Government of

National Climate Change Response Strategy

April 2010 Government of Kenya

National Climate Change Response Strategy

NovemberApril 2010 2009

2 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ 2 © Government of Kenya, 2010

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the Government of Kenya. Foreword

The integration of climate information into NCCRS including the linkages between the Government policies is important because NCCRS and the Vision 2030; adaptation and climate is a major driving factor for most of mitigation interventions; communication, the economic activities in Kenya. Climate education and awareness programmes; information has, however, not been easily vulnerability assessments; research, technology understandable. The same has not been development and transfer; policy, legislation adequately factored into most of the sectors of and institutional framework; as well as action the country’s economy including Government plan, implementation framework and resource development policies and plans. The current mobilisation plan, respectively. Government’s blue print called ‘Vision 2030’ is no exception. The purpose of this National The recommendations given in this document Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) should be translated into policies that would is to put in place robust measures needed benefit our communities and trigger the to address most, if not all, of the challenges process of active involvement in factoring posed by climate variability and change. climate information into all relevant activities. For climate change threats to be appreciated, It is important for me that this Strategy has the document has recommended massive been developed through a very participatory awareness campaigns so that the public can process conducted countrywide. We have be sensitised and mobilised to adapt to and had two national workshops, nine regional mitigate against impacts of climate change. workshops as well as workshops with parliamentarians and clusters of stakeholders It is important to note that this is the first time including the Government, private sector, this country has developed a document of this civil society organisations, development kind dedicated to addressing the threats posed partners, youth groups, women’s groups, faith- by climate change as well as taking advantage based organisations, and the media, among of any opportunities that may arise. Future others. These workshops were held to gather climate change programmes and projects will information on the impacts of climate change have to be developed in line with the provisions as well as on recommended interventions. of this Response Strategy. Consequently, this Strategy is now the key Government climate It is also important for me that a number of change agenda guide in the country and will line-ministries have provided their programmes inform nationwide climate change programmes and projects towards sector-wide adaptation and development activities including the to and mitigation against climate change. The formulation of documents such as the National Action Plan of this Strategy builds on these Climate Change Policy and efforts towards the programmes and projects, among others, and attainment of Vision 2030. For this reason, the shows to me the Government’s commitment Strategy shall be circulated widely to as many towards tackling climate change. stakeholders as possible to enable extensive reading. This document is divided into ten chapters. Chapter One looks at the history of climate change, challenges and international efforts to combat climate change. The remaining chapters give details on evidence and impacts of climate change; strategic focus of the

4 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Acknowledgement

Climate change is considered one of the most the high priority the Ministry has accorded to serious threats to sustainable development climate change and its associated impacts. It is globally. Studies have shown that about 90% my hope that the document will be found useful of all natural disasters afflicting the world are in delivering the country out of the vicious related to severe and extreme climate cycle of poverty exacerbated by the changing change events. Impacts of the projected climate climate and its associated severe impacts on change are expected in many sectors such as livelihoods and economic development. environment, human health, , economic activities, natural resources and The preparation and publication of this Strategy physical infrastructure. For example, among the have taken efforts of various entities and I would key findings of the Fourth Assessment Report like to acknowledge their efforts. I take this (AR4) (IPCC, 2007) are: opportunity to thank all those who participated in the production of this Response Strategy: • Millions of people globally will be exposed CAMCO as a consulting firm, stakeholders who to increased stress, participated in the consultative workshops, the • Access to food in many African countries NCCRS Advisory Committee, the NEMA staff who will be severely compromised, and organised the regional consultative workshops, • Adaptation to climate change will be officers of the Climate Change Secretariat at necessary. the Ministry headquarters, all Ministries that contributed concept papers on climate change Kenya acknowledges that the change in the projects and programmes to be undertaken by Earth’s climate and its adverse effects are a their respective Ministries, and the Environment common concern of humankind. The Ministry Secretary for coordinating all these inputs and of Environment and Mineral Resources (MEMR) steering the publication of the Strategy. has therefore recognised the need to enhance coordination of climate change activities in the Development of a document of this kind would country with a view to ensuring a climate-proof be impossible without financial resources. socioeconomic development anchored on a low- In this regard, my gratitude goes to the carbon path. Governments of Denmark and Sweden through the Danida/Sida supported Environmental The Kenya National Climate Change Response Programme Support (EPS) for providing both Strategy (NCCRS) is based on outcomes of technical and financial support for the process. stakeholder-consultations held all over the Of course I can’t forget the support provided country and therefore captures the aspirations by other development partners in particular of most Kenyans on tackling climate change the UNDP, UNEP, International Development challenges. The document has also drawn from Research Centre (IDRC), IGAD Climate Prediction sectoral climate change response activities and and Applications Centre (ICPAC) and members budgeted Action Plans of various line Ministries. of parliament particularly the Departmental Committee on Land and Natural Resources Indeed, the Strategy has come up with as well as the Departmental Committee on modalities of dealing with climate change Agriculture, Livestock and Cooperatives during challenges in the country with a view to the awareness campaign workshops. ensuring a climate-resilient nation. These include recommendations on relevant policies, institutional framework, awareness creation and mobilisation of resources, among many others.

The Ministry of Environment and Mineral Lawrence Lenayapa Resources is proud to present this Strategy, the Permanent Secretary first ever in the country. This is an indication of Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources Executive Summary

It is universally accepted that climate change is Mechanism (CDM) compliance market under one of the greatest challenges facing humanity the Kyoto Protocol and (ii) Voluntary Carbon this century. In Kenya, this phenomenon is Markets (VCM), which emerged to fulfil the already unmistakable and intensifying at an demand from organisations and businesses alarming rate as is evident from countrywide that wish to offset their carbon emissions temperature increases and rainfall irregularity voluntarily. It should be noted that presently, and intensification. most developing countries in Africa have not benefited from carbon markets because of their These climate-driven changes affect resources complexity, trading conditions, investments critical for economic development of Kenya. An and general lack of capacity and knowledge in example is the 1999/2000 La Niña , developing countries. Therefore, for Kenya to which left approximately 4.7 million Kenyans benefit from these markets, intense capacity facing starvation. In addition, increased building particularly at the community level average temperatures have led to the spread will be required. of vector-borne diseases like to areas where the disease is not known to be The National Climate Change Response endemic. Strategy

Global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions In response to the challenges and opportunities are continuing unabated and in the future, posed by climate change, Kenya has developed the impacts of climate change are likely to this National Climate Change Response Strategy. worsen an already precarious situation. If The vision of the Strategy is for a prosperous Kenya takes no action to reduce or minimise and climate change resilient Kenya. The expected impacts of current and future climate mission is to strengthen and focus nationwide change, the costs of potential damage to actions towards climate change adaptation and the economy could be enormous. A recent GHG emission mitigation. This will be achieved study has estimated that the direct costs by ensuring commitment and engagement of of climate change damage in Kenya will all stakeholders while taking into account the potentially amount to between one and two vulnerable nature of Kenya’s natural resources billion US Dollars annually by the year 2030 and society. The objectives are to: and considerably greater if indirect costs are included. • enhance understanding of the global climate change regime: the negotiation Climate change also presents opportunities for process, international agreements, policies developing countries like Kenya, which can and processes and most importantly the avoid the high-emission path that developed positions Kenya needs to take in order countries have pursued to attain their present to maximise beneficial effects of climate high economic status. The ‘carbon market,’ where change, it is possible to trade carbon credits, presents • assess the evidence and impacts of climate an opportunity for developing countries to raise change in Kenya, additional revenues for GHG emission reducing projects that also contribute to sustainable • recommend robust adaptation and development. There are two types of carbon mitigation measures needed to minimise markets and both are relevant to Kenya. The risks associated with climate change while two markets are: (i) the Clean Development maximising opportunities,

6 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Executive Summary

• enhance understanding of climate change the United Nations Framework Convention on and its impacts nationally and in local re- Climate Change (UNFCCC). gions, Since then, there have been a series of • recommend vulnerability assessment, impact Conference of the Parties (COPs) to the UNFCCC. monitoring and capacity building framework Two main outcomes of these COP meetings needs as a response to climate change, have been the Kyoto Protocol (COP 3 of 1997) • recommend research and technological and the Marrakesh Accords (COP 7 of 2001), needs to respond to climate change impacts, which contains the detailed rules for the and avenues for transferring existing tech- implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. nologies, Key issues that have continued to shape the • recommend a conducive and enabling policy, global climate change regime are also explained legal and institutional framework to combat in this chapter of the Strategy. These include climate change, and mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology • provide a concerted action plan coupled development and transfer, governance as well with resource mobilisation plan and robust as the role of land-use and land-use change and monitoring and evaluation plan to combat forestry (LULUCF) in climate change mitigation climate change. especially in developing countries.

Based on the above objectives the following 2. Assessment of evidence and sections summarise the Strategy’s contents and related recommendations as proposed by impacts of climate change in stakeholders that have participated in the Kenya process of developing this Strategy. The Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) has provided data of temperature and rainfall 1. Understanding the changes in Kenya over the last fifty years. international climate change From the early 1960s, Kenya has generally regime experienced increasing temperatures over The main purpose of Chapter 1 of the Strategy vast areas. Over inland areas, the trends in is to enhance understanding of climate change both minimum (night-time/early morning) in a global context. Discussion in this chapter and maximum (daytime) temperatures depict focuses on the climate change negotiation a general warming through time. However, process and outcomes, international the increase in the minimum temperatures agreements and policies, and most importantly is steeper than in maximum temperatures. the positions Kenya needs to adopt in order to The combined effect of a steeper increase maximise benefits. To achieve this, the Strategy in minimum temperatures and a less steep has provided a synopsis of climate change as an increase in maximum temperatures is a lower international environmental and developmental daily (diurnal) temperature range. challenge. This begins with when climate change was first widely recognised as a global In general, annual highest rainfall events problem in the 1980s where it was mentioned indicate that the 24-hour intense rainfall in the Brundtland Report published in 1987 amounts observed in the recent years are and proceeds through to the formation of the relatively lower than those in the early 1960s; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change essentially, these values have been reducing (IPCC) in 1989. This was then followed by the (negative trend) with time. These trends are 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment also depicted in the time series of the ‘Long and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, ’ season which contributes a significant which concluded with agreements establishing amount of rainfall to annual totals over most National Climate Change Response Strategy

parts of the country. However, the changes and the indicative costs. The Strategy is (reductions) are not very significant. Most complementary and consistent with existing of the standard seasons also depict the same development and economic plans, principally type of patterns in the highest daily rainfall the Vision 2030. These recommendations will values observed. Thus far, there is an indication be supported by a well-defined implementation, of relatively more intense rainfall occurring monitoring and evaluation framework. more frequently over the coastal strip and the northern parts of the country in the September- Some specific adaptation actions include: October-November (SON) and December- • producing and promoting of - January-February (DJF) seasons. tolerant, diseases and pest resistant as well as early maturing crop varieties, These changing temperature and rainfall patterns have profound impacts on Kenya’s • promoting orphan crops, e.g. sorghum, socio-economic sectors, most of which are cassava, pigeon pea, sweet potato, climate-sensitive. Based on the contributions of • promoting agricultural produce post-harvest stakeholders during the national and regional processing, storage and value-added, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) workshops as well as literature review, • breeding of animals from various agro- both observed and potential impacts of climate ecological zones that adapt well to climatic change on Kenya’s key sectors and land use variances, and systems were assessed. These key sectors • providing special livestock insurance include: agriculture; rangelands which are the schemes to spread and transfer risks from backbone of Kenya’s pastoralism, wildlife and climate change. tourism sectors; forestry; water resources; aquatic and marine resources; health; as well as Chapter 4 specifies interventions to be physical and social infrastructure. undertaken in all the vulnerable sectors including in the water, agriculture, forestry, A key finding of this assessment is that climate energy, wildlife, rangelands, coastal, change is already ravaging Kenya as shown for infrastructure, etc. On-going interventions are instance by the increase in the incidence and highlighted as well as proposing new measures. geographical spread of diseases like malaria as well as more frequent and more intense In addition, Kenya stands to benefit from droughts, and erratic rainfall patterns. These carbon markets by putting in place mitigation impacts and others portend an increasingly measures including the promotion of energy worsening and worrying situation in the future efficiency and renewable energy technologies if global and national efforts are not enhanced e.g. solar, , geothermal, biomass and small to reverse atmospheric GHG emissions which hydro plants, as well as a properly planned low- accelerate global warming. carbon public transportation system. These interventions are covered under Mitigation 3. Adaptation and mitigation in Chapter 4. Other measures covered include growing trees for rehabilitation and restoration needs of degraded landscapes, particularly the five In order to cushion key sectors against the water catchment areas and trust-lands. These impacts of climate change, the NCCRS (also areas will support structured engagement of the known as the ‘Strategy’) has identified sectoral communities in carbon trading for enhanced adaptation and mitigation needs. In addition, income generation and poverty reduction. the Strategy has recommended procedures In addition, this will support biodiversity contained in an Action Plan detailing the conservation aspirations of our national specific sectoral actions, implementation development policies. timeframe, key implementing or lead agencies

8 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Executive Summary

Further, several case studies are used • involving the corporate sector, especially throughout the report and especially in Chapter the mobile telephone industry e.g. to 4 to demonstrate successful applications of the display ‘airtime top-up messages’ on interventions being recommended. climate change.

