DOCSLIB.ORG

The Cost of Greed

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Cost of Greed Book Two The Cost of Greed Originally published in Greed and Good: Understanding and Overcoming the Inequality That Limits Our Lives by Sam Pizzigati (Apex Press/Rowman & Littlefield, 2004). For more, see Inequality.org. THE PRICE WE PAY FOR INEQUALITY IF THOSE WHO FAWN OVER FORTUNES were right, if letting wealth accu- mulate were indeed the prime prescription for a healthy, vigorous soci- ety, we ought today to be enjoying a new American golden age. Never before, after all, have grand fortunes accumulated as prodigiously as they have over recent decades, at least not in modern times. Our econ- omy, given this awesome accumulation, ought to be vibrant, full of opportunity at every turn. Our enterprises should be generating wealth at extraordinary rates. We ourselves ought to be feeling stoked and energetic, confident that our hard work will be duly rewarded. Compassion ought to be flowing for the unfortunate, the arts ought to be blooming. We should be feeling absolutely terrific about ourselves and our country. But we aren’t. So what went wrong? What really happens when societies stand back and let great wealth accumulate in the pockets of a few? What has inequality cost us? The pages ahead will search for answers to these questions, in places both self-evident and somewhat surprising. We’ll explore the worksites where we labor and the neighborhoods where we live. We’ll look at our families and our friendships. We’ll examine what makes us happy and what makes us sick. We’ll probe why our professions no longer leave us proud, why our pastimes no longer bring us pleasure. And we’ll end our exploration by peering into two important worlds that now stand dangerously at risk, the natural world we have inherited and the dem- ocratic political world we have struggled to create. Inequality impacts all these worlds, all these places. Now we see how. 157 THE INEFFECTIVE ENTERPRISE MOST AMERICANS TODAY WORK, either directly or indirectly, for enterprises, for large organizations that employ specialized workforces and multiple layers of management. Enterprises have been driving the American economy for well over a centu- ry, and Americans have been debating, for almost as long, just what needs to be done to make enterprises effective. The debates have revolved, for the most part, around a single simple question: How do you turn dozens, hundreds, or thousands of people who don’t know each other — and may not even know much about the work they have been hired to perform — into an operation that efficiently produces goods or provides services? At the end of the nineteenth century, one American felt sure he knew the answer. To make enterprises effective, industrial engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor asserted, managements needed to manage — down to the most minute details of the work to be done. Taylor called his approach to enterprise effec- tiveness “scientific management.” In a scientifically managed enterprise, Taylor taught, management does the thinking. All of it. Managers, he advised, should always “fully” plan out every single task every single worker “is to accomplish, as well as the means to be used in doing the work.”1 Taylorism — the notion that workers need to be carefully scripted, motion by motion — would go on to flourish in the new twentieth century. Businesses hustled to organize themselves, as best they could, along “scientific manage- ment” lines. Total management control over the work process, executives believed, would make for enterprises that functioned efficiently, with no effort ever wasted, no minutes ever lost. Today, a century later, the nostrums of “scientific management” seem a quaint, even barbaric, relic of a distant past. No contemporary business leader would dare suggest, at least not in polite company, that employees only do good work when management tells them exactly what to do and how to do it. Instead, modern executives orate, at every opportunity, about empowering workers, about the importance of creating workplaces that encourage employ- ees to exercise their creativity. 159 160 Greed and Good Almost every high-level corporate manager now knows, by heart, this empowerment mantra: In generations past, they have learned at innumerable management seminars, command-and-control might have made some business sense. In the old days of mass production, with workers standing at assembly lines, performing the same mindless tasks over and over, corporations didn’t really need to know what workers thought. They just needed workers to do what they were told. But that mass-production world, the story continues, no longer exists. The Industrial Age has given way to an Age of Information. In the old days, enterprises could prosper churning out the same product by the millions. Customers were expected to buy what manufacturers produced — and they usually did. “You can have any color you want,” as automaker Henry Ford once quipped, “so long as it’s black.” In the new Information Age, by con- trast, enterprises only do well when they customize products to what customers want. And who knows what customers want? The workers at the front lines, the employees who interact directly with consumers. These workers, through