hectares of utilized Romania's economy would be unable to absorb agricultural land,[36] Romania is one of the top even a fraction of the more than 4 million peasants farming countries in Europe. This land is were the current trend to continue or accelerate. extremely fragmented due to land reforms and redistribution after the communist era. A 4.2 Environmental staggering 98% of all agricultural holdings are less Agroecology than 10 hectares.[37] Even when the number of In addition to jobs, peasant farms provide large farms is included, the average size of land extensive environmental benefits. Whether holdings is just 2.16 hectares.[38] As mentioned consciously or naturally, most small farms practice earlier, despite their small sizes, these farms agroecology. The Food and Agriculture produce a large portion of Romania's food. In short, Organization of the United Nations describes small farms are an integral part of Romania's agroecology as the focus on ecosystems when culture and economy. utilizing agricultural land, taking into consideration the natural, societal, and 4.1 Employment technological environments.[43] Many small The sheer number of peasant family farms is a farms in Romania unknowingly follow great economic boost. In the European Union, agroecological practices. Traditional tools and “family farmers are the main agricultural technology are often used out of financial employers”: in 2010 there were 25.5 million people necessity and familiarity, but also emit employed in agriculture throughout the EU, 24 significantly less pollution than modern farming million of who were employed on family farms.[39] machines. For example, a scythe produces less For comparison, Romania's population is around pollution than a tractor. A wide variety of crops and 20 million people. Agriculture is also a huge animals help keep soil from being overused, a 09 practice which is a requirement for families who collective leasers or through subsidies, though this rely on their farms for continual sustenance.[44] is less common. Since 98% of peasants have less Crops are rotated to keep the soil viable, and than 10 hectares of land,[50] the communal grazing pastures are rotated to ensure that pastures are essential to their ability to raise vegetation has time to regrow and thus continue livestock. Without access to this land they simply feeding the herds. would not have space to graze their sheep, cattle, or goats. Communal lands also preserve One of Eco Ruralis' aims is to increase the number biodiversity, offset carbon pollution, and are even of peasants growing traditional, indigenous useful for harvesting medicinal plants. The varieties through their Seed Campaign, which incentive to ensure the land is being used provides seeds free of cost.[45] This strategy not sustainably is incredibly high because peasants only preserves traditional plants but also benefits rely on it for their livelihoods. Finally, the the environment in general because the plants are collective administration of such lands prevents already known members of the habitat and are individuals from negatively altering or destroying unlikely to cause problems. Another noticeable its usage or the environment.[51] environmental benefit of peasant farming in Romania is the preservation of plant and animal However, much like small farms in general, the biodiversity. Often, “these vegetal and animal number of active users of communal lands has biodiversities are related to ancestral farming been steadily decreasing over the past decades. practices.”[46] With small plots there are frequent There is currently a slight influx of newly formed breaks in the fields that act as boundaries and offer grazing associations but these are outnumbered by habitats for native animals and plants. There is a individuals opting to rent land privately. Private greater tendency to adhere to natural obstacles for renting draws wealthier individuals with large simplicity's sake rather than manufacturing flat, herds who can easily offset the leasing costs clear areas. As a result, Transylvania has some of through their animals. A partial explanation for the finest biodiversity in all of Europe. the decrease in use of the Commons is Romania's historic experience with communal practices Land Stewardship during Communism, which will be discussed later. Land stewardship is closely related to agroecology, At the current rate of decline, it is predicted that but with a greater emphasis on maintaining the common pastures will be practically extinct in quality and abundance of natural resources and Romania in a mere decade,[52] a situation that biodiversity.[47] Peasant family farms are uniquely would have cultural, economic, and political connected to land stewardship. Family farms are consequences. deeply invested in long-term sustainability and have a “higher standard of environment care,” 4.3 Local Communities according to a publication for the European There are a number of peasant farm benefits to Parliament.[48] The incentive to take care of land local communities in addition to those from is much higher when it is being passed on to loved communal land use. One highly tangible benefit is ones whose future one is intimately connected to. the close proximity in which small farms find each other. Due to their size, small farms automatically Small farms in Romania have further incentive for result in rural households being closer together. excellent land stewardship due to the use and Physical closeness builds stronger rural importance of the Commons, communal land used communities. If people are nearer then they are for animals. Over half of the 3.4 million hectares of more likely to share resources, culture, and time. permanent pasture are owned by either the state or Individuals in communities naturally have greater local communities.[49] The land is then used by access to services, whether medical, spiritual, individuals who send their animals to graze all social, or environmental. Working with or at least together. Those who use the land either do so as b e s i d e o t h e r s i s e v e n s h o w n t o s l o w