4. Communication, education 5. Vulnerability assessments, and awareness programmes GHGs and climate change The level of understanding of climate change impacts monitoring, and and its impacts is very low countrywide. This capacity building framework calls for a focused awareness campaign that There is inadequate national and local simplifies the science and impacts of climate information on how climate change elements change in a language that is understandable – temperature rise, change in precipitation, by all segments of the society. This will help events, improve national preparedness for the potential and other seasonal shifts – will affect impacts of climate change. To this end, forums phenomena such as , drought, water for engagement and information dissemination shortages (supply and quality), air quality, to the public on current and future climate human health, and habitat loss. A thorough change risks, and a concerted, focused and nationwide assessment of how these changes comprehensive approach to managing such will affect human population, infrastructure, risks will be established. Some of the ways the environment, the economy and society of enhancing climate change education and as a whole. In parallel, it is important to awareness which will be applied include: conduct climate change scenarios and develop corresponding policy responses. • establishing a National Climate Change awareness campaign using print and electronic Further, there is limited information regarding media to pass climate change information in the country’s vulnerability to the impacts of various articles and programmes on climate climate change. The same is true concerning change in the media, the level of knowledge about the status of • incorporating climate change information key natural resources such as lakes and rivers; into schools and colleges’ curricula and rangelands; important ecosystems including syllabuses, the Mt. Kenya and its glaciers, water towers like the Mau Forest Complex, Mount Elgon, • online blogging on Facebook, Twitter, Cherenganyi Hills and the Aberdare Ranges. Google Groups, Yahoo Groups, Unite for Climate etc, through which various topics With regard to the tracking and reporting on climate change could be discussed, GHG emissions in Kenya, only few institutions notably the International Energy Agency (IEA) • eco-tournaments engaging in sporting periodically do so. The IEA’s data indicates events such as athletics, football and Kenya’s GHG emissions in 2007 were 11.43 basketball to raise awareness, MtCO2eq. This level is still low when compared • use of drama and performance arts, to emissions of major industrialised countries, but rising quickly especially due to increasing • providing timely and accurate information on Kenya’s climate change policy, position transport (i.e. high private car use) and energy and issues to be discussed with Kenyan sector emissions. There are currently, no missions abroad and the Ministry of institutions based in Kenya that monitor the Foreign Affairs, country’s GHG emissions. • encouraging individual volunteers in Therefore, in addition to vulnerability assess- raising awareness, and ments, periodic monitoring and assessment of National Climate Change Response Strategy

the status of key natural eco-systems will be Some of these include the development of required to help design appropriate response powdered fuel burner from agricultural wastes, measures that can check against their degra- solar water heaters fabrication, and biodiesel dation and help preserve them for the sake of processor development, among others. Research current and future generations. An institution interventions in these areas and in other sectors should also be established to undertake peri- including water, forestry, wildlife and tourism odic determination of levels of GHG emissions as well as health are detailed in Chapter 7. in order to identify ‘high-emissions’ sectors and areas where significant GHG reductions can be Information documentation and dissemination realised. Such GHG emissions data could also are important to ensure different stakeholders feed into the National Communications as re- take appropriate action to respond to the quired under the UNFCCC. challenges presented by climate change. To this end, one of the key priority areas will be Moreover, because there are few climate improving national coordination of information change specialists in the areas of science, through enhancing packaging and expediting policy, adaptation, mitigation and carbon timely dissemination. finance and markets it is important to put in place a targeted capacity-building framework. Further, efforts should be made to support Building the capacity of local communities technology generation and absorption. This can to help them adapt to the adverse impacts of be done by building the capacity of relevant climate change as well as take opportunities institutions to enable them undertake research such as those offered by the Reduced Emissions & development (R&D) in climate change related from and Degradation (REDD) fields as well as through technology transfer mechanisms is also important. Kenya will from the industrialised countries to Kenya. undertake various interventions to address its To this end, the Strategy has identified some capacity needs by strengthening vulnerability of the channels through which technology analysis and food security monitoring, development, absorption and diffusion can be supporting the modernisation of the Kenya achieved, which include: Meteorological Department, strengthening through the Kyoto Protocol’s CDM or its institutions in charge of Disaster Risk • future successor, Reduction (DRR), the National Designated Authority (DNA) amongst other interventions • through the United Nations Industrial discussed further in Chapter 6. Development Organization (UNIDO),

6. Research, technology • accelerating South-South partnerships, development and transfer • accelerating North-South transfers through Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) needs including taking advantage of ‘patent-free’ The Strategy has identified specific sectoral technologies, research needs as a response to the impacts establishment and capacity enhancement of climate change. In the agricultural sector, • of local technological innovation centres research is needed to develop superior which will help strengthen institutional (drought-tolerant, fast-maturing, disease and technology generation and transfer through pest-resistant) crop varieties. As with the learning-by-doing approach, and agricultural sector, the energy sector is also vulnerable to climate change. Some of the • including climate change research and research areas that will need strengthening and development in all budgets of Ministries focus include energy efficient innovations and with substantial allocations to institutions technologies especially of the less advanced and of higher learning to strengthen research low-cost energy appliances, tools and sources. capacities.

10 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Executive Summary

7. Climate change governance committees. The IPCC focal point based in KMD will augment the NCCACC and strengthen its An analysis of existing environmental policy and scientific advisory capacity. legal framework has revealed that Kenya currently has no policies or laws that deal directly and explicitly with climate change. The only policy 8. Action plan and resource that has attempted to address climate change to mobilization plan some extent is the draft National Environmental The adaptation and mitigation programmes Policy of 2008. The Strategy therefore recommends identified in the Strategy will be implemented a comprehensive climate change policy and over the next 20 years at an annual average related legislation be put in place by either cost of Ksh. 235.83 billion (approximately US$ reviewing and updating the clauses on climate 3.14 billion). change in the draft National Environmental Policy or developing a completely new climate change The table on the next page shows that policy. This should be followed by a review of significant additional financial resources existing laws (in particular, the Environment need to be mobilised for the implementation Management Coordination Act, EMCA of 1999) of this Strategy with every effort made to to make them climate change responsive and/or reallocate the country’s budgetary resources enactment of a new and comprehensive climate and raise additional revenue for this purpose. change law. However, the Strategy recommends Nevertheless, most of the funding will be that a new climate change legislation be enacted, mobilised from developed countries either a process that could run concurrently with the directly or indirectly through the multilateral policy formulation. financial institutions and the UN agencies. Timely establishment of the proposed Climate In addition, the Strategy has established Change Finance Facility is therefore critical. that institutions currently in place to govern climate change affairs are inadequate. It has In addition, all governmental and non- consequently recommended a dedicated and governmental institutions need to mainstream adequately funded climate change secretariat be climate change proofing and responsiveness in established within the Ministry of Environment their programmes and projects. and Mineral Resources to oversee climate change issues including the implementation of the adaptation and mitigation programmes and the other aspects of the National Climate Change Response Strategy. This institution, including the proposed structures within it (see Chapter 8), should be anchored on the provisions of the new climate change laws to be enacted.

It is further proposed that MEMR establishes a National Climate Change Steering Committee to help it gather and collate input and advice from key climate change stakeholders for its use in the coordination of Kenya’s climate change activities. Also, the National Climate Change Activities Coordinating Committee (NCCACC) will continue to serve in its current advisory capacity. The Climate Change Secretariat to be established at MEMR will provide secretarial functions for the two National Climate Change Response Strategy

Estimated Annual Budget for proposed Climate Change Projects and Programmes Sub- sector/Ministry Annual Cost (Ksh Billion) Productive Sector 76.96 Agriculture 10.60 Tourism 0.04 Marine & Fisheries Resources 2.52 Forestry and Wildlife 32.26 Environment & Mineral Resources 7.39 Cooperative Development and Marketing 0.15 Regional Development Authorities 24.00 Physical Infrastructure & Service Industry 111.52 Energy Sector 73.71 Water & Irrigation 5.96 Roads (maintenance) 20.00 Transport Sector (devt of Bus Rapid Transport BRT & LRT) 11.85 Manpower 37.45 Youth Affairs and Sports 2.75 Gender, Children & Social Development 2.70 Special Programmes (Famine and Disaster Risk Reduction-DRR) 32.00 Education 7.90 Health (Public) 1.30 ICT 0.70 Grand Total (Approx) 235.83

12 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Table of Contents

FOREWORD ...... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...... 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS...... 12 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES...... 15 ACRONYMS ...... 16 1 CLIMATE CHANGE: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE...... 21 1.1 History of Climate Change as a Global Problem...... 22 1.2 International Efforts and Challenges to Combating Climate Change...... 23 2 ASSESSING THE EVIDENCE AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN KENYA...... 27

2.1 Evidence of Climate Change in Kenya over the last 50 years...... 28 2.1.1 Temperature Trends...... 28 2.1.2 Rainfall Patterns...... 29 2.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Kenya...... 30 2.2.1 Impacts on Natural Systems...... 30 2.2.2 Impacts on Key Economic Sectors...... 34 2.2.3 Impacts on Physical and Social Infrastructure...... 38 3 STRATEGIC FOCUS...... 43

3.1 Importance of the NCCRS to Kenya...... 44 3.2 Strategic Focus...... 44 3.3 Strategic Vision, Mission and Objectives...... 44 3.3.1 Vision...... 45 3.3.2 Mission...... 45 3.3.3 Strategic Objectives...... 45 3.4 Linkage between the NCCRS, Vision 2030 and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)...... 47 4 SECTORAL ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION INTERVENTIONS...... 49

4.1 Adaptation Interventions...... 50 4.1.1 Agriculture, Horticulture and Food Security...... 50 4.1.2 Livestock/Pastoralism...... 51 4.1.3 Water...... 52 National Climate Change Response Strategy

4.1.4 Health...... 53 4.1.5 Forestry...... 54 4.1.6 Energy...... 55 4.1.7 Rangelands, Wildlife and Tourism...... 56 4.1.8 Social Infrastructure and Human Settlements...... 56 4.1.9 Physical Infrastructure...... 57 4.1.10 Fisheries, Coastal and Marine Ecosystems...... 58

4.2 Mitigation Interventions...... 59 4.2.1 Forestry ...... 59 4.2.2 Energy ...... 59 4.2.3 Agriculture...... 62 4.2.4 Transport...... 63 4.2.5 Carbon Markets: a Benefit of Mitigation...... 64 5 COMMUNICATION, EDUCATION AND AWARENESS PROGRAMMES...... 67

5.1 Communication...... 68 5.2 Education...... 69 5.3 Public Awareness...... 69 6 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT, IMPACT MONITORING AND CAPACITY BUILDING...... 71

6.1 Vulnerability Assessment...... 72 6.2 Climate Change Impacts and GHG Emissions Monitoring...... 72 6.3 Capacity Building...... 73 7 RESEARCH, TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT, ABSORPTION AND DIFFUSION...... 77

7.1 Research and Development...... 78 7.1.1 Agriculture, Livestock and Food Security...... 78 7.1.2 Energy...... 79 7.1.3 Forestry...... 79 7.1.4 Health...... 80 7.1.5 Water...... 80 7.1.6 Fisheries...... 81 7.1.7 Wildlife and Rangelands...... 81

7.2 Technology Transfer...... 82 7.2.1 Technology Transfer through the CDM or its Future Successor...... 83 7.2.2 Technology Transfer through UNIDO...... 84 7.2.3 Accelerating North-South Technology Transfer...... 84 7.2.4 South-South Technology Transfer...... 84

14 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Table of Contents

7.2.5 Development Partners’ Initiatives...... 85 7.2.6 Establishment and Capacity Enhancement of Local Technological Innovation Centres...... 85 7.2.7 Technology Transfer within a Future Agreement Framework...... 86 8 CLIMATE CHANGE GOVERNANCE...... 87 8.1 Climate Change Policy...... 88 8.2 Appropriate Legal Framework...... 88 8.3 Institutions Governing Climate Change...... 89 8.3.1 Proposed Climate Change Governance Structure...... 90 8.3.2 Functions of Various Offices and Divisions...... 92 9 ACTION PLAN AND RESOURCE MOBILISATION PLAN...... 97 9.1 Action Plan and Costs...... 98 9.2 Resource Mobilisation Plan...... 99 9.2.1 Devolved Domestic Funds...... 99 9.2.2 National Adaptation Facility (NAF)...... 99 9.3 Monitoring and Evaluation...... 100

10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 101 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 103 ANNEX - Action Plan and Costs...... 107 National Climate Change Response Strategy

List of Tables and Figures

TABLES Table 1 Minimun temperature trend from 1960...... 28 Table 2 Maximum temperature trend from 1960...... 28 Table 3 Annual costs of climate change projects and programmes (2009 estimates)...... 98

FIGURES Figure 1 Temperature trend for from 1960-2005...... 29 Figure 2 Temperature trend for from 1960-2005...... 29 Figure 3 Rainfall trends in and over the past half century...... 30 Figure 4 GHG emissions trend in Kenya...... 63 Figure 5 Proposed climate change governance structure...... 91

16 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Acronyms

AAU Assigned Amount Units AF Adaptation Fund AR4 4th Assessment Report ASAL Arid & Semi-Arid Lands BPO Business Process Outsourcing BRT Bus Rapid Transit CA Conservation Agriculture CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBO Community Based Organizations CC Climate Change CCA Common Country Assessment CCBA Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance CCCU Climate Change Coordinating Unit CCK Communication Commission of Kenya CCK Communication Commission of Kenya CCO Climate Change Office CCTT Climate Change Technology Transfer CDF Constituency Development Fund CDM Clean Development Mechanism CEEC Centre for Energy Efficiency and Conservation CEPA Communication, Education, & Public Awareness CER Certified Emission Reductions CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research COP Conference of the Parties (to the UNFCCC) CORDIO Coastal Oceans Research and Development in the Indian Ocean COTS Crown-of-Thorns Starfish CP Cleaner Production Programme DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DEC District Environment Committees DELC Division of Environment Law and Conventions DJF December-January-February DNA Designated National Authority EMCA Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (of 1999) ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation ERSWC Economic Recovery Strategy and Wealth Creation ERU Emission Reduction Units ESDA Energy for Sustainable Development Africa ETS Emissions Trading Scheme EU European Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Grid Emission Factor GEF Global Environment Facility GHGs Greenhouse Gases GIS Geographic Information Systems GOK Government of Kenya National Climate Change Response Strategy

GSI Geotechnical Site Investigation GWh Gigawatt hours HEP Hydroelectric Power ICPAC IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre ICT Information and Communication Technology IEA International Energy Agency IGAD Intergovernmental Authority for Development (in East Africa) ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IMCE Inter-Ministerial Committee on Environment IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPP Independent Power Producers ITK Indigenous Traditional Knowledge IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IVF In-Vitro Fertilization JI Joint Implementation KACCAL Kenya Adaptation to Climate Change in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands KAM Kenya Association of Manufacturers KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KENGEN Kenya Electricity Generating Company KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services KFS Kenya Forest Service KIE Kenya Institute of Education KIHBS Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey KIRDI Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute KMC Kenya Meat Commission KMD Kenya Meteorological Department KMFRI Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Standards KNCPC Kenya National Cleaner Production Centre KOAETEC Kenya Organic Agriculture and Environmental Technologies Institute KP Kyoto Protocol KPA Kenya Ports Authority KPLC Power and Lightning Company KRB Kenya Roads Board KTDA Kenya Tea Development Authority KWS Kenya Wildlife Service LATF Local Authority Trust Fund LDC Least Developed Countries LDCF Least Developed Countries Fund LRT Light Rail Transit MAM March-April-May MDG Millennium Development Goals MDNKALs Ministry of Development of Northern Kenya & Other Arid Lands MEMR Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources MOA Ministry of Agriculture MOE Ministry of Education MOH Ministry of Health MOW Ministry of Water MRC Mekong River Commission

18 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Acronyms

MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework MRV Monitoring Reporting and Verification MW Megawatt NADIMA National Disaster Management Authority NAPA National Adaptation Programmes of Action NASCOP National Aids/STI Control Programme NCCACC National Climate Change Activities Coordination Committee NCCK National Council of Churches of Kenya NCCRS National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS and ‘Strategy’ are used interchangeably in the document) NCCSC National Climate Change Steering Committee NCPB National Cereal Produce Board NCPC National Cleaner Production Center NDOC National Disaster Operation Centre NEMA National Environment Management Authority NEP National Environment Policy (draft) NEP North Eastern Province NGOs Nongovernmental Organizations NIB National Irrigation Board OECD Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development OP Office of the President PEV Post Election Violence PIN Project Idea Note PDD Project Design Documents PPPs Public Private Partnerships PV Photovoltaic REDD Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation RVF Rift Valley Fever SBSTA Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice SCCF Special Climate Change Fund SEI Stockholm Environment Institute SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SIDS Small Island Developing States SON September-October-November SST Sea Surface Temperatures TWH Terawatt Hours UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization USA United States of America USAID United States Agency for International Development VCM Voluntary Carbon Markets National Climate Change Response Strategy

WBCSD World Business Council on Sustainable Development WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WCS World Conservation Society WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WRMA Water Resources Management Authority

Chemical Symbols

CF4 Perfluoromethane

CH4 Methane CFC-11 Chlorofluorocarbon-11

N2O Nitrous oxide HFC-23 Hydrofluorocarbon-23

CO2 Carbon dioxide

SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride

20 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

Climate Change, from a Global Perspective

22 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Climate change, from a global perspective

1.0 Introduction

1.1 History of Climate Change recent scientific, technical and socioeconomic information produced worldwide relevant as a Global Problem to the understanding of climate change and translating this information into IPCC Scientists started to provide anecdotal Assessment Reports. evidence of anthropogenic climate change from the late nineteenth century but stronger As a follow-up to the work of the Brundtland evidence of human influence on global Commission, formally known as the World climate only emerged in the late 1950s when Commission on Environment and Development Keeling and others at the Scripps Institution (WCED), which had produced the Brundtland of Oceanography began to measure the Report, the United Nations Conference on concentration of carbon dioxide in ice-cores.1 Environment and Development (UNCED), The results of these studies showed that global informally known as the Earth Summit was carbon dioxide concentrations were rising and convened in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June linked the rise in concentration to an increase 1992. The Summit sought to take stock of past in global temperatures. Carbon dioxide had development paths and lay foundations for a been known then to have a greenhouse or new future economic development trajectory warming effect, which is the inherent ability – one that would marry economic needs with to trap and retain infrared radiation. environmental concerns.