their contacts with customers, gain incredibly significant information. An effective enterprise values this information — and the employees who have it. The effective enterprise, adds the empowerment mantra, also values work- ers on the production line, because modern production operations must be constantly changing to keep up with evolving consumer preferences. Who bet- ter to help figure out how to change, how to produce products ever faster, smarter, and more efficiently, than the workers actually involved in the pro- ducing? For Information Age business success, in short, workers simply must be engaged and involved. In our modern world, command-and-control no longer makes any sense.2 Think of modern enterprise life, suggests British economist John Kay, as a basketball game. If a basketball game were entirely predictable, coaches could succeed merely by defining what they want each player to do at each exact moment. But no coach ever tries to script an entire game. No script, coaches understand, could ever anticipate “the almost infinite variety of situations that might arise.”3 Smart coaches prepare players — and expect players — to make their own decisions. Expectations like these, notes Edward Lawler, the director of the Center for Effective Organizations at the University of Southern California, go against the “old logic” grain of corporate America. In the old logic enterprise, management makes all the decisions. Management, the old logic assumes, creates most value. What Lawler calls the “new logic” enterprise subscribes to a quite different set of assumptions. Corporate success, the new logic enterprise understands, requires that all employees, not just managers, “must add significant value.”4 And just how can corporations maximize this added value? In the late twen- tieth century, experts rushed forward with guidance. Their strategies would go by a host of different labels. Participative management. Quality circles. Total quality management. Experts would talk endlessly about “reengineering” cor- THE INEFFECTIVE ENTERPRISE 161 porations to effect “high-performance organizations.” Employee involvement, the experts stressed over and over, gives corporations smart enough to try it the “ultimate competitive advantage.”5 This empowering ethos swept through corporate America in the 1980s and 1990s. Managers and their staffs sat together, in meeting after meeting, draft- ing, discussing, and debating “mission” and “values” statements. And journals, magazines, and newspapers noticed. They celebrated, year after year, the tri- umphs of enterprises that were said to have successfully empowered their employees. One typical triumph came at Ironite, an Arizona fertilizer company. An Ironite customer had asked for the company’s fertilizer in boxes instead of bags, a reasonable enough request. But Ironite didn’t have a boxing machine, and buying one would have cost the company far more than the firm could have comfortably afforded. No problem. Ironite’s employees simply built a box- maker themselves, at a tenth of the cost of buying one. That sort of employee creativity, Ironite’s chief executive pointed out proud- ly, does not just happen out of the blue. “You get this only if you involve and respect employees,” explained Ironite CEO Heinz Brungs. “You can’t order them to build a machine.”6 Every company, “effective enterprise” gurus insisted throughout the 1980s and 1990s, could become an Ironite. But few companies, researchers agreed by century’s end, had actually reached anything close to Ironite status. Study after study reached the same dispiriting conclusion. Enterprises, by and large, were not empowering workers.7 Just 10 percent of Fortune 1000 corporations, Edward Lawler would report in 1996, were managing “according to the new logic.”8 And only a small frac- tion of the companies that claimed to be empowering workers, a Journal of Business study would reveal two years later, were actually engaging in any seri- ous empowerment work.9 Another study, published in 2000 by Administrative Science Quarterly, found executives across the United States quick to proclaim their allegiance to the new logic, but slow to practice it. On empowerment, concluded Barry Staw and Lisa Epstein, the study’s authors, top executives are essentially going through the motions.10 But why? Why aren’t top executives giving empowerment strategies a real go?11 Empowering employees, the experts all agree, can enhance enterprise efficiency. Why aren’t executives making any real effort to see whether the experts are right? What CEOs, after all, wouldn’t want their enterprises to be more efficient? Strange. Something is stopping American business from creating the employee-empowering, customer-focused “new logic” enterprises that the Information Age so clearly demands. What is it? ALMOST ANYONE WHO HAS EVER WORKED in a large company would probably agree, in a heartbeat, that the obstacles to enterprise effectiveness can almost always be summed up in just one eleven-letter word.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Union Calendar No. 481 104Th Congress, 2D Session – – – – – – – – – – – – House Report 104–879