10 depression.[53] Closer physical proximity is also centuries, they are experts on their specific important for preserving cultures and traditions. locations and crops, as well as the best tools for the As the EU publication states, “Family farmers job. While formal education gives theoretical enhance the vitality of the rural economy and guidelines, the family farmer of a certain plot can preserve traditional cultures.”[54] These include discern the best course of action based on decades holiday traditions, daily customs, clothing, music, of proven effectiveness. All of the oddities of and cuisine. particular plants or areas have been taught to the peasant throughout their lifetime, much longer Additionally, peasant farms are less likely to have than an education at any institution.[57] In its unequal political influence. However, it must be current form, agricultural education at an understood that this is not true of all family farms, institution can rarely provide location-specific especially not physically or economically large instruction, and cannot come close to covering the ones. Large farmers and landowners in Romania wide range of topics that are necessary for running are often intimately connected to local mayors or a farm. In addition, agriculturally-focused high magistrates who can ensure policies and decisions schools decreased by 40% between 2000-2011, and are in the farmer or landowner's favor. In a series of the number of graduates from these schools investigative articles, journalist Luke Dale-Harris declined by 44% in the same period, totaling only uncovered numerous instances of local politicians 0.76% of all high school graduates.[58] Peasant controlling large swathes of land and making family farmers are shown early on how to best rulings in large farmers' favor. Several of these store products, properly care for animals, and politicians are now in jail or under investigation irrigate a field, among many other subjects. Such a for corruption or fraud.[55] Small family farms holistic exchange of farming knowledge is typically do not have the economic power to extremely different from the typical institutional influence politicians and simply cannot offer the approach, which focuses only on agribusiness and necessary bribes. agroindustrial practices. This extensive length of hands-on, ingrained training is impossible to 4.4 Historical and Traditional Knowledge replicate outside of intra-family farm succession. Exchange Finally, small family farms are extremely One of the programs that works to provide a important for the exchange of farming knowledge version of this peasant experience and share not just in Romania but also throughout the world. peasant knowledge is WWOOF. WWOOF Romania Most Romanian farmers, 97.5% in fact, acquired is run by Eco Ruralis and was established in 2008. their knowledge and skills from practical, hands- Via the 42 hosts throughout the country, on experience. Only 2.1% received basic individuals can work on organic farms in exchange agricultural training at an institution and 0.4% for food and accommodation. WWOOFers received full formal training.[56] This participate in planting, harvesting, maintenance, demonstrates that even though most areas of construction, animal care, and other typical tasks, expertise, including farming, prefer formal learning about proper techniques and traditional institutional training, practical experience is still knowledge along the way. The program teaches the more dominant method for acquiring career people extremely valuable knowledge through skills and knowledge. This is most likely because hands-on experience while also benefiting the peasant farming and intra-family succession have peasant hosts.[59] It is a truly symbiotic exchange. significant advantages over formal education that are only just beginning to be officially recognized.

To begin with, peasant families have the advantage of exclusive information. Since their families have been working the same land, in some cases for

11 5. OBSTACLES AND BARRIERS

Despite the extensive benefits of peasant farming wishes to expand. The need for start-up costs is also and small family farming especially, there are eliminated when established farms are passed on to numerous obstacles preventing this type of family members.[62] Though there may still be costs agriculture from flourishing. It is essential to associated with upgrading or expanding, the overall understand that peasant farms and small family costs are significantly lower than for peasants farms are not disappearing out of choice but are starting with a blank slate. instead being forced out of existence. This section describes some of the greatest barriers to continuing 5.2 Migration and agricultural exodus peasant family agriculture. As mentioned before, a major obstacle to intra- family farm succession is the lack of individuals 5.1 “Exchange programme for young farmers” willing or able to work in agriculture. In a study of In order to identify the greatest barriers for young youth in Cluj County, Romania, only about 1% of peasants, and to assess exchange scheme options, those surveyed chose agriculture as their intended the European Commission's Directorate-General for future career.[63] This phenomenon is not just a Agriculture and Rural Development authorized a problem among youth. It is also evident in the study of 2,205 farmers under 40 years old in the amount of migration and the chosen destinations. In European Union. There were notable differences 2012 there were approximately 0.75 million people between New Member States (NMS) and those in the who migrated within Romania.[64] The most EU prior to 2004 (EU15), particularly when it came to common direction of internal migration was their general needs, the skills they perceived as between urban areas, with the second most common necessary, and how individuals access information. being urban to rural migration.[65] Though the The NMS were more likely to use the Internet for second point may seem like good news for agriculture information, consider learning a foreign language a and rural areas, it is not. Instead it is a result of the necessity, and be interested in how to access growing suburbanization in Romania and is not subsidies, grants, and credit.[60] These are all beneficial to agriculture, small farms, or peasants. characteristic of peasants in a country such as The counties that were the destinations for people Romania. The lower income-level makes it necessary between 1990 and 2009 were the same ones with for peasants to gain funding. The larger EU presence GDPs above the Romanian average,[66] and are not and general international presence makes it more indicative of a trend towards agricultural areas necessary for them learn another language. Finally, specifically. It shows that people are searching for the largely rural, dispersed population makes it lucrative financial opportunities with the increasing necessary to use the Internet for information rather number of companies and factories that are setting than attending trainings or workshops. up in small towns or outside cities.[67]

Not all needs were dependent on location, though. Romania is also losing individuals to other countries. The overall top four needs regardless of location were In 2010, 2.8 million people equaling 15% of the entire access to land to buy, access to land to rent, subsidies, Romanian population migrated out of Romania, and access to credits. For the NMS, qualified labor though this is considered an underestimate since it is was actually the third most important,[61] another impossible to know how many unofficial migrants indication that people are abandoning agricultural there were.[68] The top destinations for officially work. However, the overall top four are indicative of sanctioned individuals were Germany, the US, and the problems of land grabbing and aging peasants Canada. Less official destinations were far more and are either partially or entirely ameliorated by popular, with roughly 30% of Romanian migrants intra-family farm succession. Passing land on going to Italy and 40% going to Spain.[69] Often the through families eliminates the need for purchasing individuals are working as migrant labor, an unstable or renting new land unless the new generation and frequently inhumane endeavor. A report by the