The 1960s and 70s saw a precipitation of Over 100 Heads of States and Governments concerns over the global environmental attended the UNCED conference. It was a change. These became prominent in the 1980s momentous gathering and from it emerged with the release of the Brundtland Report (also the United Nations Framework Convention commonly known as 'Our Common Future'). on Climate Change (UNFCCC) along with The report alluded to various environmental the Conventions on Biodiversity, on concerns including climate change2 and Desertification, Agenda 21 and other major associated the change with increasing international environmental governance atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse instruments and initiatives. The UNCED gases (GHGs). Climate change was considered represents the first time all nations of the one of the undesirable consequences of world have assembled without the aftermath man’s unsustainable development practices. or threat of war or without a major economic Concerned with this, two UN bodies – the crisis. They gathered voluntarily to tackle inter United Nations Environment Programme alia the looming issue of climatic change with (UNEP) and the World Meteorological its effects transcending all borders and the risk Organization (WMO) – jointly established the of disaster increasing into the future. With the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change signing and ratification of the UNFCCC by 192 (IPCC) in 1989 to provide broad and balanced Member States, the world has embarked upon information about climate change.3 The IPCC one of the most ambitious programmes in does this by reviewing and assessing the most history, namely to arrest the growing negative

1 For more information, please refer to the website of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego 2 See for example, Chapter 1 of the Brundtland Report 3 Refer to the IPCC website to get information on its history, organisation and mandate National Climate Change Response Strategy

effects on international climate by reducing GHG emissions according to their common but emissions of GHGs which have a massive global differentiated responsibilities and respective warming impact. capabilities.

Courtesy of work under the auspices of the In 1997, at the Third Conference of the UNFCCC and its subsidiary bodies, scientists Parties (COP3) to the UNFCCC over 180 Parties can now state unequivocally that the earth gathered in Kyoto, Japan to adopt the Kyoto is warming. Climate change is happening, Protocol, which would commit them to reduce largely spurred by human activities, and it will GHG emissions.4 The Protocol came into force have many serious and potentially damaging in 2005. The 2010 records of the UNFCCC effects in the coming decades. The IPCC, which Secretariat show that 184 Member States of is the scientific advisory arm of the UNFCCC the United Nations, including Kenya5 have release the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) either ratified or acceded to the Protocol. The in November 2007. The Report states that Protocol commits 37 industrialised countries ‘warming of the climate system is unequivocal, to reduce their emissions by 5.2% below 1990 as is now evident from observations of increases levels during the First Commitment Period, in global average air and ocean temperatures, which is 2008 to 2012. Courtesy of work under the widespread melting of snow and ice and rising auspices of the UNFCCC global average sea level.’ The Kyoto Protocol has set the world towards and its subsidiary bodies, a low-carbon growth path. One of the main scientists can now state These effects of climatic change occur at all outcomes is the carbon market, an international unequivocally that the earth levels (local, regional and global) and have market regime of three ‘flexible mechanisms’ the potential to disrupt the Earth’s ecological designed and created to tackle climate change is warming. Climate change systems with serious negative consequences cost-effectively and assist with sustainable is happening, largely spurred on agricultural production, forests, water development. Two of these mechanisms – the by human activities, and it supply, health systems and overall human Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the will have many serious and development. The UNFCCC recognises these Joint Implementation (JI) – are project-based. potentially damaging effects consequences and in Article 2 has called on The CDM and JI were created under Articles in the coming decades. the world’s governments to take action aimed 12 and 6 of the Protocol, respectively. They at reducing and stabilising concentrations of are designed to help reduce GHG emissions GHGs ‘in the atmosphere at a level that would through project activities involving inter alia avoid dangerous anthropogenic interference renewable energy (including fuel switching), with the climate system.’ energy efficiency, reforestation/afforestation, and low-emission public transportation, and 1.2 International Efforts and more. The CDM is relevant to Kenya as it applies to non-Annex 1 countries, which are Challenges to Combating developing countries that have undertaken to Climate Change tackle climate change, but are not obliged to take on legally binding GHG emission reduction A significant weakness of the UNFCCC is that targets. it did not set binding GHG emission reduction targets, but instead ‘encouraged’ Parties to the Other key highlights over the past 12 years Convention to take measures to reduce their since the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol

4 The six principal greenhouse gases covered under the Kyoto Protocol are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane

(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and two groups of gases: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs

e.g. HFC-23) and perfluorocarbons (e.g. CF4)

5 Kenya acceded to the Kyoto Protocol on 25 February 2005

24 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ include the commencement of the European South Africa – the G-5) should take on Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). targets (caps) at some stage. However, most The EU ETS is the most ambitious GHG developing countries maintain that now emissions trading programme in the world. The is not the time for them to take on targets EU ETS commenced in January 2005 and is the for mandatory reductions of GHG emissions. world’s largest emissions trading scheme with They are against taking up mitigation targets 30 nations covering nearly 400 million people because of their limited technological and in the world’s most industrialised region. financial capabilities as well as in recognition Currently 27 EU Member States and three of the need for developed countries to take non-EU Member States (Iceland, Norway and on their ‘historical responsibility’ for climate Liechtenstein) engage in the trading scheme. change.

In 2002, the UK started the world’s first The other significantly contentious issue under national GHG emissions trading scheme, while the UNFCCC and specifically under the Kyoto New South Wales in Australia commenced one Protocol is the issue of adaptation to climate of the most ambitious and far-reaching climate change, particularly how to address it within change programmes in 2003 – the New South an international climate change treaty. There Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme. Since is a universal agreement that climate change 2006, 32 states in the USA and eight provinces will affect the poorest members of society in Canada have begun developing ambitious and the poorest societies more than the more climate change programmes primarily focusing economically advanced. This is simply due to on targets under the ‘cap-and-trade’ schemes, the fact that economically advanced countries which set targets (caps) permitting ‘entities’ have the ability to adapt to climate change (usually companies) to trade emission by their sheer wealth. The debate around reductions with one another to achieve overall adaptation covers what should be done, how GHG emission reductions. much will it cost, who should pay for it and how such payments should be distributed, There is almost universal agreement that managed and accounted for. developed countries should take on targets to reduce GHG emissions and that such targets Currently, two funds have been created under should get tighter over time to promote further the UNFCCC to tackle adaptation to climate emission reductions. Although developed change. The Least Developed Countries countries differ over the magnitude of these Fund (LDCF) created under Article 4.9 of the reduction targets and the pace at which they UNFCCC supports the preparation of National should occur, there is little disagreement that Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) the responsibility of significantly reducing in countries classified as LDCs by the United emissions lies with industrialised countries Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The because they are responsible for the historical NAPAs help LDCs identify priority activities that accumulation of anthropogenic GHG emissions respond to their urgent and immediate needs through industrialisation. to adapt to climate change – those for whose further delay would increase vulnerability and/ The most contentious element of climate or costs at a later stage. Implementation of change policy and discussion since Kyoto priority actions identified in NAPAs has only has been the contribution of non-Annex recently begun in select LDCs, with about 26 1 countries in terms of commitments to projects having been approved for funding. reducing GHG emissions. The most significant Kenya is not an LDC and therefore does not debate arises from many countries (primarily qualify for the LDCF. The Special Climate Annex 1) maintaining that the most rapidly Change Fund (SCCF) is the other UNFCCC industrialising of the developing countries fund through which adaptation programmes (primarily China, Brazil, India, Mexico and and projects can be financed. This fund was National Climate Change Response Strategy

established in 2001 under decision 7 of COP7 funds. Again, even with the pledges included, (Decision7/CP.7) to finance projects relating the funds still fall short of the US$ 100 billion to adaptation, technology transfer and per annum which developed countries have capacity building, energy, transport, industry, pledged to mobilise under the Copenhagen agriculture, forestry, waste management, Accord to help address climate change needs6 and economic diversification in non-Annex of developing countries by 2020. In any case, 1 countries. The Fund is not dedicated to even this proposed figure is considered by many adaptation activities, although adaptation as a gross underestimate because it is based remains the key priority. Kenya’s project on on a scenario where the global temperature Adaptation to Climate Change in Arid Lands increase would be limited to 2oC, whilst some (KACCAL) funded by the World Bank is one of climate models show that current emissions the first SCCF projects. Also in the pipeline pathway leads us to a much warmer world (3oC for Kenya is the Adaptation to Climate Change and upward) and consequently higher costs. and Health project to be funded by SCCF and channelled through the World Health International efforts to combat climate change Organization (WHO) and UNDP. have so far focused more on mitigation, i.e. reducing GHG emissions. The next stage of International efforts to The only fund strictly dedicated to adaptation international efforts must deal squarely with combat climate change is the Adaptation Fund (AF). This Fund was adaptation, i.e., ways of coping with climatic have so far focused more established under Article 12.8 of the Kyoto impacts that cannot be avoided. This is both a on mitigation, i.e. reducing Protocol and Decision 10 of COP 7 (Decision 10/ matter of need and equity. It is a matter of need GHG emissions. The next CP.7) to ‘finance concrete adaptation projects because climate change is already underway and stage of international efforts and programmes in developing country Parties is expected to continue as a result of past GHG must deal squarely with that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol, as well as emissions. Such accumulated GHG emissions are adaptation, i.e., ways of activities identified in paragraph 8 of decision known to reside in the atmosphere and have 5/CP.7.’ Such activities include water resources a global warming potential for many years coping with climatic impacts management, land management, agriculture, into the future. Regarding equity, the point is that cannot be avoided. health, infrastructure development, fragile that negative impacts of climate change fall ecosystems including mountainous ecosystems disproportionately on those least able to bare and integrated coastal zone management. The them. AF revenue is to be derived from voluntary contributions and an international levy of The issues highlighted in the previous sections two percent of Certified Emission Reductions were among those that the delegates at COP (CERs) from CDM projects, which is known as 15 in Copenhagen discussed. The COP 15’s main the 'share of proceeds'. During 2008-2012, the outcome was the Copenhagen Accord, which Adaptation Fund generated US$ 80-300 million the COP only ‘took note of.’ The Copenhagen a year. Accord, a complete deviation from the Kyoto- style emission reduction ‘targets and timetables’ In general, the three funds (LCDF, SCCF and AF) has addressed some of the above concerns of are not adequate to fund the massive adaptation developing countries, namely adaptation, needs of developing countries, many of which finance, technology transfer and reducing are already being ravaged by climate change. emissions from deforestation. If adopted, At present, the funds mainly constitute the Accord will compel both developed and pledges by donor countries and agencies. As developing countries to mitigate climate history shows pledges do not always lead to change. In the case of developed countries, this actual delivery and implementation of the will be through voluntarily pledged ‘targets.’

6 The Copenhagen Accord is silent on whether this fund will address adaptation needs; it only mentions ‘needs of developing countries,’ without specifying which needs these are-adaptation, mitigation or both.

26 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Climate change, from a global perspective

Developing countries will do the same through Significantly, the Accord has adopted the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions widely accepted scientific view that global (NAMAs). temperature increase by 2100 should not exceed 2oC, which is considered the safe upper limit. To For this reason, the Accord has totally omitted try to achieve this target, the COP requested the clause relating to ‘historical responsibility’ Parties, that wished to be associated with the contained in the UNFCCC. Although this may Accord, to submit their mitigation targets (for be considered by some as a great violation Annex 1 Parties) and NAMA programmes (for of one of the key principles of the UNFCCC, developing countries) to the UNFCCC secretariat the principle of common but differentiated for inclusion into the Accord. Most major responsibility based on respective capability, it is emitters, including China and India among perhaps a good move forward in trying to find developing countries have complied with a solution to the climate crisis. This is because this request, signalling a possibility that the current climate science tells us that much more Accord will likely be transformed into a legally (in terms of mitigation) still needs to be done binding document. However, many are of the if we are to escape the worst effects of climate opinion that the reduction targets that have change; hence the compelling need to involve been pledged under the Accord are still likely both developed and developing countries to overshoot the global average temperature in mitigation, albeit at different levels of increase beyond the desired 2oC7 limit. responsibility.

7 See for example, Climate Interactive’s “Scoreboard Science and Data”: http://climateinteractive.org/ scoreboard/scoreboard-science-and-data. Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of 2 Climate Change in Kenya

In this picture taken by the National Geographic News on August 16th 2009, a Samburu pastoralist digs deep to find water for his cattle. The Ewaso Nyiro riverbed where this well was dug had been dry for months, causing people to travel long distances with their families and livestock in search of water.

28 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

2.0 Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

An analysis of both minimum (T ) and 2.1 Evidence of Climate Change in min maximum temperatures (Tmax) based on the Kenya over the last 50 years standard seasons of December-January- Temperature and precipitation changes are the February (DJF), March-April-May (MAM), two climatic elements that have been widely June-July-August (JJA) and September- studied globally to provide evidence of climate October-November (SON) reveals that the rise change. In Kenya, the Kenya Meteorological in temperatures over the northern parts of Department (KMD) has provided data of the country is relatively higher than in other temperature and rainfall changes over the last parts especially from October to February fifty years. period. Similarly, the decrease in minimum temperatures in the northern parts of the 2.1.1 Temperature Trends coastal strip is also relatively higher than in Table 1: Minimum temperature The tables below summarise time series of annual the southern parts of the coastal areas during trend from 1960 (Data minimum and maximum temperatures in different the same period. Lamu in the north coast courtesy of the KMD) parts of the country since the early 1960s. shows a drop of 1°C from a mean of 24.5°C in the early 1960s to 23.5°C in the recent ten Region Trend Magnitude (oC) years, whereas Mombasa in the south coast indicates a drop of about 0.3°C from 23°C in Western Increase 0.8-2.9 the early 1960s to 22.7°C in the recent ten years. Northern & North-eastern Increase 0.7-1.8 From the early 1960s, Kenya has experienced Central Increase 0.8-2.0 generally increasing temperature trends over vast areas. Over the inland areas, the trends South Eastern districts Increase 0.7-1.0 in both minimum (night/early morning) and maximum (daytime) temperatures depict a Coastal strip Decrease 0.3-1.0 general warming (increasing) trend with time. However, the increase in the minimum Table 2: Maximum temperature temperatures is steeper than in maximum trend from 1960 (Data temperatures. The result of the steeper courtesy of the KMD) increase in Tmin and a less steep increase Tmax is a reduction in the diurnal temperature Region Trend Magnitude (oC) range (difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures) – Figure 1 on the next Western Increase 0.5-2.1 page depicts these trends.