    1 Union Calendar No. 481 104th Congress, 2d Session ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± House Report 104±879 REPORT ON THE ACTIVITIES OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES DURING THE ONE HUNDRED FOURTH CONGRESS PURSUANT TO CLAUSE 1(d) RULE XI OF THE RULES OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES JANUARY 2, 1997.ÐCommitted to the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union and ordered to be printed U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 36±501 WASHINGTON : 1997 COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ONE HUNDRED FOURTH CONGRESS HENRY J. HYDE, Illinois, Chairman 1 CARLOS J. MOORHEAD, California JOHN CONYERS, JR., Michigan F. JAMES SENSENBRENNER, JR., PATRICIA SCHROEDER, Colorado Wisconsin BARNEY FRANK, Massachusetts BILL MCCOLLUM, Florida CHARLES E. SCHUMER, New York GEORGE W. GEKAS, Pennsylvania HOWARD L. BERMAN, California HOWARD COBLE, North Carolina RICH BOUCHER, Virginia LAMAR SMITH, Texas JOHN BRYANT, Texas STEVEN SCHIFF, New Mexico JACK REED, Rhode Island ELTON GALLEGLY, California JERROLD NADLER, New York CHARLES T. CANADY, Florida ROBERT C. SCOTT, Virginia BOB INGLIS, South Carolina MELVIN L. WATT, North Carolina BOB GOODLATTE, Virginia XAVIER BECERRA, California STEPHEN E. BUYER, Indiana JOSEÂ E. SERRANO, New York 2 MARTIN R. HOKE, Ohio ZOE LOFGREN, California SONNY BONO, California SHEILA JACKSON LEE, Texas FRED HEINEMAN, North Carolina MAXINE WATERS, California 3 ED BRYANT, Tennessee STEVE CHABOT, Ohio MICHAEL PATRICK FLANAGAN, Illinois BOB BARR, Georgia ALAN F. COFFEY, JR., General Counsel/Staff Director JULIAN EPSTEIN, Minority Staff Director 1 Henry J. Hyde, Illinois, elected to the Committee as Chairman pursuant to House Resolution 11, approved by the House January 5 (legislative day of January 4), 1995.
    [Show full text]
  • English, French, and Spanish Colonies: a Comparison
    COLONIZATION AND SETTLEMENT (1585–1763) English, French, and Spanish Colonies: A Comparison THE HISTORY OF COLONIAL NORTH AMERICA centers other hand, enjoyed far more freedom and were able primarily around the struggle of England, France, and to govern themselves as long as they followed English Spain to gain control of the continent. Settlers law and were loyal to the king. In addition, unlike crossed the Atlantic for different reasons, and their France and Spain, England encouraged immigration governments took different approaches to their colo- from other nations, thus boosting its colonial popula- nizing efforts. These differences created both advan- tion. By 1763 the English had established dominance tages and disadvantages that profoundly affected the in North America, having defeated France and Spain New World’s fate. France and Spain, for instance, in the French and Indian War. However, those were governed by autocratic sovereigns whose rule regions that had been colonized by the French or was absolute; their colonists went to America as ser- Spanish would retain national characteristics that vants of the Crown. The English colonists, on the linger to this day. English Colonies French Colonies Spanish Colonies Settlements/Geography Most colonies established by royal char- First colonies were trading posts in Crown-sponsored conquests gained rich- ter. Earliest settlements were in Virginia Newfoundland; others followed in wake es for Spain and expanded its empire. and Massachusetts but soon spread all of exploration of the St. Lawrence valley, Most of the southern and southwestern along the Atlantic coast, from Maine to parts of Canada, and the Mississippi regions claimed, as well as sections of Georgia, and into the continent’s interior River.
    [Show full text]
  • Colonial Theodicy and the Jesuit Ascetic Ideal in José De Acosta's
    chapter 6 Colonial Theodicy and the Jesuit Ascetic Ideal in José de Acosta’s Works on Spanish America Bryan Green This chapter aims to demonstrate the centrality of the problem of theodicy in José de Acosta’s (1540–1600) scientific, ethnographic, and historical writings on Spanish America.1 Based on Acosta’s experience as the Jesuit provincial of Peru and his active participation in the political and ecclesiastical reforms initiated under the viceroy Francisco de Toledo (1515–82), these works bear witness to the moral evils running rampant among his fellow Spaniards and the concomi- tant suffering inflicted upon the indigenous population.2 While Acosta recog- nizes the moral evil at the root of Spanish sovereignty, namely greed in the ruthless pursuit of precious metals, his colonial theodicy nevertheless main- tains that this evil is a means to the greater good of the Amerindian’s salvation. In his guidelines for missionary conduct, Acosta offers a response to this ethi- cal impasse through the performance of a distinctly Jesuit ascetic ideal, which 1 This chapter was written at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso with the sup- port of a research grant from the Chilean government (fondecyt Iniciación en Investigación no. 11140527, 2014–17). 2 The son of a prosperous merchant from Medina del Campo in Spain, Acosta entered the Society in 1552 and completed the first years of his studies at the Jesuit college in his home- town. Having distinguished himself as a student and grammar teacher in several Jesuit schools throughout Iberia, Acosta moved on to study philosophy and theology at the renowned University of Alcalá de Henares in 1557.