12 European Foundation for the Improvement of Living Education in other countries is also highly sought and Working Conditions included extensive after, and as higher education becomes more information about migrants facing systemic available in Romania individuals are likely to travel discrimination, higher levels of work injuries, farther to obtain degrees both within and outside of extremely low wages, and poor conditions.[70] the country. On top of this the average length of education has increased.[73] Finally, there is the The two main reasons for Romanian migration are added problem that higher education decreases the jobs and education. There are limited job likelihood that an individual will work in the opportunities within Romania and even more so in agricultural sector.[74] This is strongly connected to the Romanian countryside. Plus, the wages in the the search for higher paying jobs since agriculture is destination countries are significantly higher. In typically a lower paying industry. Another 2014 President Traian Basescu actually thanked contributing factor is the widely held attitude that Britain for providing work for Romanians and since so many farmers do not have formal education keeping “unemployment at a reasonable rate.”[71] then practicing agriculture does not need any Presumably, if Romanians did not migrate to other education and is not prestigious.[75] It is generally countries they would be unable to find work accepted that higher education correlates to higher domestically. Even if people were to find jobs within wages over a person's lifetime. This disinterest in Romania they would still risk settling into poverty. agriculture is demonstrated by the fact that According to Migration Watch UK, a Romanian agriculturally-focused high schools decreased by individual would earn about 70 euros per week in 40% between 2000-2011, and the number of Romania versus 326 euros in the UK, even after the graduates from these schools declined by 44% in the varying costs of living are taken into account.[72] same period, totaling only 0.76% of all high school graduates.[76]

13 Even those agricultural programs that are available over 800,000 were put on trial for alleged resistance. at educational institutions work against positive At the end of 1962, 96% of arable land was in farming models. Agricultural higher education in collectives with over 3 million households Romania tends to be very biased, mostly focusing on involved.[77] The strategy was both highly effective agribusiness and industrial agriculture. Small and highly scarring. Over forty years later one of the farming and peasant farming are not typically part of obstacles to greater cooperative participation and the curriculum, especially not the socio-economic visibility is still the very term “cooperative” and the aspects of either agroecology or agribusiness. memory of the Communist experience.[78] Any Excluding this information does students a cooperative or communal efforts are automatically disservice. They may not understand the larger connected to oppression, poor economics, and consequences of agribusiness and will not reap the ultimate failure. benefits of agroecology and peasant farming. CAP 5.3 Governments One major government and international Romania's historical experience with Communism impediment to peasant farming and intra-family and collectivization left the general public with an farm succession is under the guise of assistance via aversion, or at least skepticism, toward any the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Originating cooperative endeavors, particularly when connected in 1958, the CAP was just for the six participating to the government. When collectivization began in Western European countries.[79] It has since the early 1950's, the pace was slow and involvement undergone various overhauls, none of which have was typically voluntary. By 1955 less than half of all fully addressed the needs or concerns of the NMS rural households were part of collective structures. who are primarily poorer and less developed, but bear Starting in 1957, in order to accelerate the process, a rich cultural heritage through the millions of peasants were violently forced to join collectives, and deeply rooted peasant farms. Its current policies

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...... Other investors TIAA-CREF, APG, PFZW

14 reinforce large-scale farming and land consolidation. pay peasants over 62 years old with less than ten Pillar 2 is supposed to provide direct payment hectares of land to stop farming and to sell or lease assistance and subsidies to farmers, yet 40% of their land. They would be allowed to keep a ½ hectare Romanian peasants are actually ineligible because for self-consumption, but the explicit purpose was to their farms are too small and do not meet the decrease the number of peasants and consolidate minimum requirements. Of those who are eligible for land. Until it ceased accepting applicants in 2009 it direct payments, a mere 3% of the farmers receive pulled in almost 89.000 people out of the targeted 1.9 70% of the payments,[80] leaving the vast majority million.[87] Most likely this was due to the low with very little assistance or none at all. More incentive. The program only pledged an annual generally, there are sizeable differences in the amount of 50 euros per hectare for leasing and 100 monetary distribution amongst EU member states. euros per hectare for selling,[88] a low amount given Between 2007 and 2013 Romania's development average prices per hectare in 2005 were almost 900 funding per hectare under Pillar 2 averaged 82 euros, euros in Romania.[89] This greatly affected land in compared to the overall EU average of 140 euros. Romania, as approximately 330.000 hectares were Direct payments to Romania under Pillar 1 were 183 either leased or sold.[90] It is unclear how much of euros per hectare in 2013, compared to the EU the land remained in the hands of peasants or was average of 285 euros per hectare.[81] These grabbed my agribusinesses and multinational discrepancies are both harmful and highly suspect. speculators. Though this initiative provides long- Eventually funding from Pillar 1 was altered to target term payments (until death), the amount cannot peasants under 40 years of age,[82] but it does not replace the quality of food grown on one's own plot or address the larger issue of aging peasants, which is a the environmental benefits of agroecological small sizeable obstacle to young peasants. farms, and is not equivalent to the cost of purchasing food to replace the lost production. These measures Pensions are not supported by Eco Ruralis, because they don't Aging peasants would not be such an obstacle if they treat the root causes of problems for peasants. were already in the process of passing their farms Instead, Eco Ruralis supports creating government- along to the next generation. Instead, aging peasants funded incentives for young farmers to continue are actually unable to retire or take subordinate peasant farming and agroecology coupled with positions because they rely on the income from their succession assistance that ensures land goes to farms, and the Romanian government pension is not young, small and local farmers. enough to survive.[83] This agricultural income could be both financial and subsistence. In 2014 the National Policy average monthly pension in Romania was a paltry As part of the 2014-2020 Rural Development Plan, 189 euros,[84] hardly enough to survive on. the Romanian government is constructing an Unfortunately, in one study almost 75% of peasants integrated package aimed at supporting and abandoning agriculture were going to rely on boosting small and middle class farmers. The pensions and social security for their incomes.[85] proposal would use EU money from CAP to make Elderly peasants who rely on their farms for their direct payments to small and medium-sized farms future financial income are more likely to lease or sell for product diversification, and to older farmers for their land than to pass it on to a family member,[86] selling or leasing their land. Though this proposal because they need the money for their savings to has positive aspects and seems beneficial, there is a supplement the pension. This often results in land lack of protection for peasants. Since the package consolidation and land grabbing as agribusinesses does not specify who may buy or lease the older take advantage of older peasants who are desperate farmers' land, it will most likely be grabbed by to sustain themselves financially. agribusinesses and multinational corporations rather than new peasant farmers. One way to prevent Agricultural Life Annuity Law more land grabbing and consolidation is to create a The Romanian government attempted to address the land ceiling that would limit the total number of aging peasants' financial issues with the Agricultural hectares an individual could control under this Life Annuity law 247/2005. The program was set up to project. Although this proposal is not very ambitious