Northern & North-eastern Increase 0.1-1.3 However, the areas near large water bodies particularly the coastal strip indicate a Central Increase 0.1-0.7 different pattern. In these areas, the minimum (night/ early morning) temperatures show South Eastern districts Increase 0.2-0.6 no change or decreasing trends while the maximum temperatures depict an increasing Coastal strip Increase 0.2-2.0 trend since the early 1960s. Consequently, National Climate Change Response Strategy

an increase in the diurnal temperature range to possibly more frequent occurrences of is evident over these areas because the days El-Niño events occasionally coupled with have become much hotter while the nights relatively warmer sea surface temperatures and early morning temperatures have either over the western Indian ocean (along the not changed or marginally reduced compared coast of east Africa) and relatively cooler to the early 1960s. These trends are depicted than average sea surface temperatures in Figure 2 below. (SSTs) to the east of the Indian Ocean. This sea surface temperature pattern is 2.1.2 Rainfall Patterns conducive for enhancing rainfall over the Daily and monthly rainfall records are used country. Even in the absence of El-Niño to determine trends that have characterised conditions, this pattern over the Indian rainfall in Kenya since the early 1960s. The Ocean results into heavy rainfall during time series of annual and seasonal rainfall for the ‘Short Rains’ season as was the case the standard seasons of December-January- in 1961-62 and the recent 2006-07 rainfall February (DJF), March-April-May (MAM), June- events. July-August (JJA) and September-October- November (SON) indicate that: High Intensity Rainfall The highest rainfall events recorded every year • Neutral to slightly decreasing trends are and in each of the four standard seasons of manifested in the annual rainfall series December-January-February (DJF), March- Figure 1: Temperature trend over most areas. This is mainly due to April-May (MAM), June-July-August (JJA) for Nairobi from 1960 to 2005 an associated general decline with time and September-October-November (SON) were

– increase in both Tmin and of rainfall in the main rainfall season of subjected to time series analysis to derive the

Tmax, but decrease in diurnal March-May (the ‘Long Rains’) over most trend patterns that they depict. range of temperature (Data and areas. figure from the KMD) In general, annual highest rainfall events • There is a general positive trend (increase) indicate the 24-hour intense rainfall amounts Figure 2: Temperature trend for in rainfall events of September to February observed in the recent years are relatively lower Mombasa from 1960 to 2005 – period suggesting a tendency for the than those in the early 1960s. Effectively, increase in Tmax, decrease or no ‘Short Rains’ (October-December) season these values have been reducing (negative change in Tmin, and an increase to be extending into what is normally hot trend) with time. These trends are also in the diurnal temperature and dry period of January and February depicted in the time series of the ‘Long Rains’ range (Data and figure from over most areas. This may be attributed (MAM) season that contributes a significant the KMD)

Figure 1 Figure 2

30 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

amount of rainfall to the annual totals over 2.2 Impacts of Climate Change on most parts of the country. However, the changes (reductions) are not very significant. Kenya Most of the standard seasons also depict the What do these changing rainfall patterns and same type of patterns in the highest daily temperature increases locally, regionally rainfall values observed. There is an indication and globally portend for Kenya? of relatively more intense rainfall occurring Figure 3: Rainfall trends over more frequently over the coastal strip and Climate change is already happening and at an Lamu and Garissa over the past the northern parts of the country in the SON alarming rate. Highlighted in this section are half century (Data and figure and DJF seasons. These trends are depicted in some of the observed and potential impacts of from the KMD) the following Figure 3. climate change across Kenya. This information is based on the contributions of stakeholders during the national and regional NCCRS workshops as well as on literature review.

2.2.1 Impacts on Natural Systems Kenya has a landmass of about 582,350 km2 with only 17% of arable land while 83% consists of arid and semi-arid land (ASAL). There are indications that the ASAL is increasing. Kenya’s natural resources, particularly its rich flora and fauna are among the country’s most valuable natural assets. Unfortunately, climate change now threatens to eradicate this rich biodiversity.

2.2.1.1 Forestry and Land Use The importance of forests cannot be understated. Forests serve as the ultimate climate regulators. Forest cover assists in slowing down the spread of deserts, attracting clouds and enabling rainfall. In addition, they serve as a carbon ‘sink’ which is a natural reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical such as carbon dioxide for an indefinite period of time. However with all the benefits of forest cover, deforestation continues unabated particularly in developing countries where experts fear that it is exacerbating the effects of climate change. According to the IPCC, deforestation accounts for approximately 20% of global annual GHG emissions.

Demand for energy is one of the main drivers of deforestation and land degradation in Kenya, where final delivered biomass energy accounts for 78% of all energy consumed (MOE, 2002). The other main drivers of deforestation in Kenya are illegal encroachments and National Climate Change Response Strategy

settlements, logging and livestock grazing. suppressed growth of various grassland All these activities impact negatively on the species. ability of the ‘Water Towers’ to act as water catchments for Kenya’s major rivers and lakes. The projected rise in temperatures and long periods of drought will lead to more frequent In the forestry sector, climate change will and intense forest fires. These have in the firstly affect the growth, composition and recent past affected Kenya’s major forests regeneration capacity of forests resulting in including the Mau and Mt. Kenya Forests. reduced biodiversity and capacity to deliver Kenya has over the past 20 years lost more important forest goods and services. This than 5,700 ha of forests per year to forest fires will then cause desertification, deforestation wreaking phenomenal economic damage that and forest as well as land degradation as is yet to be quantified. communities strive to derive their livelihoods on declining forest resources. This is already The rise in temperature could extend the evident in many places including upper parts ecosystems range of pests and pathogens. of Eastern Province like and , This is likely to affect many aspects of forests and Taita Taveta in as well as such as tree-growth, survival, yield and quality all ASALs of Kenya. of and non-wood products. The impact of pests may result in the curtailment of Existing forested areas will undergo changes plantation programmes, abandonment of a in vegetation types and species composition. given tree species, or the necessity to harvest New assemblages may be established, and large areas dominated by infested trees as more invasive species are projected to emerge. witnessed in the late 1990s when the country Invasions are already evident as shown by the had to clear huge tracts of cypress plantations spread of Prosopis juliflora (‘mathenge’). This because of cypress aphid attack. There are A deforested section of the species has colonised important ecosystems already fears of a widespread attack on Pinus Mau Forests that acts as the in Baringo, Tana River, Garissa and other patula (Mexican weeping pine) plantations in catchment for the Mara River. semi-arid areas of the country. In addition, South Africa and these could easily spread Climate change impacts will add excessive growth of some tree species has northwards to Kenya. to human pressures that forest been observed, e.g., the excessive growth of ecosystems are already facing. Acacia reficiens after the 1997 El-niño in the Projected increases in atmospheric carbon Photo by Camco Kenya. North-Eastern Province and the consequent dioxide concentrations may raise the carbon to nitrogen ratio of forage for herbivores, thus reducing its food value and the carrying capacities of landscapes. For major wildlife habitats, this would have disastrous effects.

Changes in temperature will lead to a shift of vegetation to higher elevations while some species could become extinct. Indeed, across the country, some tree species including Melia volkensii, Terminalia spinosa, Delonix elata, and Hyphenea corriaceae in the North Eastern Province, and Psychotria species in the Taita Hills, Coast Province, are either tremendously dwindling in or extinct.

Further, climate change is also associated with increased flooding/sedimentation. In the low- lying coastal area where mangroves occur, a

32 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

small increase in sea level will leave mangroves and/or reducing habitat span, and submerged unless they can retreat further inland, which is improbable due to human • Droughts that affect grasslands causing settlements. Research undertaken by the massive livestock and wildlife deaths Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute and an increase in human-human and (KMFRI) as well as other organizations and wildlife-human conflicts. Cases of conflict individuals indicates evidence of mangrove have been reported in areas around the loss due to climate change and other factors in Lower Tana Delta, Laikipia, and Lagdera. several areas along the Kenyan coast such as As an example, in the Lagdera case (2005) Gazi Bay, Mwache Creek, Ngomeni, Tana River warthogs attacked and killed goats and Delta and Dodori Creek. sheep to drink their intestinal fluids after the warthog’s natural watering points 2.2.1.2 Rangelands and Wildlife Resources dried up.8 Kenya’s rangelands, which support millions of pastoralists and small-scale agro-pastoralists, 2.2.1.3 Coastal and Marine Ecosystems mainly occur in areas where rainfall is low The Kenyan coastline is characterised by a rich and erratic and soils are highly variable diversity of flora and fauna including fish, coral and infertile. Therefore the rangelands are reefs and mangrove forests. Kenyan coral reefs The impacts of climate unsuitable for production of crops that are are well distributed around most of the oceanic not drought tolerant. The rangelands are islands. They buffer the coastline against the change on the Kenya’s characterised by a number of habitat structures impacts of waves and the full force of marine ecosystems include ranging from open grasslands to closed woody and . With all its benefits, the Kenyan the likely submergence and/or bushy vegetation with varying amounts coastline is extremely vulnerable to sea level of approximately 17% of and composition of grass cover and species. rise. The most vulnerable aspects of the Mombasa or 4,600 ha of land coastline are developments in low-lying areas area with a sea level rise of The impacts of climate change on Kenya’s which consist of agriculture, infrastructure and only 0.3 m. rangelands include: both tourist facilities and hotspots.

• Change in pasture productivity as has been The impact of climate change on the observed in the North Eastern Province Kenya’s marine ecosystems include the (NEP) where extremely strong and likely submergence of approximately 17% of flash floods erode and wash away grass Mombasa or 4,600 ha of land area with a sea seeds. Consequently, the growth of grass is level rise of only 0.3 m.9 Over the next century inhibited even during good rainfalls. Loss with the projected sea level rise between of wildlife habitats emerge as a secondary 0.17 and 0.59 meters,10 the Kenyan coastal impact of these factors, development is exposed to considerable risks.

• Carbon dioxide fertilization, which leads Rising sea levels will lead to the inundation to higher plant productivity, particularly and displacement of coastal wetlands, the the proliferation of invasive species, erosion of shorelines, increased salinity and the intrusion of saline water into coastal • Disruption of natural ecosystems and aquifers. Saltwater intrusion into ground subsequent change in species’ ecological water resources and salt wedge estuaries are range, altering predator-prey interactions, phenomena that have been observed already decoupling animals from food sources in some places such as Lamu.

8 From the proceedings of the NCCRS North Eastern Province regional workshop in Garissa 9 See Awuor C.B and others, 2008 10 Cited in the 2007 IPCC 4th Assessment Report National Climate Change Response Strategy

Rising sea levels associated with melting 2.2.1.4 Water Resources glaciers and polar ice, plus sea temperature With its natural endowment of renewable increase (i.e. ocean absorbing the bulk freshwater of only 21 billion cubic meters of the heat from enhanced greenhouse effect) (BCM) which amounts to 647 cubic meters also threaten to cause deadly floods and high (m3) per capita per annum under normal tides in low-lying coastal areas. Increasing sea circumstances, Kenya is classified as a temperature in the Indian Ocean could affect water-scarce14 country. The country’s water the entire Eastern African coast by increasing resources are unevenly distributed in both the frequency and intensity of El Niño- time and space in five drainage basins namely Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events (Klein et. Lake Victoria, Rift Valley, , Tana al., 2002).11 River and Ewaso Ng’iro. Climate change will worsen this already precarious situation as Coral reef bleaching is a common stress it affects precipitation, thus further altering response of corals to many of natural and the spatial and temporal availability of water anthropogenic disturbances. Beginning in resources. the 1980s, the frequency and widespread distribution of reported coral reef bleaching According to the National Environmental events increased. This has been attributed to Management Authority’s (NEMA) State of global warming and consequent rising seawater Environment Report of 2006/2007, major temperatures (P.W. Glynn and L. D’Croz, 1990). floods periodically afflict Lake Victoria basin, Upholding the results of a recent study that the Lower Tana basin and the coastal region – revealed that 59% of the world’s destroyed occurring at least six times in the past 50 years. coral reefs were located in the Indian Ocean,12 In these areas, higher turbidity, siltation, and studies by KMFRI in conjunction with other sedimentation occur. Floods carry fertiliser and organizations13 have confirmed coral bleaching pesticide residues into water bodies resulting and loss of Kenya’s coral reefs. in eutrophication, which has detrimental impacts on water quality and aquatic life. Further, predicted effects of climate change Until recently, such episodes were assumed to on mangroves include both more extreme represent natural climate variability but now droughts and flooding. In 1997, 1998 and scientific evidence points to climate change 2006, massive sedimentation due to erosion as the driving force behind the frequency and of terrigenous sediments following extremely intensity of these events. heavy rainfall caused mangrove dieback in many areas along the Kenyan coast. Mwache Creek, According to the same report, serious droughts a peri-urban mangrove forest in Mombasa have occurred at least 12 times in the past was the most affected, losing close to 500 50 years. Major rivers including the Tana, ha of mangrove forest (KMFRI, 2008). This Athi, Sondu Miriu, Ewaso Ngiro and Mara trend is likely to jeopardise the livelihoods of have experienced severe reduced volumes local people who depend on the mangroves during droughts and many seasonal ones have particularly for fisheries, wood products and completely dried up. The parts of the country coastal protection. Increase in atmospheric most affected are the Eastern, North Eastern temperature and further sea level rise will only and parts of the Rift Valley provinces. accelerate these trends.

11 Cited in the IPCC 4th Assessment Report, Working Group II, chapter 9: Africa 12 UNEP (2002): Vital Water Graphics: An Overview of the State of the World’s Fresh and Marine Waters. 13 E.g. the Coastal Oceans Research and Development in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) 14 Water scarcity refers to a situation where a country’s water resource availability is less than 1000 m3 per capita per year

34 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

2.2.2 Impacts on Key Economic Sectors Extreme climatic variations coupled with Kenya’s key economic sectors include improper land use including deforestation agriculture, tourism, livestock, horticulture, have resulted into Kenya reporting successive fisheries, and forestry. In 2006, the agricultural seasons of crop failure, increasing the country’s sector contributed 26% to the country’s Gross food insecurity. The 1999/2000 La Niña Domestic Product (GDP) and a further 27% droughts resulted in 4.7 million Kenyans facing through linkages with other sectors, while the starvation, while the effects of the 2006-2009 tourism and fisheries sectors contributed 10% successive drought episodes were worse with and 0.5%, respectively. In the period leading unofficial reports indicating nearly 10 million to 2003, the estimated value of the production Kenyans faced starvation during the worst of forest products was Ksh. 2 billion per annum, episode in 2009. The decline in agricultural which was equal to about 10% of the country’s productivity may also be attributed to variation GDP.15 Horticulture is the fastest growing in in the diurnal temperature range, which has the agricultural sector, generating over US$ profound effects on agricultural production 300 million in foreign exchange earnings, systems because crops have specific range of while the capital value of the 46% (approx temperatures within which they grow optimally. 15.2 million heads) of Kenya’s livestock that is As a result of climate change, kept by pastoralists is approximately US$ 860 According to the Ministry of Agriculture’s Food Security Report in June 2009, all there will be increased million. This section discusses the potential impacts of climate change on these economic regions of the country were expecting to frequency and intensity sectors. report lower than expected maise yields in of extreme weather events the next harvest. Recent crop failures have like droughts and floods, 2.2.2.1 Agriculture and Food Security necessitated Government sponsored imports in which will lead to losses of Climate change affects the four components order to address food deficits in many parts of productive assets, personal of food security - food availability, food the country. Between 2008 and 2009 alone, possessions and even life. For accessibility, food utilization and food system the Government had to import 2.6 million bags instance, due to droughts, stability - in various direct and indirect ways. of worth Ksh. 6.7 billion. the country’s famine cycles As a result of climate change, there will be The Ministry of Agriculture’s ‘Economic Review have reduced from 20 years increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like droughts and floods, which of 2009’ indicated that the production of other (1964-1984), to 12 years will lead to losses of productive assets, personal major crops like tea, sugarcane and wheat (1984-1996), to two years possessions and even life. This has already been had also declined. This could reduce Kenya’s (2004-2006) and to yearly observed, but will intensify in the future if foreign exchange earnings in the long term, (2007/2008/2009). efforts are not raised to stop global warming. given that a commodity like tea is the country’s principal export product. The ripple effect of For instance, due to droughts, the country’s this scenario to Kenya’s economy is frightening famine cycles have reduced from 20 years (1964- considering the importance foreign exchange 1984), to 12 years (1984-1996), to two years plays in international trade and investment. (2004-2006) and to yearly (2007/2008/2009), necessitating the Government’s distribution 2.2.2.2 Livestock of 528,341.77 metric tonnes (MT) of assorted Drought leads to reduced forage availability, foodstuffs worth Ksh. 20 billion over the last degradation of the environment and an increase five years alone to feed a population between in destitution. The 2006 to 2009 droughts are 3.5 million and 4.5 million people annually. testament to the devastation that climate change could cause to the livestock sector.