    [Show full text]
  • The BBC's Pardoner's Tale
    A Popular Change from an Old Man to a Young Girl: The BBC’s Pardoner’s Tale (2003) Angus Cheng-yu Yen National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan Adaptation, as Julie Sanders defines it, is an attempt to invite new audiences and readers by re-presenting the source text in a simpler, more easily comprehensible manner. Among film adaptations of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, BBC’s 2003 reimagining provides unsurpassed sensitivity to modern issues, and a new relevance. Tony Ground narrates a modern tale intertwined with gothic elements and sex abuse scandals. Compared to the original text, BBC’s The Pardoner’s Tale leaves its reader not with the simple conclusion that avarice can be ultimately conquered, but with the complexities motivating a heinous crime. With the emphasis on the transformation of a character from a pallid old man to a florid young girl, this essay aims to discuss how the reframing of a medieval tale through popular culture sheds light on Chaucer’s reception and adaptation in the twenty-first century. Pasolini argued that it was impossible to make films about the past, idealized or otherwise, because the past had been irreparably corrupted by the present.1 ~Kevin J. Harty Everyone thinks they know the Canterbury Tales. Yet my experience of working on the Tales told me that no one can really remember much about them.2 ~Jonathan Myerson Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales have been adapted into numerous films, musicals, operas, and telefilms, including the BBC’s latest reproduction in 2003. Re- interpretation or re-production can either afford an alternative point of view from the 1 Kevin J.
    [Show full text]
  • Michael Marmot Secretary in Your Lifetime? I Have a Dog in This Fight
    BMJ CONFIDENTIAL Bevan or Lansley? Who was the best and the worst health Michael Marmot secretary in your lifetime? I have a dog in this fight. The best was Alan Johnson: Evidence based optimist we share a passion for reducing health inequalities. He commissioned me to do the Marmot Review, which we published as Fair Society, Healthy Lives . It has proved to be a great way to work with local authorities, Public Health England, and many others on social determinants of health. Stephen Dorrell used his experience as health secretary to be an independent minded and analytical chair of the Health Select Committee. The worst? A crowded field. Who is the person you would most like to thank and why? I believe, and evidence supports it, that good work requires a good home life and vice versa. I most want to MICHAEL MARMOT , 70, is the doyen of thank my wife and three children. health inequalities, both in research and To whom would you most like to apologise? policy. He led a groundbreaking study of When I toddled off to Buckingham Palace to receive Whitehall civil servants that showed, contra- an award, I kept thinking that it should have been Jerry ry to traditional thinking, that the lower their Morris [Scottish epidemiologist] and Geoffrey Rose. Jerry status, the worse their health—the “social rang me and said, “ We have come in from the cold.” gradient.” His conviction that evidence should If you were given £1m what would you spend it on? form the basis of policy and that people can I was given a lot of money once and established the make a diff erence led to his chairing two WHO commissions and the English review on Balzan Fellowships—bringing young scholars to UCL from social determinants of health.
    [Show full text]
  • The Early History of Greed the Sin of Avarice in Early Medieval Thought and Literature
    The Early History of Greed The Sin of Avarice in Early Medieval Thought and Literature RICHARD NEWHAUSER Trinity University (San Antonio) published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, TrumpingtonStreet, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk 40 West 20th Street, New York, ny 10011±4211, USA http://www.cup.org. 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia # Cambridge University Press 2000 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2000 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeset in Adobe Garamond 11.5/14pt [ce] A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data Newhauser, Richard, 1947± The early history of greed: the sin of avarice in early medieval thought and literature / Richard Newhauser. p. cm. ± (Cambridge studies in medieval literature) Includes bibliographical references amd index. isbn 0 521 38522 9 (hardback) 1. Avarice ± History. 2. Christian ethics ± History ± Middle Ages, 600±1500. I. Title. II. Series. bj1535.a8n48 2000 241'.3±dc21 99-25922 cip isbn 0 521 38522 9 hardback Contents List of abbreviations page viii Preface xi 1 Alms and ascetes, round stones and masons: avarice in the 1 early church
    [Show full text]
  • I'm Making $21 an Hour at Mcdonald's. Why Aren't You?