15 in scope, it has the potential to be a positive pilot economic size in order to align with EU funding project, but only if it clarifies the targeted audience requirements. Under this law, semi-substance and and protects small peasant farmers. small commercial farms are considered those with outputs of between 2.000 and 49.999 euros.[92] Overall, the national government's preference for the Therefore, farms with outputs of under 2.000 euros future of Romanian land is to move towards industry are generally unaffected by CAP and national and consolidation. The 2013-2016 Program of funding. This is extremely problematic for Romania, Government declares this intention, pushing where approximately 91% of total agricultural authorities to take “measures that lead to land holdings are left out under this definition, some 3.8 consolidation and reduction [of the] number of farms million farms.[93] Small peasant farmers are further and holdings.”[91] The government-sanctioned disadvantaged by their exclusion from the ranks of consolidation and industrial efforts limit 'employed' persons: “Subsistence farming is also opportunities in rural areas, exacerbating rural recognized by the Romanian System of National poverty and migration. The influence and power of Accounts (SNA) as 'household production for its own agribusinesses, mentioned earlier in reference to final consumption' and forms a distinct sector of the local communities, isolates resources and political so-called Non-Observed/Non-Registered economy power to the detriment of others. Agribusinesses are sitting alongside 'undeclared work'.”[94] These wealthy enough and often have international individuals cannot generally receive unemployment connections to sway the Romanian government's assistance because of their lack of previous formal decisions in their favor. This has a snowballing effect, employment, and are unable to access many causing more land grabbing which in turn government funds and assistance. Peasants thus find exacerbates peasants' positions. themselves on the margins of Romania's formal sectors, stuck in a disadvantaged position with no Finally, there is a fundamental problem with the way substantive aid from the government. the Romanian government defines farmers and farm size. Law 37/2015 classifies farms based on their

16 6. POSITIVE SCHEMES

In the midst of the crisis of aging peasants and the plantation, but after Aflat's planting the obstacles facing the rejuvenation of the certification was rescinded and the direct payment agroecological, small farming sector, there are agency demanded that the organic subsidies the networks and organizations working hard to woman had received for the past few years be ameliorate the problems and demonstrate good repaid. This land grabbing has had numerous practices. What follows is a non-comprehensive negative consequences: economic ones for the sample of these groups from around the world. peasant woman, environmental ones for the land, and social ones regarding the general trust and 6.1 Ferma Ecologica Topa (Romania) [95] morale of the community. Stretched between three branches of the Carpathian Mountains lies the Transylvanian In contrast stands Dan Cismas' farm. Ferma Plateau, an expanse of valleys, forests, and ravines Ecologica Topa consists of 40 hectares of land: the where Ferma Ecologica Topa sits. The farm is run family owns 2 hectares and leases the rest of the by Dan Cismas and his wife Tincuta, both of whom land from neighbors within their village. This grew up in the village of Topa in Mures County. Dan arrangement is beneficial to everyone as it Cismas has been farming for 30 years but for the provides the Cismas family with essential land and past seven years the family's entire livelihood has their neighbors with a steady source of income. been their farm. Motivated by the desire to provide The original leasing price per hectare was 250 lei, both their family and their community with but as Dan Cismas' farm flourished and received healthy food, the couple aims to promote subsidies he decided that he should not be the only environmentally friendly, sustainable farming one benefiting. Over 7 years the Cismas' while strengthening their community. voluntarily doubled the rent they paid per hectare to 500 lei. On their certified organic farm, the Located just under nine kilometers from the city of family produces a wide variety of vegetables Sighisoara, the village of Topa has an estimated including tomatoes, eggplants, beets, garlic and 370 inhabitants whose main occupation is medicinal plants (all of which are also used for agriculture. About 1/3 of the working population is jams, zacusca, syrups, and teas) in addition to considered officially 'self-employed'[96] while larger amounts of corn and wheat. There are cows, others have been forced to migrate. Those who pigs, chickens, sheep and goats from which the have migrated tend to work in seasonal family gets eggs, meat products and cheese. From agricultural jobs outside of Romania. As their own production Dan and Tincuta ensure 70- mentioned earlier in the report, these jobs are 80% of their family's consumption, leaving 60-70% highly unstable, and leave the laborers vulnerable to be sold. Some customers buy directly from the to poor conditions, exploitative wages, and even farm but others live in neighboring towns and violence. villages. Ferma Ecologica Topa is also part of Biocoop, a cooperative of organic farmers with a Another problem facing the village and its peasant store in Sibiu, and sells at fairs and local events. farmers is land grabbing. One Romanian, a man Another example of their dedication to positive named Aflat, has managed to buy thousands of practices is Dan Cismas' participation in the local hectares for monocultures in the area through community cow raisers' association, which is part questionable practices. There are some instances of a national association. The Asociatia where he simply began working plots of land Crescatorilor de Bovine Albesti manages the 300 without having the owners' consent or giving them hectares of communal pastures, also called notice. In one case in 2015, Aflat plowed a local Commons. peasant woman's land and seeded corn on it. The land was previously a certified organic rose