15 Mbugua, D.K. (2003): The Forest Revenue System and Government Expenditure on Forestry in Kenya. A paper prepared for the FAO work-programme component on financing sustainable forest management. Working paper: FSFM/WP/11. Policy and Planning Division, Rome Regional Office for Africa, Accra. May 2003 National Climate Change Response Strategy

since the mid-1990s has resulted in an estimated US$ 100 billion in economic losses globally.

2.2.2.3 Horticulture Much of horticultural practice in Kenya is carried out in ASALs, making the sector highly susceptible to the impacts of climate variability and change. The recent adverse weather has seen a decline in fresh vegetable production in Laikipia, Kieni, , Machakos and . This has subsequently affected export earnings from this sub-sector. The sector is likely to be further affected by increasing pressure from European markets and consumers seeking to reduce their fresh produce ‘carbon footprints,’ i.e. the amount of GHG emissions associated with the production and consumption of fresh produce.

In addition, climate has profound effects on The desolation that often The strong winds and dust storms prevailing in populations of crop pests (e.g. insects, mites, characterises dryland areas as a most parts of Northern Kenya have contributed slugs), affecting their development, reproduction result of drought leads to loss to the reduction of forage availability as they and dispersal. The rate at which most pests of livelihoods. Photo courtesy sweep away top soil together with grass seeds, develop depends on temperature and every of the Noomayianat CBO, 2009 thus making grass regeneration impossible species has a particular ‘threshold temperature’ even when it rains. above which development can occur, and below which development ceases. As is projected, Outbreaks of diseases like the Rift Valley Fever temperatures will rise in the tropics enabling (RVF) have been linked to climate change. some pest species, particularly those with short The outbreak of RVF is known to occur during life-cycles such as aphids and the diamond-back periods of high humidity that follow abnormally moths to complete more generations within a long rains especially those associated with given year. These changes will potentially disrupt ENSO events. Currently, Kenya is facing a ban natural pest control and consequently increase on the export of meat to the European Union the costs of doing so. (EU) market until 2010 because of the failure to control RVF as well as foot and mouth disease. Moreover, income losses from three horticultural This has led to loss of income. In fulfilment crops grown along the Kenyan Coast – mangoes, of the EU precondition to lifting the ban, cashew nuts and coconuts – are projected to the Kenyan Government through the Ministry reach US$ 472.8 million for one metre of sea of Livestock Development had to initiate a level rise (GoK, 2002). programme to create disease free zones. 2.2.2.4 Tourism Avian influenza, cholera, ebola, Lyme disease, Frequent and severe droughts have hit the country plague, tuberculosis, sleeping sickness, yellow since the 1990s, reducing forage in rangelands, fever, Rift Valley Fever, red tide and babesiosis as well as drying up and tremendously reducing are some of the diseases that are expected to the volume of rivers, which consequently affects spread as temperatures rise and precipitation wildlife – a resource the Kenyan tourism industry patterns change. In a 2008 report titled the depends upon. Cases of wildlife deaths have ‘Deadly Dozen,’ the World Conservation Society increased in the recent past with the Kenya (WCS) observes that the spread of these diseases Wildlife Service (KWS) reporting the death of

36 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

14 elephants in 2007, 28 in 2008 and 37 in 2009 due to ‘extraordinary and prolonged dry ‘Over the years, sand has been accumulating seasons.’ Lately, the reduction in the volume of all along the long stretch of the beach here, the Mara River due to climatic variations and the deposited by an ever-rising high tide mark. destruction of the Mau catchment has had a toll The high tide mark is now attacking my beach on one of the wonders of the natural world – the fence, whereas in 1997 it never reached within spectacular migration of hundreds of wildebeests 2 m of it. Since my home is on a raised bit of across the Mara River as they migrate between ground some 30 m from the high tide mark I the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania and the figure I have about 10 years before I have to Maasai Mara Reserve in Kenya. move. There is not much else I can do. I have heard similar stories of rising high tide mark Global warming is likely to disrupt and even from Zanzibar to , with fishing villages destroy some of the tourist sites such as the having to move further inland as the high tide snow-caps of Mt. Kenya, the coastal rainforests, began to invade their courtyards and homes. fragile marine ecosystems and the marine parks. Here in East Africa, global warming with its For instance ‘coral bleaching’ of the Kenyan coral predicted sea rise is not a future threat - it is reef has been observed. Sea levels are rising here now’ with the implication that some of the popular beaches will eventually disappear. Already, Mr. Dan Stiles, Diani Beach resident – hotels along the Kenyan coastline have been south Coast, August 2008, settled at the place in forced to construct sea walls to protect against 1997 (Courtesy of the KMD) increasingly strong sea tides (e.g. in Vanga and South Coast).16 Rising temperatures are changing weather and vegetation patterns across the globe, which in turn are forcing animal species continues at its current rate. In Kenya, lions to migrate to new areas in order to survive. may be extinct in the next 20 years due to expanding human settlements, farming, Experts predict that one-fourth of the Earth’s climate change and disease. Further, according plant and animal species will be headed for to the KWS, drought has pushed lions closer extinction by 2050 if the warming trend to waterholes bordering human settlements,

Buffaloes grazing in the Aberdares National Park. Receding rangelands threaten to wipe out Kenya's wildlife, which is the basis of the country's tourism industry. Photo by Camco Kenya.

16 From the proceedings of the NCCRS regional stakeholders workshop held in Mombasa National Climate Change Response Strategy

which are themselves increasing at very high The distribution of most of Kenya’s forests is rates towards parks; thereby increasing the determined by rainfall. With rainfall as one probability of human-wildlife conflicts. of the most affected climatic elements, the survival of Kenya’s forest resources is likely Climate change is likely to lead to the emergence to be severely affected. The vulnerability of and re-emergence of certain wildlife diseases, Kenya’s forest resource is further exacerbated which according to the ‘Deadly Dozen’ Report by the depletion of forest and land cover Climate change is likely to (2008) include babesiosis, trypanosomiasis, through rapid increase in population and lead to the emergence and re- and a host of internal and external parasites. demand for human settlements, both emergence of certain wildlife With the health of wild animals directly linked agricultural and grazing land, construction diseases. In 2007, drought- to their ecosystems and their environment, materials, food, fuel wood, essential oils and induced anthrax in the scrub- even minor disturbances can have far- herbal medicines. Climate change only adds to peppered northern Kenya plains reaching consequences on diseases they the stresses on Kenya’s forest cover. infested Grévy’s zebras living in might encounter and transmit as the climate the Samburu National Reserve changes. In 2007, drought-induced anthrax Climate change will have substantial impacts and surrounding area. If it were in the scrub-peppered northern Kenya plains on forests by altering the growth of trees, not for the quick intervention infested Grévy’s zebras living in the Samburu causing dieback in forests and species to of the KWS, the anthrax would National Reserve and surrounding area. If it migrate, which will in turn impact on forest have annihilated the entire were not for the quick intervention of the KWS, products supply. The reduction in forest cover population of Grévy’s zebras. the anthrax would have annihilated the entire will have disastrous effects on downstream population of Grévy’s zebras. agriculture and generation, as mighty rivers like Ewaso Nyiro are reduced In addition, a key finding of the 2008 Davos to small streams and hundreds of other small Conference on Climate Change and Tourism rivers completely dry up during Kenya’s dry was that carbon dioxide emissions from the seasons. This has serious implications for the tourism sector’s transport, accommodation and livelihoods of those living downstream and the other activities are estimated to account for rest of the country, which depend on products between 4 and 6% of total emissions, and this from these ecosystems. figure is likely to increase by approximately 150% over the next 30 years.17 Air transport 2.2.2.6 Fisheries is greatly responsible for these emissions and There is strong evidence partly linking ENSO currently there are negotiations on how best events with systematic changes in plankton to address the emissions for global aviation. abundance and aquatic/marine plant as well The Kenyan aviation sector will likely have as animal composition over recent decades to implement some mitigation measures as in many regions worldwide. The ENSO events a result of these international negotiations. with phases of warm water reduce plankton These measures are likely to hurt the tourism production, and cause fish stocks to decline. industry. In addition, changes in ocean circulation are predicted to lead to loss of certain fish 2.2.2.5 Forest Products populations or establishment of new ones. The ASALs are subject to recurring droughts, Temperature changes will likely result in which when coupled with overexploitation changes of up-welling patterns, which might of resources, result in high vulnerability to affect fish spawning period and success of land degradation and desertification. This not larvae, thereby altering the entire life cycle only increases levels of GHG emissions, but and size of fish populations. simultaneously threatens livelihoods.

17 Davos Conference, 2008 report by the United Nations World Tourism Organization – UNWTO.

38 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

Heavy tropical storms and sea level rise that submerge 17% of Mombasa, which is located are projected with the changing climate will only 45 m above sea level, with a larger make fishing a dangerous activity. According area rendered unusable thereby affecting to the IPPC estimates, the sea level will rise the maritime transport system including the by between 17 cm and 59 cm by the end of Mombasa Port facilities. this century, which is well below estimates by other scientists who predict a rise of up to 1 m Coast Province is a region that is prone even if GHG emissions were kept at a low level. to torrential rains and flooding, and the probability and severity of such events Fluctuation of river volumes and to some will increase with climate change and lead extent lake levels, alters breeding ecology to the destruction of port facilities. Higher not only of permanent populations but also temperatures and ocean acidification, which of anadromous fishes, e.g. the eel Anguilla are the major characteristics of increasing bengalensis labiata (Peters, 1852 in Okeyo GHG concentrations will also exacerbate the D.O., 1998). Such fluctuations also have a corrosion of port facilities constructed from deleterious consequence on the overall fish steel. In addition, rising temperatures are Fishing in major lakes such production in the country. Climate change expected to strengthen coastal winds and as Victoria and Turkana is predicted to alter hydrological regimes, storms, which will affect ship navigation and is likely to be affected by which in turn will influence biological, other port operations. recurrent droughts and rising biogeochemical and hydrological functions of temperatures, conditions that wetlands. However, owing to the heterogeneity In relation to coastal roads, a rise in the coastal starve the lakes of inflowing of the wetlands, such impacts might be site- zone ground water table would introduce a water and evaporate more of specific. Where these wetlands form important weakening in the underlying foundation upon the water they have, leading nursery grounds for fishery resources, changes which they are built. This could eventually to reductions in water levels. in their functions would affect fisheries. lead to widespread structural instability and Coupled with improper practices therefore affecting transportation of goods to such as over-fishing, these In addition, fishing in major lakes such as and from the harbours. reductions in water levels will Victoria and Turkana is likely to be affected lead to tremendous reductions in by recurrent droughts and rising temperatures, The destruction of infrastructure including fish stocks. conditions that starve the lakes of inflowing roads and bridges during storms is increasingly water and evaporate more of the water they becoming a common phenomenon during the have, leading to reductions in water levels. ENSO events and cause untold economic loss to Coupled with improper practices such as over- the country. For instance, the damage caused fishing, these reductions in water levels will by the eight-month 1997/1998 El-Niño rains to lead to tremendous reductions in fish stocks18. the country’s transport and telecommunication infrastructure was estimated at one billion US 2.2.3 Impacts on Physical and Social Dollars (Ngecu and Mathu, 1999). It caused Infrastructure the worst -related casualties including the instant death of 36 passengers travelling 2.2.3.1 Transport Sector in a 70-seat bus that plunged into a deep river In the 20th century, sea levels rose by an near the slopes of Mount Kenya following the estimated 17 cm; the global mean projections destruction of three kilometres of the Meru- for sea level rise by the turn of the century Embu road. In October 2006, torrential rains range from 17 cm to 59 cm. This will lead pounded the eastern part of Kenya causing to the inundation and erosion of low-lying, massive damage to roads, cutting off several coastal zones including coastal cities and of them and washing away bridges. In 2007, infrastructure. A sea level rise of 0.3 m could brief but also intense rains caused the

18 http://www.climateemergency.org/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=171&Itemid=172 National Climate Change Response Strategy

to the global undersea fibre optic cable network, the country sees itself as a potential regional ICT giant providing services such as Business Process Outsourcing (BPO), call centre services, and development of broadband infrastructure among others.

It is undeniable that ICT is crucial to poverty reduction and is a key component in improving access to health and education services, as well as creating new sources of income and employment for the poor. With climate change, the ICT sector will face considerable challenges including damage to the telephone network by storms, poor radio and TV signals and delay in the delivery of mails during storm events. But a well developed ICT infrastructure A lorry is submerged due to river collapse of the Kainuk Bridge in Rift Valley could also help leverage some of the impacts flooding in northern Kenya. Province cutting off the supply of crucial of climate change on the economy, e.g. during Climate change will continue goods including foodstuff to the agriculturally rainstorms, access to quality internet and a to pose challenges to Kenya’s unproductive Turkana and Samburu districts.19 reliable telephone system could enable people dilapidated road infrastructure. to telecommute, and this would have the Photo by ESDA, now Camco Kenya Kenya’s already dilapidated railway network added advantage of helping reduce transport- is likely to be further damaged by floods and related GHG emissions. extreme heat, which the country is expected to experience as the climate changes in the 2.2.3.3 Energy Sector tropics. The high temperatures are likely Kenya is a developing economy that requires to cause warping of the rail track thereby large quantities of affordable, but quality exacerbating the chances of derailment of trains energy services to affect a prudent pace while flooding will wash away bridges. Such was of social transformation and economic the case in 1993 when 114 people perished in development. Access to modern and clean a train that plunged into a river after floods energy, including electricity by all sectors, washed away a bridge at Ngai Ndethya National particularly manufacturing and service sectors, Reserve near in Coast Province. is therefore crucial.