    I’m making $21 an hour at McDonald’s. Why aren’t you? | The Great Debate 8/29/14 9:37 AM Safari Power Saver Click to Start Flash Plug-in RECOMMENDED VIDEO Whole organ 'grown' inside animal for the fir… U.S. Navy releases video it says shows aircraft t… I "Shaun" the sheep could be the world's woolliest work for McDonald’s and I make $21 an hour. No, that isn’t a typo. It’s really my salary. Girl shoots instructor during shooting lesson You see, I work for McDonald’s in Denmark, where an agreement between our union and the company guarantees that workers older than 18 are paid at least $21 an hour. Employees younger than 18 make at least $15 — meaning teenagers working at McDonald’s in Denmark make more than two times what many adults in America earn working at the Golden Arches. To anyone who says that fast-food jobs can’t be good jobs, I would answer that mine isn’t bad. In fact, parts of it are Sponsored Financial Content (?) just fine. Under our union’s agreement with McDonald’s, for example, I receive paid sick leave that workers are still fighting for in many parts of the world. We also get overtime pay, guaranteed hours and at least two days off a week, unlike workers in most countries. At least 10 percent of the staff in any given restaurant must work at least 30 hours How CashPro has helped Shure achieve a week. seamless cash efficiency Bank of America Estimate how much you’ll need for retirement with My Retirement Plan® Wells Fargo Meet Warren Buffett's Worst Nightmare Motley Fool Use Free 2-Step Reverse Mortgage Calculator For Cash Estimate, Today! Liberty Home Insurance One Smart Penny Ridiculously Easy Way to Pay Off Mortgage Faster One smart penny MORE REUTERS NEWS But in New York last week, I met fast-food workers from around the world who aren’t as lucky as I am.
    [Show full text]
  • Netflix and the Development of the Internet Television Network
    Syracuse University SURFACE Dissertations - ALL SURFACE May 2016 Netflix and the Development of the Internet Television Network Laura Osur Syracuse University Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/etd Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Osur, Laura, "Netflix and the Development of the Internet Television Network" (2016). Dissertations - ALL. 448. https://surface.syr.edu/etd/448 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the SURFACE at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations - ALL by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract When Netflix launched in April 1998, Internet video was in its infancy. Eighteen years later, Netflix has developed into the first truly global Internet TV network. Many books have been written about the five broadcast networks – NBC, CBS, ABC, Fox, and the CW – and many about the major cable networks – HBO, CNN, MTV, Nickelodeon, just to name a few – and this is the fitting time to undertake a detailed analysis of how Netflix, as the preeminent Internet TV networks, has come to be. This book, then, combines historical, industrial, and textual analysis to investigate, contextualize, and historicize Netflix's development as an Internet TV network. The book is split into four chapters. The first explores the ways in which Netflix's development during its early years a DVD-by-mail company – 1998-2007, a period I am calling "Netflix as Rental Company" – lay the foundations for the company's future iterations and successes. During this period, Netflix adapted DVD distribution to the Internet, revolutionizing the way viewers receive, watch, and choose content, and built a brand reputation on consumer-centric innovation.
    [Show full text]
  • Closing the Gap in a Generation Health Equity Through Action on the Social Determinants of Health Closing the Gap in a Generation Contents
    Commission on Social Determinants of Health FINAL REPORT Closing the gap in a generation Health equity through action on the social determinants of health CLOSING THE GAP IN A GENERATION CONTENTS WHO Library Cataloguing-in- © World Health Organization 2008 whatsoever on the part of the World Health All reasonable precautions have been taken Publication Data Organization concerning the legal status of by the World Health Organization to verify All rights reserved. Publications of the World any country, territory, city or area or of its the information contained in this publication. Closing the gap in a generation : health equity Health Organization can be obtained from authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its However, the published material is being through action on the social determinants WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps distributed without warranty of any kind, either of health : final report of the commission on Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland represent approximate border lines for which expressed or implied. The responsibility for social determinants of health. (tel.: +41 22 791 3264; fax: +41 22 791 there may not yet be full agreement. the interpretation and use of the material lies 4857; e-mail: [email protected]). Requests with the reader. In no event shall the World 1.Socioeconomic factors. 2.Health care for permission to reproduce or translate The mention of specific companies or of Health Organization be liable for damages rationing. 3.Health services accessibility. WHO publications – whether for sale or for certain manufacturers’ products does not arising from its use. 4.Patient advocacy.