17 The family's expertise is spread through their weekend houses that lie abandoned during the participation in WWOOF. Through this program majority of the year and bring few benefits to the volunteers assist in the harvesting, cheese village. Alunisu is also very attractive to land preparation, preserved food preparation, planting, grabbers because of its available land and and general maintenance of Ferma Ecologica Topa. proximity to Cluj-Napoca. This sense of community is probably the most important aspect of farming for the family, along In the midst of these struggles, Provision is with strong land stewardship. Dan summed up this striving to not only preserve the peasant way of life outlook by saying “Farming at a small scale, makes but to revive it. Lars and Robyn own a total of just that human interactions are kept alive, people are one acre (about 0.4 hectares), on which they have tied to each other and it develops the spirit of the kitchen gardens and an orchard, but use more land community…Our direction is towards keeping our from neighbors or the Commons. They use a neighbors close and to develop our community further 0.1 hectares for staple foods, 2.5 hectares spirit.” for haying, and the Commons for grazing. Though this may seem like a small amount of land, 6.2 Provision (Romania) [97] Provision is able to provide the majority of its own Nestled at the foot of the Vladeasa Mountains lies food. In addition to crops, they raise goats, ducks, Sancraiu, a commune composed of five villages in and chickens. Instead of using machinery, the farm Transylvania. One of the villages is Alunisu, a relies on a horse and traditional tools, and they are small, largely ethnic Hungarian enclave that e x t r e m e l y c a r e f u l a b o u t a d h e r i n g t o provides an exquisite example of Romania's agroecological, sustainable practices. For example, subsistent peasantry. Here, Lars Veraart and Robyn the composting outhouse and animal manure are Bors-Veraart set up their farm called Provision, the used as nutrient-rich, natural fertilizer. So far Lars Transylvania School of Self Sufficient Living, and Robyn have invested approximately 36,000 which not only sustains their small family but also euros in their farm, the vast majority of which has acts as a learning center for people looking to start gone towards the buildings on their two their own farms, learn more about sustainable properties. Currently they are looking to expand living, or just travel in an environmentally and their land by two hectares. With this expansion the socially conscious manner.[98] The School is based family would be able to grow grains and cut down on the following values: self sufficiency, even further on the amount of items purchased agroecology, permaculture, non-violence, from outside suppliers. voluntary simplicity and food sovereignty. Lars and Robyn left their respective jobs as a Provision's benefits are not just reaped by the ve t e r i n a r i a n i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a n d a immediate family, though. Lars and Robyn have psychotherapist in the U.S. to search for a simpler, been very intentional in their outreach and more sustainable life. After exploring multiple integration into Alunisu. The Transylvania School continents, they found their home amidst the hills of Self Sufficient Living recruits villagers to give in Alunisu where they have lived for the past 7 classes and demonstrations on a wide variety of years. topics, including traditional woodworking, sheering, and orchard planning. The wider village In Alunisu at least 15 people have either passed also benefits from Provision's WWOOFers and away or permanently left the village in the past 7 volunteers who are encouraged to help villagers years, a large percentage given there are currently with labor-intensive tasks that would otherwise be only 100 inhabitants. Young people are rare and extremely difficult, such as potato harvesting. the elderly are numerous, leaving more land Thus the WWOOFers and volunteers not only gain uncultivated and more houses uninhabited. This valuable knowledge and experience but also has attracted the attention of wealthier provide a service to the community and their individuals from neighboring areas, even as far as hosts. Budapest, who are setting up summer and 18 The community's response to Lars and Robyn, and approximately 28,000 liters per year, with about Provision, was initially uncertain. As time passed half going toward making cheese, yogurt, butter, and the two continued to cultivate their land and and cream. The family grows or raises almost all of practice agroecological, organic peasant farming, their own food and is still able to sell a massive 75% Alunisu realized they were serious about their of their output. Ioan, along with a small group of commitment to the land and assisting others in organic farmers in the area, started a shop called finding their own successful yet simpler and Biocoop, where they sell their organic products natural lifestyle. Lars, Robyn, and their son are directly to the public. The Jagleas also have about conversant in Romanian, are learning Hungarian, 50 customers who they specifically sell to, quite a and are quick to offer assistance or a friendly word few to whom they deliver. to their neighbors and community members. Their impact is perhaps best summed up by their friend All of Ioan and Ramona's work is even more Reverend Szilard Berde who stated in an interview impressive since it is mostly performed without with a visiting writer that, “Lars and Robyn's the use of machines. Ioan only uses machinery for project makes our eyes open, to find out what select tasks, such as hiring a neighbor and their treasures we have in our lives, in our style of living. tractor to take care of the larger fields. One of the Our citizens are used to look at life in western benefits of this traditional, hands-on approach is countries, how high level it is, how good it is. that they are able to recognize and treat the Through their project now we can find out our own animals' health problems very early. In the past ten values. This helps us also, to keep this lifestyle years they have only had to resort to antibiotics going on, saving its values for the future too.” once. However, the Jagleas do not think that traditional farming methods must exclude 6.3 Jaglea Family (Romania) [99] innovation. The couple's farm is agroecological In a case study by Access to Land (see 6.6) the and organic. Ioan went to trainings to learn Jaglea family's farm and agricultural style is agroecological practices, which they now utilize. explored as an “emerging 'new peasantry'.” The Crops are regularly rotated to prevent soil erosion, way in which Ioan and Ramona Jaglea operate their a mixture of crops are planted to maintain farm is an excellent example of how agroecological biodiversity and avoid monocultures, and the farming can be successful, innovative, and animal waste is composted and used as fertilizer feasible. for the fields.