2.2.3.2 Communication Infrastructure Kerosene and biomass are the main types of Kenya’s communication infrastructure consists energy consumed by households in Kenya. This of the landline and mobile telephone network, is according to the MOE statistics that reveal the internet network, postal services, radio that up to 68% of households use fuel wood communication and television network, as the main energy source for cooking and amongst other forms of communication. The heating. Petroleum products account for 22%, Information and Communication Technology the bulk of which is used in the transport, (ICT) sector is one of the key pillars that have manufacturing and commercial sectors, while been identified in the 2003 Economic Recovery 9% is consumed in the electricity sector Strategy and Wealth Creation (ERSWC) paper (Energy Policy, 2004). and the Vision 2030 to help jumpstart the country’s economy. With Kenya now connected Electricity, by virtue of its versatility in

19 Reports of various media sources

40 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

application, is crucial for economic growth provision is also increasing quite rapidly. and access to electricity is associated with Currently, solar photovoltaics (PVs) provide high quality of life. Climate change affects all 4 MW of off-grid electricity, mainly to small areas of the electricity sector, from generation rural-based household consumers. through to distribution and consumption. Kenya’s electricity supply largely depends Hydropower potential has dramatically reduced on hydro sources, which account for over in the past 20 years due to the destruction half of the total effective capacity (1332.2 of water catchment areas. Climate change MW). Geothermal sources of electricity is likely to worsen the situation as it comes account for 12.2% and the remaining 29.7% with extreme weather events like prolonged A waterfall for micro-hydro power is predominantly petroleum based thermal drought, which will reduce water levels in generation. Hydropower potential generation. The Kenya Electricity Generating dams. This will reduce the hydroelectric power has dramatically reduced in Company (KenGen) controls more than three (HEP) production potential. For instance, the past 20 years due to the quarters of the total electric power production the 1999-2000 droughts caused extended destruction of water catchment and independent power producers (IPPs) power cuts across the country. The country’s areas. Photo by Camco Kenya generate the remaining. Kenya’s solar energy economy dropped by 0.6% (reduced industrial productivity) compared to the previous year, while the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC) lost Ksh. 4.1 billion in revenues.

Hydroelectric power generation is also affected by soil erosion and the consequent siltation of dams. The decline in HEP production in 2002 for instance was caused by both the reduced river flow (volume) due to the 1999-2000 droughts and the siltation of dams by the 1997-1998 El-Niño floods20. The gross storage capacity of the Kindaruma Dam has reduced from 16 million cubic metres to 11 million cubic metres due to siltation.21 Siltation is usually caused by heavy floods. Other causes include poor farming methods especially upstream and deforestation.

Further, scientists postulate an increase in land surface temperatures as a result of global warming will drive up demand for electricity for services like refrigeration and air-conditioning, while expanding agriculture to feed the growing population will require more energy for irrigation. Other impacts of climate change on energy include the gradual drying up and decline in the productivity of biomass, thereby affecting fuelwood supply. See the section on Forest Products (page 36) for further details.

20 See page 112 of Kenya National Water Development Report (2006) 21 Information from the KenGen website National Climate Change Response Strategy

2.2.3.4 Human Settlements and Land Use (ii) mortality due to climate-related disasters; There are many ways that climate change could and (iii) overstretching of the health affect human settlements directly or indirectly. infrastructure. Due to these vulnerabilities, the Extreme climate conditions such as high wind, country will likely be required to spend more heavy rainfall, heat and cold can result in a on the health sector. wide range of scenarios such as tropical storms, floods, landslides, droughts and sea-level rise. One of the potential impacts of climate change Climatic catastrophes displace populations will be an increase in the incidence and and cause sudden deaths, which in turn can geographical spread of such diseases as malaria, lead to conflicts and civil unrest. Landslides yellow fever and encephalitis. Currently malaria and mudslides caused by heavy storms have in accounts for 50% of household expenditure the past claimed many lives especially in the on health, which is likely to increase as the Kenya highlands. Maragua District in Central disease spreads to highland areas where the Province, for instance, is an area prone to cost of managing it will be disproportionately Population displacement landslides. higher. This disproportion in cost is because and migration from climate people residing in the highland areas disaster-prone areas (e.g. Insurance agencies and government would historically have low immunity to the disease drought prone northern Kenya be burdened with having to make reparations unlike in malaria-endemic regions. Already and sea-level rise in the to individuals for property damage and there are signs that malaria is spreading to coastal region) are expected loss, unemployment, clean-up, and reduced highland areas such as and Nairobi. to increase. It is expected that socioeconomic viability of the communities This has been attributed to climate change in most of those on the move affected. the form of warmer temperatures and variation from rural areas will head in the rainfall pattern. Conditions such as towards urban agglomerations Population displacement and migration from warmer temperatures and rainfall variances where assistance, income climate disaster-prone areas (e.g. drought are suitable for the survival of the malaria opportunities and infrastructure prone northern Kenya and sea-level rise in parasites and the mosquitoes that transmit may be perceived to be more the coastal region) are expected to increase. them (Yanda et. al., 2006). accessible and readily available. It is expected that most of those on the This will create an enormous move from rural areas will head towards During floods especially those related to El- social, health, infrastructure urban agglomerations where assistance, Niño events, environmental diseases such and management challenge income opportunities and infrastructure as typhoid, amoeba, cholera, and bilharzia, for cities, subjecting them to may be perceived to be more accessible and normally associated with contaminated water unplanned population growth. readily available. This will create an enormous and poor sanitation, reach epidemic levels in social, health, infrastructure and management areas where water and sanitation facilities challenge for cities, subjecting them to are inadequate or are in poor state. This was unplanned population growth. According to the case for Nyanza, Western, Coast, Eastern the United States Agency for International and North Eastern Provinces which recorded Development (USAID), recurrent droughts in several cases of cholera outbreaks during Kenya have already forced many rural residents the 1997/1998 El-Niño rains. In addition, to seek refuge in cities and towns where, warmer waters provide conditions conducive without any assets and little skill for urban for the survival of the amoeba protozoan. This income generation, they find life unbearable. probably explains why cases of the disease have risen steadily in areas that were predominantly 2.2.3.5 Human Health cold but are now experiencing temperature rise Kenya’s health sector is vulnerable to climate like in lower Eastern Province22. change in three ways: (i) the increase in vector-borne diseases such as malaria and RVF

22 Information from the proceedings of the NCCRS Eastern Province regional workshop in Embu

42 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Assessing the Evidence and Impacts of Climate Change in Kenya

Submerged huts in Western Kenya. During floods especially those related to El-Niño events, environmental diseases such as typhoid, amoeba, cholera and bilharzia normally associated with contaminated water and poor sanitation reach epidemic levels in such places. Photo by Camco Kenya.

In the coastal region, epidemics of ‘Chikungunya’ resources are diverted from its maintenance to fever, a viral disease transmitted by Aedes spp. disaster recovery. mosquitoes causing febrile illness with joint pain and possibly other complications, have Last but not least, as a result of been reported. Between 2005 and 2006, the droughts can have a tremendous impact on disease linked to droughts, affected more those dependent on subsistence agriculture than 75% of the population (13,500 people) for their livelihoods. According to the World in Lamu where the first outbreak was reported Health Organization (WHO), malnutrition (Chretien et. al., 2007). causes millions of deaths each year from both a lack of sufficient nutrients to sustain life Climatic catastrophes like floods are also and the resulting vulnerability to infectious likely to cause populations to be displaced, diseases such as malaria, diarrhoea, and or even lead to death, further burdening the respiratory illnesses.23 Such cases abound health sector. Our over-stretched public health especially in ASALs during any episode of La- system for example, would be eroded further if Niña induced drought.

23 WHO (2008): climate change and human health 3 Strategic Focus

44 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Strategic Focus

3.0 Strategic Focus

3.1 Importance of the NCCRS to agreements, policies and processes on climate Kenya change. As the preceding chapter shows, the direct and It is necessary to put in place a conducive indirect impacts of climate change are already and enabling framework and a concerted being felt across the country and there is a programme of action to combat impacts of high possibility of increasingly severe changes climate change. An informed public on climate in the future if unprecedented measures are change and its impact is the first step. A not taken to reduce GHGs emissions. Natural second step is the setting up of an institutional disasters associated with climate variability framework that translates the aspiration of the and change can cost huge losses in GDP. For public as a whole and identifies specific roles instance, the 1999 and 2000 droughts in and responsibilities of all actors – government, Kenya caused damages equivalent to 2.4% of private sector, nongovernmental organisations GDP.24 The Stern Report25 predicts that the cost (NGOs), religious organisations, farmers, and of could be as high as all vulnerable groups. These are some of the 7-10% of GDP by 2100. vital areas this NCCRS addresses.

Kenya’s ability to cope with the impacts 3.2 Strategic Focus of climate change is compounded by many The NCCRS’s primary focus is ensuring that factors including poverty, weak institutions, adaptation and mitigation measures are poor infrastructure, lack of information, poor integrated in all government planning access to financial resources, low management and development objectives. This calls capabilities, armed conflicts due to a scramble for collaborative and joint action with all for diminishing environmental resources and stakeholders (private sector, civil society, high interest rates. It is vital that policies and NGOs, etc) in tackling the impacts of climate measures for adaptation to climate change change. The emphasis is to prioritise the most are put in place across all the economic vulnerable sectors of the economy namely sectors after a consultative process in order agriculture and food security, water, forestry, to minimise the impending climate change rangelands, health, social and physical catastrophe. infrastructure for quick and immediate action, while simultaneously providing The delivery of a participatory National explicit measures for addressing climate Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) is change in Kenya and defining criteria to track important for Kenya; not least because climate effectiveness of such measures. change is affecting and will continue to affect every facet of life of the Kenyan people. If the country is to avoid the worst effects of climate 3.3 Strategic Vision, Mission and change it will need to seriously increase the Objectives limited efforts made thus far. This will require a Like all planning documents, the NCCRS must comprehensive understanding of international have certain key components embedded in it.

24 Mogaka Hezron, 2005: Climate variability and water resources degradation in Kenya, World Bank Working Paper, page 72 25 Stern, N. 2007: Economic Impacts of Climate Change National Climate Change Response Strategy

These key components are the vision, mission, • providing a concerted action plan, resource and the objectives that it intends to achieve. mobilisation plan and robust monitoring and evaluation plan. 3.3.1 Vision The vision of the NCCRS is for a prosperous and These objectives are expounded upon below:- climate change resilient Kenya. • Enhance understanding of the global climate change regime 3.3.2 Mission In order to fully comprehend and appreciate The mission of the NCCRS (also the ‘Strategy’) the complex nature of the climate change is to strengthen nationwide focused actions problem, it is imperative to understand not towards adapting to and mitigating against only the local climate change challenges, a changing climate by ensuring commitment but also the global context of the problem, and engagement of all stakeholders while which includes climate change negotiation taking into account the vulnerable nature of processes, challenges and outcomes. This our natural resources and society as a whole. objective will be achieved by providing a brief and concise description of the global 3.3.3 Strategic Objectives context of climate change. In summary, the objective of the NCCRS is to respond to climate change by: • Provide an assessment of evidence and impacts of climate change in Kenya • enhancing understanding of the global Providing appropriate climate change climate change negotiations process, response measures at local and national international agreements, policies and levels requires proper understanding of processes and most importantly the climate change challenges both regionally positions Kenya needs to take in order to and throughout Kenya. maximise beneficial effects, An assessment of local evidence and • assessing the evidence and impacts of impacts of climate change should be climate change in Kenya, carried out. This objective will be achieved by analysing local/national meteorological • recommending robust adaptation and data from the Kenya Meteorological mitigation measures needed to minimise Department (KMD) and information risks associated with climate change while gathered during the national and regional maximising opportunities, NCCRS workshops as well as desk-review of publications (books, journal articles • enhancing understanding of climate and reports) on national and local climate change and its impacts nationally and in change issues. local regions, • Develop sectoral and cross-sectoral • recommending vulnerability assessment, priorities for climate change adaptation impacts monitoring and capacity building and mitigation in terms of short, framework needs, medium and long-term actions It is undeniable that immediate action • recommending research and technological needs to be taken if the impacts of climate needs and avenues for transferring existing change are to be reduced and this needs technologies, to be prioritised according to vulnerability. To achieve this objective, the Strategy • providing a conducive and enabling policy, will identify adaptation and mitigation legal and institutional framework to needs in key sectors and recommend combat climate change, and actions needed. In addition, the Strategy

46 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Strategic Focus

will identify key agencies to implement capacity (carbon-dioxide absorption/ these actions and provide indicative costs sequestration capacity) of key natural needed to implement these actions in line resources such as rangelands, lakes and with existing development and economic rivers. This objective will be achieved by plans, especially the Vision 2030. These identifying key ecosystems for which such recommendations will be supported assessments should be carried out. by a well-defined implementation and monitoring framework. In order to address the shortage of climate change specialists in the areas • Develop comprehensive national of science, policy, adaptation, mitigation education and awareness- creation and carbon markets, it is imperative that a programmes comprehensive national capacity building The level of understanding of climate framework in strategic climate change change and its impacts is low countrywide. areas be developed. This objective will be This calls for a focused awareness campaign achieved by identifying sectoral capacity that simplifies the science and impacts of needs and will be complemented by climate change in a language that is more successful models applied internationally. understandable to the public, particularly In addition, the country’s capacity to those dwelling in rural areas. This will respond to natural disasters has been help improve national preparedness for stretched due to climatic events such as the impacts of climate change. Forums for drought and floods. This objective will engagement and information dissemination further seek to strengthen institutions to the on current and future climate involved in Disaster Risk Reduction change risks will need to be established. (DRR) to enable them cope with climate In order to achieve this objective, the disasters. Strategy will recommend an education and awareness programme, as well as define • Identify specific Research and a communication framework for inclusive Development needs to address climate stakeholder interaction to enable effective change, and opportunities for technology communication of targeted climate change development, absorption and diffusion information. This will be achieved by an individual sector analysis of the knowledge and technology • Conduct periodic vulnerability gaps that need to be addressed in the short, assessments, impacts monitoring medium and long term. In addition, in order at national and local levels, GHGs to foster faster transfer and adoption of monitoring, and provide capacity climate friendly and resilient technologies building framework in Kenya for sustainable development, There is inadequate national and local the Strategy will seek to recommend information on how climate change avenues through which the transfer of such elements (e.g. temperature rise, change technologies can take place. in precipitation, extreme weather events, sea level rise and other seasonal shifts) • Strengthen governance of climate will affect phenomena such as floods, change, that is, policy, legislation and drought, water shortages (supply and institutional frameworks quality), human and domestic health risks, This objective will be achieved by habitat loss, etc. Further, there is limited undertaking an analysis of existing information regarding the country’s policies and institutions, identifying vulnerability to climate change impacts. their shortcomings, and applying lessons This is also true regarding the knowledge learnt both locally and internationally in level of GHG emissions and mitigation order to identify and legally institute an National Climate Change Response Strategy

appropriate national climate change entity Mechanisms (CDM) projects per year in the next to undertake and oversee climate change five years.’ activities in the country. The environment section of the Ninth National • Provide an Action Plan and ensure its Development Plan (NDP) 2008-2012 states the implementation in terms of having Government and its agencies will ‘formulate a robust monitoring and evaluation policies that minimise transport related framework environmental pollution from the different modes The identified adaptation and mitigation of transport.’ Yet these sentiments are not echoed activities will require the mobilisation within the transport section of Vision 2030. of additional and substantial financial The NDP 2008-2012 also highlights adaptation resources for their implementation. An issues in the context of El Niño and La Niña Action Plan and a Resource Mobilisation episodes and outlines the UNFCCC commitments Plan will help achieve this. In addition, including ‘carrying out national programmes monitoring and evaluation activities will for mitigating climate change and adaptation play an important role in ensuring an to climate change.’ There is an appreciation of effective implementation of the project the impact of climate variability on resources activities identified in the NCCRS. There is (e.g. water) and a need to promote policies need for an efficient, focused and dynamic for sustainable environmental management. implementation framework and a robust However, these adaptation provisions do not monitoring and evaluation framework. This address fundamental long-term changes in objective will ensure that such measures are the climate. Climate change concerns are not in place. considered within other sections of the NDP 2008-2012 even though this is an explicit 3.4 Linkage between the NCCRS, aim of the NDP itself – ‘full integration of Vision 2030 and Millennium environmental concerns in development planning at all levels of decision making remains a Development Goals (MDGs) challenge to the country.’ Kenya’s NCCRS is not only important for combating climate change, but its In general, climate change is not fully recognised implementation timeframe also coincides with in the Vision 2030 as a problem that could that of another of the country’s important hamper the country’s ambitious development strategies – the Vision 2030. The Vision 2030 goals the Vision articulates. The Strategy acts is Kenya’s development blue-print projecting to rectify this omission by proposing climate the country as a middle income economy by change ‘proof’ solutions necessary for the the year 2030. Vision 2030 is also intended to attainment of Vision 2030 goals. To this end, the accelerate the attainment of the Millennium Strategy proposes ‘climate smart’ development. Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs are a In addition, to mainstream climate change into set of goals ranging from poverty eradication sectoral and development priorities, there is to reducing infant mortality to environmental need to re-examine Vision 2030 with a view sustainability that developing countries to amending it to reflect the climate change agreed to implement by 2015. problem. Other economic blueprint papers should also be aligned with the Strategy. However, the Vision 2030 does not address climate change adequately, but it does refer The NCCRS will not operate in isolation. It is to climate change adaptation in the context anchored on the UNFCCC and will complement of building capacity as part of environmental two other similar treaties, the United Nations management. One of the specific aims stated Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) under environmental management is the goal and the Convention on Biological Diversity to attract ‘at least five Clean Development (CBD).