    [Show full text]
  • 1/11/2006 Health in an Unequal World Michael Marmot This Is a Lightly
    1/11/2006 Health in an Unequal World Michael Marmot This is a lightly edited version of the (October) 2006 Harveian Oration at the Royal College of Physicians. It will be published in Clinical Medicine and the Lancet. In poor countries, tragically, people die unnecessarily. In rich countries, too, the higher death rate of those in less fortunate social positions is unnecessary. Can there be a link between these two phenomena: inequalities in health among countries and inequalities within? Surely, it might be argued, the depredations of grinding poverty – lack of food, shelter, clean water, and basic medical care or public health – that ravage the lives of the poor in developing countries are different in kind from the way that social disadvantage leads to poor health in modern Britain, for example. The diseases of the slums of Nairobi are, to be sure, different in kind from the diseases that affect the disadvantaged in east London or Harlem, and have different proximate causes. There is, however, a link. The unnecessary disease and suffering of the disadvantaged, whether in poor countries or rich, is a result of the way we organise our affairs in society. I shall argue, in this oration, that failing to meet the fundamental human need of autonomy, empowerment, or human freedom is a potent cause of ill-health. In making this case, I shall bring together two rather disparate streams of work. The first is a report of my own research endeavour. I have sought explanations for the social gradient in health, as observed in the Whitehall studies, pointing to the fundamental importance of the circumstances in which people live and work.
    [Show full text]
  • To Govern the Health Or to Make the Bills of Mortality - This Is the Question for Public Health in Poland
    PRZEGL EPIDEMIOL 2013; 67: 651 - 660 Public health Dorota Cianciara TO GOVERN THE HEALTH OR TO MAKE THE BILLS OF MORTALITY - THIS IS THE QUESTION FOR PUBLIC HEALTH IN POLAND School of Public Health, The Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, Warsaw National Institute of Public Health – National Institute of Hygiene, Warsaw ABSTRACT In the article important moments in the development of public health at the global scale were presented, as- suming that postwar evolution proceeded in two fundamental phases: the first – events which occurred to the proclamation of the Ottawa Charter and introduction of ‘new public health’ and the second – situations reported after Ottawa to the present time. The current challenges for public health in Poland were also discussed. It was proposed to differentiate two dimensions of public health capacity: internal (ad intra), which is with regard to the power centre, condition within the environment and external (ad extra), which refers to the relation with surroundings and population and enables to deliver sustain services and programmes. The possible strategies aiming at increasing ad intra capacity were also indicated. Key words: public health, health promotion, history, forecasting, capacity building In Poland, the theoretic, demonstrative and dis- INTRODUCTION cursive papers are hardly present. Furthermore, some papers which are available are of questionable quality. Health is of too high priority to be left for physi- The forums concerning ideas exchange, confronting the cians and public’s health is too crucial to be in charge of opinions, correcting the mistakes are also lacking. Not public health officers only. In Poland, the public health enough studies are conducted and the ones which are lesson has not been studied so scrupulously as it was carried out are the exemplification of biomedical and done in more developed countries.
    [Show full text]
  • Greed and Grievance in Civil War
    # Oxford University Press 2004 Oxford Economic Papers 56 (2004), 563–595 563 All rights reserved doi:10.1093/oep/gpf064 Greed and grievance in civil war By Paul Collier* and Anke Hoefflery *Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford yCentre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford, 21 Winchester Road, Oxford OX2 6NA; e-mail: anke.hoeffl[email protected] We investigate the causes of civil war, using a new data set of wars during 1960–99. Rebellion may be explained by atypically severe grievances, such as high inequality, a lack of political rights, or ethnic and religious divisions in society. Alternatively, it might be explained by atypical opportunities for building a rebel organization. While it is difficult to find proxies for grievances and opportunities, we find that political and social variables that are most obviously related to grievances have little explanatory power. By contrast, economic variables, which could proxy some griev- ances but are perhaps more obviously related to the viability of rebellion, provide considerably more explanatory power. 1. Introduction Civil war is now far more common than international conflict: all of the 15 major armed conflicts listed by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute for 2001 were internal (SIPRI, 2002). In this paper we develop an econometric model which predicts the outbreak of civil conflict. Analogous to the classic principles of murder detection, rebellion needs both motive and opportunity. The political science literature explains conflict in terms of motive: the circumstances in which people want to rebel are viewed as sufficiently rare to constitute the explanation.
    [Show full text]