The Jaglea couple became farm owners in 2006 At the time, the Jagleas hoped to expand their after getting married. They started out with one peasant operations with more dairy cows, more cow, a wedding present, and the use of 3 hectares of hens, a greenhouse for the garden, and organic family land. Over the next few years Ioan and certification. One of the biggest obstacles to these Ramona worked their farm as a second job while plans was finding accessible land, particularly they worked at a bank and raising the children, accessible pasture. Though the area received an respectively. In 2010 the farm became their main agro-environmental subsidy of 200 euros per job and source of income and subsistence. As of hectare, the town hall required a minimum herd of 2011 the Jagleas had a total of 17 hectares: 3.4 ha 40 cows, a number unattainable for Ioan without directly owned, 3 ha owned by family, and 10.5 ha first having access to pasture. It is also problematic rented from neighbors or nearby community trying to find land close to their existing home and members. farm, a set up that would help prevent crop thefts.

At the time of the case study the couple raised Whether Ioan and Ramona expand their land or dairy and meat cows, lambs, chickens, and pigs. continue with their 17 hectares, their farm is an Crops included animal fodder such as corn, cereals, exceptional example of traditional yet and hay, as well as a variety of vegetables for agroecological farming. human consumption. Their milk quota was 19 6.4 Rosia Montana (Romania) [100] public Alburnus Maior and its followers pushed the Located in the mountains of Western, Central case of Rosia Montana into the international Romania sits Rosia Montana, a mining and cultural spotlight. Various institutions, universities, and area that dates back at least 1,882 years. In Roman groups performed feasibility studies, cultural and Pre-Roman times it was a major gold mining impact studies, and assessments on the area's center. In a study by Oxford and Leicester future welfare. universities, experts declared, “The Roman mines at Rosia Montana represent the most extensive Throughout almost all of the past 15 years the and most important underground Roman gold Romanian government has ultimately supported mines known anywhere.”[101] However, in the the operation, even as it rejected Gabriel Resources early 2000s a Canadian company started what proposals. However, in February of this year the would turn into more than a decade-long bid to government announced that Rosia Montana is one destroy the site via the largest open-pit gold of Romania's candidates to become a UNESCO mining operation in Europe. World Heritage site. This designation would prevent Rosia Montana from ever being exploited The company, Gabriel Resources, already had some and destroyed.[104] The immense hard work and questionable ethics and dealings. The founder, and dedication of the “Save Rosia Montana” campaign chairman at the time, was convicted twice of preserved this historic and beautiful location heroin possession with intent to sell.[102] Their Romanian subsidiary, Rosia Montana Gold 6.5 European Coordination Via Campesina Corporation (RMGC) would later be investigated (Europe) [105] for money laundering and tax evasion.[103] Most The European Coordination Via Campesina concerning perhaps was Gabriel Resources (ECVC) is the regional organization of La Via complete lack of experience in mining operations, Campesina, and is an umbrella group for all which in turn caused a host of other issues. peasants in Europe. ECVC works toward food sovereignty, agroecology, sustainability, and Gabriel Resources' proposal was for 4 open-pit government policies that reflect the best interests mines in the Rosia Montana Valley with an unlined of peasants and humanity in general. It holds cyanide storage 'pond' in neighboring Corna Valley. general meetings to determine courses of action The consequences would be drastic. First, there are and advocates at an international level. Within a number of villages on the site, meaning over ECVC are regional, national, and international 2,000 people would be displaced and almost 1,000 organizations that also work towards these goals, homes would be torn down. Seven churches would including Eco Ruralis. Another partner is the be demolished and 11 cemeteries would be Hands on the Land Campaign, which educates relocated. A further 6,000 people would be about and draws awareness of food sovereignty, endangered by the annual 12,000 tons of cyanide peasants, and marginalized peoples in general. that would be required for the operation. In exchange for this turmoil, Gabriel Resources 6.6 Access to Land Network (Europe) [106] estimated a mere 634 jobs would be created over 17 The Access to Land Network is made up of years, not necessarily for the local people. grassroots organizations working for land stewardship, land use and management, and As the company put forth proposals, the public's access to land through national and EU policies. outrage grew, led by the Alburnus Maior They also strive to improve information sharing association. The Alburnus Maior association was and access for agroecological peasants. Their founded in September 2000 and initiated the “Save activities range from advocacy to research to Rosia Montana” campaign that successfully communication, one example of which is a activated over 100,000 active supporters. Through collection of case studies. Access to Land's partner its work lobbying, protesting, and educating the organizations put together case studies of