48 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation 4 Interventions

A demonstration plot with zai-pits ready for planting in Fundissa location, Magarini division, Malindi. It has been demonstrated that maize yields can double by use of simple water harvesting structures like zai-pits

(Source: Arid Lands Resource Management Project ALRMP, 2008)

50 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

4.0 Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

4.1 Adaptation Interventions strategies, e.g. building or enhancing systems for conveying climate information Adaptation to global warming covers all to rural populations. The Government and actions aimed at coping with climatic changes development partners need to provide that cannot be avoided and at reducing their support to the KMD’s Early Warning System negative effects. Adaptation measures include to facilitate the timely dissemination the prevention, tolerance or sharing of losses, of projected and downscaled weather changes in land use or activities, changes of information to farmers. This will enhance location, and restoration. The primary reason farmers’ resilience to the impacts of for adaptation is that the GHGs already climate change, e.g. through altering present in the atmosphere are enough to cause the timing of planting dates to adapt to significant climate change, irrespective of if all changing conditions, emissions were stopped today. Anthropogenic climate change is already occuring: glaciers • enhanced financial and technical support are melting, sea levels are rising, and to the Orphan Crops Programme so that hurricanes are increasing in intensity. With indigenous and more drought tolerant food rising carbon dioxide levels, climate change is crops like cassava, millet, sorghum sweet In Kenya, the most vulnerable likely to worsen. For these reasons, the world potatoes can be re-introduced into the sectors include agriculture, must prepare for and adapt to the effects of farming systems, tourism, infrastructure, health, global warming through adaptation actions and natural resources and and policies that are designed to tackle both • promoting irrigated agriculture by biodiversity. current and future climate change threats. developing irrigation schemes along river basins, construction of water basins and In Kenya, the most vulnerable sectors include pans, but also reconfiguring irrigated agriculture, tourism, infrastructure, health, production systems to use water more and natural resources especially biodiversity. efficiently and to accommodate the use of The following sections highlight some of the marginal quality water, proposed response measures in these sectors. The costs of implementing the programmes • addressing land degradation by building soil and projects in the respective sectors are and stone bunds, creating grass strips and provided in an Action Plan in Chapter 9 as well contour levelling as well as incorporating as in the Annex. trees or hedgerows. These measures will increase -water infiltration, reduce 4.1.1 Agriculture, Horticulture and Food run-off during floods, reduce soil erosion, Security and help trap sediments including dead Rain-fed agriculture is the second largest plant matter, contributor to the country’s GDP, with tea, coffee and horticulture contributing greatly to • promoting Conservation Agriculture (CA), the country’s foreign exchange earnings. Given whose aim is to achieve sustainable and its reliance on weather, agricultural production profitable agriculture and ultimately will bear the brunt of climate variability and improve farmers’ livelihoods through the change. Interventions in this sector should application of the three CA principles: include: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotations, • support for community-based adaptation National Climate Change Response Strategy

• diversifying rural economies, e.g. through alia in community conflicts, loss of lives value addition to agricultural products and livelihoods as well as migration. Certain and financial support for sericulture interventions will need to be made in this and apiculture with the aim of reducing sector and include: reliance on climate-sensitive agricultural practices, • breeding animals from various agro- ecological zones that adapt well to • Kenya also needs to create functional climatic vagaries, through the assistance linkages with development partners for of the Kenya Livestock Breeding Board and technology enterprise initiatives, other relevant institutions,

• re-invigorating agricultural research • like in agriculture, developing special and development (R&D) to produce crop livestock insurance schemes that will varieties that can withstand projected provide an opportunity to spread and climate variability. In Chapter 7, specific transfer climate change risks, e.g. to re- agricultural research areas that address stock herds after decimation by starvation climate change have been highlighted, caused by droughts26,

• developing an innovative Insurance • regular vaccination campaigns and cross Scheme – low premium micro-insurance border disease surveillance to reduce policy – which together with low-interest infections by migrating animals, loans will insure farmers against crop failure due to droughts, pests or floods, • setting up measures to institutionalise Early Warning Systems on droughts, floods • enhancing agricultural extension services and disease outbreaks, to train farmers on how to better cope with climate variability and change, • training communities on identification and establishment of emergency fodder banks • strengthening integrated and from crop residues, growing seasonal/ environmental friendly pest management perennial fodder trees and grasses, systems to cope with increased threats preservation of seasonal wetlands during from insects, pathogens, and weeds, and droughts and moving livestock into these during dry spells, as well as identification • developing proper food storage facilities to of forage types that suits various agro- cater for surplus harvest while promoting ecological zones, traditional and modern food preservation methods. • investing in programmes to harvest and store fodder for use during dry seasons. 4.1.2 Livestock/Pastoralism Fodder may also be sourced from other Nearly half of all livestock in Kenya is found regions like the Kenya highlands which in fragile ecosystems (i.e. ASALs) that are usually receive good amounts of rainfall, most vulnerable to climate change. Livestock production is therefore not exempt from the • inventorying indigenous knowledge that vagaries of climate change. It is likely to has conventionally been used by local experience pressure from increased livestock communities to cope with erratic climate, pests and diseases as well as loss of pastures. e.g. on rainfall prediction and use of These impacts will potentially result inter conventional medicine in treatment of

26 Equity Bank, UAP and ILRI have established such a scheme, called Drought Insurance.

52 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

animal diseases, as well as supporting conventional universal minimum of 1000 cubic the improvement and dissemination of metres. Climate change will aggravate the such technologies. These inventories are situation as it affects precipitation. For this important elements for planning as they reason, certain interventions need to be made provide efficient, appropriate and time- in this sector including the following: tested ways of advising communities affected by climate change, • constructing inter-basin and intra-basin water transfers to channel water from • promoting economic diversification among areas with excess water to areas with pastoral communities (e.g. cultivation of water deficit, drought-tolerant crops such as millet), • investing in decentralised municipal water • the Government, liaising with relevant recycling facilities for both domestic and experts in range dynamics, should enhance industrial use to reduce wastage, the provision of good quality water for both livestock and humans. Construction • enforcement and/or enactment of laws of dams is recommended to cater for and regulations required for efficient water pastoralists’ water needs during the dry resource management, spells, but only after due consideration of a particular region’s geologic and hydrologic • increasing capture and retention of Kenya is a water scarce-country. characteristics, and rainwater through the construction of With climate change expected waterways, strategic boreholes and other to add to the water-stress that • awareness campaigns among the water harvesting structures to ensure the country is already fac- pastoralist communities on the importance availability of water during dry seasons, ing, actions aimed at protect- of balancing stocking rates with the ing and conserving vital water available land resources as a way of • developing and maintaining an appropriate catchment areas, river-banks, ensuring sustainable pastoralism. stock of water infrastructure (dams, water and water bodies such as Lake pans, supply lines), Victoria (photo below) from 4.1.3 Water degradation and contamination Kenya is a water scarce country, which • building capacity for water quality moni- should be enhanced. Photo by essentially means that its annual per capita toring including training personnel to pro- Camco Kenya renewable water resource is less than the tect watersheds and monitor water quality,

• having a strategic fund to purchase water purification chemicals for disinfection of community wells and shallow boreholes during floods and drought episodes when water quality is most threatened,

• de-silting rivers and dams to improve car- rying capacity, water storage and water quality,

• protecting and conserving water catchment areas, river- banks, and water bodies from degradation and contamination e.g., by imposing a water levy to generate funds for investment in conservation of water catchment areas, National Climate Change Response Strategy

• heightened awareness campaigns to Integrated River Basin and Large-Water underscore the importance of sustainable Bodies-based Natural Resource Management use of water resources, e.g. through the promotion of water harvesting techniques For sustainable utilisation of natural resources such as harvesting water from roof in Kenya, there are basin-based institutions catchment at household level, such as the six regional development authorities (RDAs). The Action Plan annexed • developing artificial re-charging of to this Strategy presents details on RDAs. The for threatened aquifers, RDAs are mandated to plan, implement and coordinate integrated basin-based natural • protecting flood plains through resources management programmes. As a construction of dykes and river dredging, natural resource conservation approach, the integrated basin-based natural resources • putting in place adequate hydrometric development and management tool include, network to monitor river flows and flood but are not limited to the following: warning telemetric systems, and • promotion of community empowerment • introducing financial instruments such as initiatives such as high-value economic subsidies to promote technologies that use activities like sustainable fisheries including water efficiently. fingerlings production, livestock production, tree nurseries establishment and crop These interventions must however, take into production as well as value addition initiatives consideration the importance of integrated such as refining honey, processing rice, milk water resources development and management, and cotton. All these initiatives support which has as its core the following principles: conservation of water catchments because communities are able to see the importance • water is a finite resource: essential to of conserving their natural resources. In life, human development and ecological addition, they improve livelihoods, functions. It should therefore be managed in a holistic manner by linking the need • multi-use approach to development of for socioeconomic development and water-basins, e.g. multi-purpose dams for protection of the natural resource, flood control; hydropower generation; water use (domestic, industrial and irrigation); • water has an economic value: failure to tourism as well as environmental recognise the economic value of water conservation, and has led to its unsustainable use and degradation of its natural base in many • promotion of eco-tourism and cultural regions of the world, and activities such as religious sites that contribute to conservation efforts. • participatory approach: involving different water users including gender groups, 4.1.4 Health socioeconomic groups, planners and policy- The country is vulnerable to a number of makers in water resource management. diseases including malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, Rift Valley Fever and dengue In Kenya, integrated approach to water fever. Changing climate and weather patterns resources development and management is influence the spread of these diseases. For embedded in the ‘Integrated River Basin and example, rising temperatures are changing the Large-Water Bodies-based Natural Resource geographical spread of disease vectors (e.g. Management Programme’, which is expounded increasing the habitat range of mosquitoes upon below. to include higher altitudes). The situation

54 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

therefore necessitates the implementation of 4.1.5 Forestry the following recommended actions to deal with Over the past four decades Kenya has lost the health impacts of climate change: forest cover due to a combination of factors which include clearing forests for settlements • strengthening the public health systems and agriculture, illegal logging for commercial which includes building hospitals and purposes, and encroachment into forest equipping them with medicine, equipment reserves. Climate change and variability are and well trained personnel, likely to increase the pressures that forests are already facing, as tree mortality increases • improving access to clean water and with reduced rainfall, and incidences of pest, sanitary facilities to limit outbreaks of diseases and forest fires rise. Interventions water-borne diseases such as cholera, needed in this sector include: typhoid and diarrhoea, alongside strong public awareness programmes to promote • intensified and sustained afforestation better hygiene, and reforestation programmes by the Government, individuals, schools, private • heightened surveillance of new outbreaks sector, multilateral organisations, with subsequent rapid responses to control development partners through: the epidemics. This should involve proper use of weather forecasts and pre-disposing - provision of financial incentives to environmental factors to identify areas of rural communities to encourage the high risk in terms of disease and epidemics sustainable use of forest resources outbreaks, through a REDD+ mechanisms

• scaling up of programmes such as the - establishment of woodlots (farm- ‘Roll Back Malaria’ in response to the forestry) for fuel-wood and other expected increases in incidences of malaria household uses outbreaks, - rehabilitation of degraded sites setting up vaccination and immunisation • - increased surveillance programmes against diseases whose occurrences will be exacerbated by climate - promoting growth of drought tolerant change and climate variability, and pest and disease-resistant species

• creating ‘green spaces’ in urban centres, - restoration of mangrove forests i.e. planting trees in urban centres to moderate temperatures and ensure fresh • encouraging agroforestry which will air for healthy living, and enable poor rural households to meet their subsistence and energy needs, • choosing healthy paths to a low-carbon fu- ture (e.g. promoting the safe use of public • promoting alternative livelihood systems transportation and active movement such such as beekeeping, silkworm rearing, as biking or walking as alternatives to using Aloe vera and gum arabic farming to private vehicles) could reduce carbon diox- take pressure off forest resources. The ide emissions and improve public health. Government, in conjunction with its These can not only cut traffic injuries, but development partners and the private also air pollution and associated respiratory sector, should create a lending scheme and cardiovascular diseases.27 for youth and women from which they can

27 For more details, refer to WHO (2009): Protecting Health from Climate Change: Connecting Science, Policy and People National Climate Change Response Strategy

• reducing the frequency of fire outbreaks by maintaining lower tree densities to reduce fuel loads and competition, increasing investments in fire control services and personnel, and collecting as well as using dry biomass that accumulate on the ground.

Specific intervention programmes and projects are covered under Mitigation-Forestry in this chapter.

4.1.6 Energy Kenya predominantly depends on biomass energy, which is comprised mainly of firewood, charcoal and agricultural waste. Most of the biomass energy is used in rural households and small businesses. The country also depends on hydropower, but potential has dramatically reduced during the past 20 years because of the destruction of water catchments areas. However, the country’s demand has grown as high as its supply, leaving a reserve margin of An agroforestry farm in Central borrow money to initiate these alternative only 7%. With climate change, the situation Kenya. One of the ways through income generating activities, is likely to worsen as extreme events like which the Government plans to frequent and prolonged droughts will lead to increase the country’s forest cover • promoting alternative energy sources, the reduction of water levels in dams, thereby is through agroforestry, which will energy conservation initiatives, and affecting hydropower production potential. enable poor rural households to efficient charcoal production and Some necessary interventions include: meet their subsistence and energy utilisation technologies to reduce biomass needs. Photo by Camco Kenya. consumption, • controlling river water abstraction upstream to improve availability of water • involving forest-dependent rural for hydro-power production, communities in forests management through a proper institutional framework • zero-rating of taxes on renewable energy that recognises and defines their role. technologies, This will enable them benefit from REDD+ activities which require community • promoting the use of alternative renewable involvement in forests management, energy such as solar, biomass, wind, bio- fuels, and • improving timber yields by planting mixtures of species, maintaining several • promoting efficient firewood cookstoves, age classes, reducing tree density, and solar and LPG cookers, with the pruning trees at strategic intervals, Government addressing the issues of costs through giving subsidies or tax waivers to • reducing the chances of pests and disease poor households. attacks by retaining a mixture of species and ages in mixed forests because mono- For a detailed coverage of the interventions in dominant stands are at most risk of disease the energy sector please refer to the section and pest attacks, and under mitigation-energy sector in this chapter.