20 environmentally and socially responsible farms Stewardship Network) is based in Catalonia, Spain, throughout the EU. Eco Ruralis is also a member of where it promotes land stewardship and this network. particularly agricultural stewardship. XCT raises public awareness through trainings, and supports 6.7 Regionalwert AG (Germany) [107] other land stewardship organizations as well as Nestled near the border with France, the individuals. The organization also assists organization Regionalwert is a citizen shareholder agroecological peasants in accessing land. In corporation. Unlike most other corporations, addition, they offer assistance on how to utilize Regionalwert “invest[s] in small and medium and enact agroecological practices and good land enterprises of the organic agricultural and food stewardship. sector in the region of Freiburg,” and is not stock- listed. The group has raised almost 3 million euros 6.11 Rurbans-School of and preserved at least 250 hectares of farmland. Shepherds (Spain) [111] Their investments have funded 3 shops, a box- The School of Shepherds works to foster a new, scheme, a wholesaler, and a vast array of younger generation of shepherds and peasants agricultural products, to name only a handful of who do not have previous experience. At the school their activities. young trainees, on average 31 years old, are given a practical education. They are taught how to herd 6.8 Terre de Liens (France) [108] and care for sheep, and advised on organic Terre de Liens was started in 2003 and has gone on agricultural practices. The organization also helps to provide extensive support to peasants and their new entrants access land by matching buyers and wider communities and networks. One of its main sellers. One other example of the group's work is focuses is accessing land for peasants, often by their job platform that matches trainees with directly purchasing land as an organization and established peasants looking for labor. renting or selling it to peasants. They own over 2200 hectares to be used for sustainable 6.12 Land Workers' Alliance (UK) [112] agricultural use. The organization also advocates In its own words, the Landworkers' Alliance “is a for land stewardship by educating the public and producer-led organization of small-scale authorities. producers and family farmers who use sustainable methods to produce food, fuel, fibre and flowers.” 6.9 CIVAM (France) [109] The Alliance organizes workshops on how to save In English CIVAM stands for the 'Centers for seeds and the historical background and Enhancing Agriculture and Rural Initiatives.' The importance of seed saving. Another part of the organization has a number of roles and services it group's work is campaigning for greater GM provides the 7000 farmers in its network. They labeling, particularly for animal feed and animal assess the sustainability of farms and provide products. Finally, the Alliance advocates for CAP training and resources to improve sustainable reform and national policy reform that would functioning. CIVAM also promotes food solidarity benefit small and family farmers. and food sovereignty through their programs connecting producers and consumers, such as 6.13 Fresh Start Land Enterprise farmers' markets. They also organize farm Centre (UK) [113] exchanges and promote rural activities that Land partnerships are one of the main projects of include entrepreneurship opportunities and the Fresh Start Land Enterprise Centre. The trainings. organization works to connect landowners with land entrepreneurs, typically peasants or 6.10 Xarxa de Custodia del agriculture-related enterprises. Their approach Territori (Spain) [110] aims to make the situation beneficial to both The Xarxa de Custodia del Territori (Land parties. For example, they partner established

21 peasants looking to diversify (without the added work) with people looking to set up a related 6.15 Deccan Development Society (India) [115] business. A peasant growing vegetables could lease The number of programs and activities executed by land to a peasant looking to sell local products, the Deccan Development Society is impressive, especially the landowner's vegetables. In addition, ranging from three educational institutions to the organization runs academies on business childcare to medicinal plant healthcare. One of the practices and general agricultural information organization's focuses is food security, which is such as horticulture. broken into four parts. The first, Eco-Employment, improved land that was given to women's 6.14 Ecova Mali (Mali) [114] associations so that it produced 5-10 times as Founded in 2007, Ecova Mali works to increase food much yet still in a sustainable way. Land Lease security, economic development and land connected women's associations with landowners stewardship. The organization provides micro- in order to lease the land and produce food for loans and mini grants, trainings on requested families. The Community Grain Fund aimed to topics, and assistance with business planning, address the entire community's food needs by accounting, and marketing. Grants and loans have making sure enough food was produced for been used to purchase and distribute seeds, to everyone. Finally, the Community Gene Fund obtain oxen for sowing fields, and to improve a continues to provide easy access to seeds, the most water pump. Their list of projects highlights essential part of food production. ongoing work in orchards, gardens, and aquaculture.

22 7. CONCLUSION

Aging peasants is a problem on every continent There are vast benefits to peasant farming. It except for Antarctica. Since the majority of promotes land and food sovereignty, and is peasants average between 55 and 65 years old, t y p i c a l l y m u c h m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e a n d there are a staggering number of small farm plots environmentally friendly. It also provides an whose future is uncertain. Many older peasants do incredible number of jobs and livelihoods. The not have anyone to take over their land. The benefits to local communities include improved options facing them are rarely beneficial in the health and wellbeing, strengthening of culture and long-term. The current trend is toward land tradition, and greater knowledge exchange. consolidation, when small plots are purchased by Despite the previously mentioned barriers, there larger agribusinesses and absorbed into their are a number of grassroots organizations working operation. This situation limits food variety and to preserve peasant farming and small farm access food sovereignty. It has many negative effects on for these beneficial reasons. Some positive the environment, particularly on biodiversity. examples are individuals, while others are There are also negative economic and social continent-wide networks, or small organizations impacts on the peasants, consumers, and general in rural India. public. It is essential to promote and assist the new generation of peasants. Finally, it is important to remember that intra- family succession is the ideal scenario. All extra- Unfortunately, this new generation faces many family succession “implies the loss of skills and obstacles. Governments tend to support expertise accumulated within the family industrial-scale farming and actively encourage farm,”[116] as well as lower incentive for land peasants to consolidate and abandon their land. stewardship and agroecological practices. While Policies such as CAP's two Pillars and the there are extra-family scenarios that maintain the Romanian government's current pensions small plot and peasant farming, the ideal is for promote the destruction of peasants and small i n t r a - f a m i l y s u c c e s s i o n . E c o R u r a l i s ' farming. Furthermore, as a result of these policies recommendations on how to promote intra-family that make agriculture unattractive economically, succession and preserve peasant farming are in the many Romanians migrate to wealthier locations in following section. order to survive. In the face of these obstacles it is crucial that peasants, family farms, and small farms survive and succeed.

23 8. RECOMMENDATIONS

Eco Ruralis' primary recommendation is for these should be recognized, respected and upheld peasants and small farmers to not sell their land to whether or not they are formally recorded. Articles individuals or groups that are involved in land 8.2, 8.7, and 10.1 further encourage such consolidation, agribusiness, or industrial treatment. Informal and customary tenure rights enterprises. These endeavors are incredibly would include communal land, access to forests for harmful to local communities, global economies, foraging, and farms that may not be legally and the environment. To counter these situations, registered but have been in use for decades. peasants must maintain the small, agroecological use of their land. In order to do so, however, the Land grabbing and large-scale agriculture should Romanian government must dramatically increase be banned. its involvement and adherence to these As mentioned throughout this report, land recommendations, particularly the FAO's grabbing has massive negative consequences Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible ranging from environmental damage to economic Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and hardship. This is recognized in the Tenure Forests[117] (henceforth referred to as the Tenure Guidelines. Article 12.6 calls for the protection of Guidelines) of which it is already a signatory. smallholders from the risks of 'large-scale transactions,' a term synonymous with land The government should focus more resources on grabbing. Article 13.4 also calls for the restriction peasants and small-scale farmers due to the of land consolidation if fragmentation is immense, positive impact they have on the world. beneficial, and cites risk reduction and crop Peasants and small farmers are the heart of diversification as two beneficial examples. As Romania. A large percentage of the food consumed stated earlier, these benefits extend into cultural in Romania is produced by peasants on small plots and economic spheres, too. One option for of land. They provide cultural, economic, and preventing land grabbing is the imposition of land environmental benefits as well. The Tenure ceilings (mentioned in Article 15.2), or limits on Guidelines specifically mention these peasants, the amount of land any individual or company can referring to them as 'small-scale producers.' Article own. 11.8 explicitly calls for their political protection in the market. Article 12.2. calls for greater Agricultural education needs to be improved and government support of 'smallholder' investments, expanded to include peasants, agroecology, and citing that they “contribute significantly to food land stewardship, particularly in higher education. security, nutrition, poverty eradication and In order to encourage a new generation of peasants environmental resilience.” Peasants and small and farmers, the education system must include farmers should be treated as local and national agriculture earlier in the curriculum, preferably at investors, which they actually are: investing in the the start of children's schooling. A hands-on, land, food production, food sovereignty, their time, practical approach is not only important for and their communities. transferring knowledge but also a simple way to engage students. School gardens are an easy Peasants' informal and customary land tenure option. Universities and vocational schools should rights should be respected and upheld. increase their agricultural programs and degrees, The Romanian Government cannot only focus on putting greater focus on agroecological practices legally documented entities. As a result of Post- rather than industrial farming. Communism confusion regarding land, there are numerous instances of individuals or groups An important part of this education, and peasant having informal or customary land tenure rights. farming in general, is land stewardship. The As the Tenure Guidelines state in Article 3.1-1, Tenure Guidelines mention in Article 20.5 that

24 land planning should include sustainable regarding land grabbing, as huge companies are management, and in Article 20.1 that land harder to oppose when there is less concrete development should be sustainable and balanced. information regarding their activities. This has Land stewardship is an integral part of peasant been the case in Eco Ruralis' research, particularly farming practices and traditions, and must be with the American company Cargill which is highly included in any agricultural education. secretive about their presence in Romania. Corruption is also a major concern that requires Access to resources should be vastly increased so attention, which the Tenure Guidelines regularly that peasants may have sustainable livelihoods; reference. This is an ongoing problem in Romania these resources should include credits and that needs to be more aggressively addressed. The subsidies. research and articles by journalist Luke Dale- The Tenure Guidelines declare in Article 4.6 that Harris show how Rabobank's connections and governments should remove and prohibit any and corruption have gained the company immense all discrimination related to tenure rights wealth and control, while leaving peasants in including lack of access to economic resources. desperate situations. This includes affordable legal aid and mobile services for rural populations, both mentioned in Where intra-family succession is not an option, Article 6.6. Peasants should also have greater the government should support and promote access to subsidies and credits, two of the top four positive alternatives, such as community land greatest needs for young farmers as mentioned banks. earlier. In order to make these finances available, As discussed throughout this report, intra-family they must be less contingent on farm size and succession is not always an option for peasants. productivity, which favors agribusiness, and more However, this does not have to mean that all their focused on social and economic indicators. With land goes to corporations or gets consolidated. these funds more accessible, peasants will have Community land banks, mentioned in Article 13.2, greater protection from the international free are an excellent alternative, as in the case of Terre market and agriculture will be more economically de Liens. Land restitution programs, mentioned in sustainable, and appealing to young people. The Article 14.2, are also important for returning land Tenure Guidelines acknowledge in Article 11.2 to individuals or their family. Another option is for that unregulated, 'free' markets are not always governments to support networks and good or beneficial. One disastrous example of this organizations that connect retiring peasants is the proposed Transatlantic Trade and without successors to younger peasants searching Investment Partnership (TTIP), which the for land, or individuals selling land to peasants Romanian and EU governments must not agree to seeking land, as in the case of the Fresh Start Land if peasants are to survive. Some of the side effects Enterprise Centre. of TTIP would be increasing land prices, possible GMO access, increasing debt for peasants, and The government must actively respect and defend general destruction of food sovereignty.[118] This all rights of peasants and small-scale farmers. trade agreement must be halted and discarded to Overall, the Romanian government must take a prevent complete agribusiness domination to the greater role in defending, respecting, and detriment of peasants and small farmers. upholding the rights of peasants. The Tenure Guidelines state in Article 4.8 that these must also Article 5.6 states that the government agencies include civil, political, social, economic, and dealing with peasants and land rights must be cultural rights. This shift towards comprehensive more efficient and responsive, as well as more human rights is essential for the future of the accessible. This includes ensuring transactions are environment, the economy, and humanity. transparent and publicized which is stated in Article 11.4. Transparency is a serious problem

25 REFERENCE NOTES

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