56 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

4.1.7 Rangelands, Wildlife and Tourism • monitoring, management and remedia- Tourism, which is Kenya’s largest source of tion of degraded rangelands, which entails foreign exchange, largely depends on wildlife, training and deployment of extra person- which in turn depends for its survival on nel to assist in protection and manage- rangelands. However, due to desertification ment of rangelands. Rangelands are a po- and the frequent and severe droughts that have tential source of carbon finance given their hit the country especially since the 1990s, ability to sequester thousands of tonnes of rangelands have been receding at an alarming carbon if well managed, rate. This is a source of great concern for the tourism industry, which needs to undertake • encouraging participatory approach to urgent interventions including: rangeland management involving pastoral communities who depend on rangeland • developing a National Wildlife Adaptation resources for their livelihoods, Strategy,28 a suite of well assessed climate change adaptation strategies • creating community wildlife conservancies by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and to help in the conservation of wildlife stakeholders including the World Wildlife especially of endangered species, Fund (WWF), the tourism industry, etc. This Strategy should be based on the outcomes • improving wildlife species conservation of research presented in section 7.1.7 and efforts for instance through wildlife trans- will be accomplished by further: location during extreme droughts, and

- assessing the current wildlife • evaluating potential socioeconomic im- conservation policies and activities pacts of remedial measures (e.g. carbon for their relevance to climate change tax or levy impositions on the air transport adaptation industry) on Kenya’s tourism sector, and - assessing the current adaptive capacity develop strategies to deal with such likely 29 of the surrounding communities future scenarios.

- assessing and reviewing the current 4.1.8 Social Infrastructure and Human development plans and activities to Settlements integrate climate change into the In Kenya, climate change will largely management of game reserves affect communities residing in poor urban neighbourhoods and those regions prone to - undertaking community training and drought, floods, geological movements (e.g. awareness raising through targeted landslides). This will require implementation demonstrations and group discussions of climate change adaptation strategies - implementing training and research including: programmes at diploma and degree strengthening disaster preparedness by levels to train in wildlife and • increasing the number of well equipped rangelands management (equipment, medication and personnel) - assessing adaptation issues and health facilities, constructing dams problems identified during project and dykes in flood prone areas, plus implementation, improving knowledge and skills in disaster

28 The USA and other countries have developed similar Strategies. For Kenya, such a Strategy should even be more important given the pertinent role that tourism plays in the country’s economy 29 Sectoral approach to mitigation is an idea that has been flouted in many climate change talks; it is plausible that such measures will one day be introduced, especially in the airline and maritime industry National Climate Change Response Strategy

preparedness and management in regions tion projects such as tree nurseries prone to such climatic disasters, development, afforestation, riverbank protection, construction/ installation • developing climate change awareness of rain water harvesting tanks, spring programmes involving all stakeholders, protection,

• proper planning of urban settlements which - train gender focal points, women and takes into consideration the expected high men self-help groups in rural areas and growth rate of urban population due to urban poor in environmental manage- climate-induced migration from rural areas ment, and to urban centres. This will require urban - disseminate climate change informa- planners and real-estate industry players to tion in local language through the use accordingly implement proper and adequate of field-based gender officers, women housing structures, waste disposal as well groups, Participatory Education The- as piped water infrastructure, atre (PET) and music groups. • establishing insurance schemes to make 4.1.9 Physical Infrastructure reparations in regions affected by climatic Kenya’s infrastructure continues to be built based disasters, on the assumption that the climate will remain • diversifying economic activities to improve unchanged in the future. Such an assumption resilience to rural communities dependent is misguided, considering that climate change on climate-sensitive sectors such as is already threatening vital infrastructure such agriculture and livestock rearing, as road and rail networks as well as water and As Kenya expands and energy systems. Lower annual rainfall in Kenya modernises its infrastructure, it • encouraging the formation of resident has reduced the power supply capacity of is important that the country associations that can respond to hydroelectric dams while temperature rise and introduce measures that emergencies, and involving them in key glacial melt is causing sea level rise. Flooding of will assure the resilience of decision making, and coastal and adjacent inland areas is exacerbating infrastructure over its lifespan, due to periodic torrential rainfall, thereby posing particularly in the face of • expanding the Consolidated Social a risk to maritime, road, rail and air networks. climate change, i.e. ‘climate- Development Fund and Women Enterprise proof the infrastructure.’ Fund to address the following social and As Kenya expands and modernises its gender-based response strategies: infrastructure, it is important that the country introduce measures that will assure the - disburse self-help grants for boosting resilience of infrastructure over its lifespan, existing enterprises or establishment particularly in the face of climate change, of new income generating activities by i.e. ‘climate-proof the infrastructure.’ Ways of poor rural and urban women and men, achieving this include: e.g. making energy saving ‘jikos’ acces- sible and affordable to all families and • investing more in alternative energy individuals, particularly women; plant- sources like geothermal that are less ing of crops used as alternative sources sensitive to climate change and variability of income, e.g. aloe-vera, neem, and as highlighted in the energy section mangrove trees, under mitigation. In addition, research needs to be conducted to determine the - provide food rations to the hungry at potential impacts of climate change times of need (during drought and flood elements like rainstorms on the country’s disasters), power transmission infrastructure, road - disburse grants to self-help groups in and rail networks, rising temperatures support of environmental conserva- on solar energy systems, and changing

58 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

wind intensities on windmills (Benno the interventions in these sectors include: and others, 2007) as well as measures to deal with such impacts. Considering • promoting sustainable fish farming as a infrastructural development funds, a means of economic diversification and maintenance component should be reducing over-fishing in inland lakes and factored in to take care of the damage rivers, caused to the infrastructure by extreme weather events such as floods that sweep • developing county-wide maps depicting ar- away roads and bridges, eas that will require shore protection (e.g. dykes, bulkheads, beach nourishment) and • carrying out geotechnical site investigations those areas to be left to adapt naturally, (GSIs) to determine areas that are appropriate and/or inappropriate for infrastructural • establishing a biodiversity monitoring development, e.g. GSIs will help identify network to identify species that will be flood/landslide prone areas on which roads, affected by climate change and those that railways and other infrastructure should not could be used as biological indicators, be constructed, and • encouraging a coastal and watershed basin • accommodation, which involves the management approach linking land-use continued use of the affected areas practices to marine and fisheries resource through measures practicable under the conservation, new prevailing conditions e.g. • establishing networks of marine protected - using structures which can withstand regions, including small enclosures com- strong winds, high temperatures etc, prising communities of species resilient e.g., constructing railways with ma- to climate change impacts that serve as terials engineered to withstand high buffer zones as well as areas for seed temperatures, regeneration,

- creating natural protective barriers • implementing adaptive management of against the sea so as to prevent its fishing capacity based on climate and interference with the usual land prac- environmental forecasts to particularly tices, and protect against extreme events,

- in coastal areas, buildings and infra- • conducting awareness campaigns on the structure should be constructed using impacts related to climate change amongst non-corrodible materials that cannot different stakeholders such as local com- be damaged by rising salty sea waters. munities, resource managers, and policy makers, 4.1.10 Fisheries, Coastal and Marine Ecosystems • providing economic incentives to diversify Kenya’s inland lakes, coastal and marine livelihood options to reduce dependence ecosystems are a repository of rich natural on climate-sensitive marine resources, resources which support local and national economies and include fisheries, terrestrial • strengthening co-management and com- forests, mangroves, sea grass beds, and munity-based management institutions coral reefs. However, these ecosystems are and the ability to enforce restrictions, threatened by resource overexploitation, transformation and degradation of habitat, • developing financing mechanisms using pollution, and now, climate change. Some of non-consumptive options for supporting National Climate Change Response Strategy

marine ecosystem research and develop- • the participation of 35,000 schools, 4,300 ment, e.g. global carbon funds and biodi- women groups, 16,350 youth groups and versity banking, and six Regional Development Authorities. Each school is to be supplied with a 10,000 litre • undertaking biological engineering and water tank to support water harvesting restoration of stress-tolerant organisms. for the establishment and management of both tree nurseries and plantations, and 4.2 Mitigation Interventions • large-scale landowners with at least Mitigation refers to efforts that seek to prevent 50 acres of land will be encouraged to or slow down the increase of atmospheric GHG construct dams for water harvesting concentrations by limiting current and future and storage in order to support the emissions and enhancing potential sinks for establishment of irrigated private forests. GHGs. In Kenya, the sectors associated with high emissions include forestry as a result of A detailed coverage of the Forest Restoration logging; agriculture; energy and transport. & Conservation Programme and Projects is The following sections describe some of the provided in the Action Plan, which is annexed mitigation strategies Kenya needs and intends to this Strategy. to undertake in the four sectors: 4.2.2 Energy 4.2.1 Forestry A study conducted by the Stockholm Not only do forests and on-farm trees provide a Environment Institute (SEI) on the economic unique opportunity for Kenya to participate in impacts of climate change in Kenya (2009) mitigation, but they also present the country found the country’s current GHG emissions, with valuable opportunities for carbon trading both total and per capita to be relatively Planting of trees in deforested and finance. The Kenya Government has low. However, Kenya’s GHG emissions are sections of the Mau Forests. The initiated an ambitious programme of restoring rising quickly and energy sector emissions are Government has initiated an am- the country’s forest cover that is currently at estimated to have increased by as much as bitious reforestation plan that 1.7%, down from 12% only 30 years ago. The 50% over the last decade. aims to increase the country’s for- overall aim is to grow about 7.6 billion trees est cover to 10% by 2030. on 4.1 million hectares of land during the next In order to achieve the goal of a low-carbon Photo by Camco Kenya. 20 years. This programme involves: developed society, Kenya should pursue an energy mix that greatly relies on carbon-neutral energy sources such as geothermal and other renewables. The implementation and use of renewables will increase Kenya’s energy security. In addition, it will assist in mitigating climate change, which forecasts indicate will cause more intense and frequent droughts throughout the country. These droughts will affect all sectors that are rainfall-dependent including hydropower electricity generation, which is currently Kenya’s main source of electricity.

Also, Kenya’s present power generation capacity is grossly inadequate to meet demand. To bridge the supply gap, the Government occasionally rents imported emergency generation units. In the period from June 2006 to June 2008 approximately

60 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

150 MW worth of such generation units were and reap other benefits including reducing rented. This is usually very expensive and foreign exchange expenditure on crude oil requires large subsidies. The Government also and other petroleum products. Importation usually leases thermal generation units during of crude oil and petroleum products currently drought episodes. In addition to being a major cost Kenya over 40% of foreign exchange contributor to GHG emissions, these thermal earnings. Renewable energy also provides power Units are also quite costly. CDM opportunities and creates green job opportunities. To help facilitate renewable To counter these and other potential threats energy development, in June 2009 the Kenyan to the energy sector Kenya needs to, and Government established the National Task Force should implement measures described in the on Accelerated Development of Green Energy following sections. with a mandate to accelerate development of green energy through mobilisation of technical 4.2.2.1 Accelerate the development of and financial resources. The exploitation of abundant geothermal energy geothermal resources is the The exploitation of abundant geothermal The Task Force aims at realising an additional best option for Kenya. For this resources is the best option for Kenya. For this 2,000 MW by 2012, which is enough to meet the reason, it should be fast-tracked reason, it should be fast-tracked as a matter of expected growth in demand, achieve a reserve as a matter of highest priority. highest priority. A financial analysis conducted margin of at least 30% of firm capacity, and A financial analysis conducted on different primary sources of electricity sustain normal electricity supply even during on different primary sources of generation revealed geothermal to be the most very severe droughts. Thus far the Task Force electricity generation revealed cost effective source of power. Approximately has identified green energy projects which it geothermal to be the most 1,000 MW of geothermal electricity can be considers highly desirable and implementable cost effective source of power. harnessed at a cost of US$ 0.06 per kWh in the in the short to medium term. These identified Approximately 1,000 MW of next three to four years, while still generating projects are estimated to provide an additional geothermal electricity can be substantial revenues for further investment. installed capacity of 2,790 MW between 2010 harnessed at a cost of US$ 0.06 In addition, not only are geothermal plants and 2014. Evidently, more needs to be done to per kWh in the next three to environmentally less disruptive, but also meet the peak demand, which is expected to four years, while still generating have the highest capacity utilisation factor reach 10,000 MW by 2030. To further promote substantial revenues for further (above 92%). In addition, they are immune green energy, in 2008, the Government investment. to extreme weather conditions arising from developed a renewable energy feed-in tariff climate change30 and escalations in the cost (REFIT) policy with the aim of attracting of traditional fossil fuels such as petroleum. investments in this sector. Kenya’s strategies for facilitating the green energy development 4.2.2.2 Accelerate the development of green programme should include: energy including wind, solar and renewable biomass • resource assessment encompassing Green energy sources refer to those sources updating the country’s renewable with zero or low levels of GHG emissions. Such energy resources maps. Some of this green energy sources include hydroelectric information is currently available, but power (HEP) generation,31 wind, solar and needs to be updated in view of emerging renewable biomass. Timely development technologies that can allow for a greater of green energy projects is imperative if depth of information to be captured. A the country is to meet the growing demand comprehensive renewable energy map will

30 See http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/Geothermal-Fact-Sheet.pdf 31 e.g. hydro schemes CO2 free and CH4 - free except in some particular reservoirs in tropical zones, with emissions that are associated with anaerobic decays in some dams. See Tackling Climate Change on the Ground, a WBSCD 2009 publication for more details National Climate Change Response Strategy

need to be developed and stored ideally in and will commence in the western regions an easy-to-access interactive web-portal and expand to other areas subject to for quick reference by potential investors, adequate availability of feedstock,

• enhancing solar rural electrification • investment in cogeneration, which is provision through credit facilities to meet the production of heat or steam and the high demand for solar household energy electricity from renewable biomass waste. systems and complement tax incentives According the Ministry of Energy, Kenya’s currently in place. Given the geographic sugarcane belt can generate additional remoteness of many rural households, off- 300 MW through cogeneration33 and given grid electricity production is one of the only that Kenya is a major tea and coffee viable options for the electrification of rural producer that generates coffee husks and households in the short and medium term used tealeaves waste, the opportunities because it is cost-effective and convenient, for cogeneration using agricultural waste are abundant, • reviewing and gazettement of regulations for mandatory installation of solar • encouraging the manufacturing sector hot water systems in residential and to grow trees for fuel switching (i.e. commercial houses, sustainable thermal energy-electricity conversion) in line with the Energy Policy • investmenting in renewable biomass energy (2004) in order to reduce the country’s including biofuels and sustainable charcoal, reliance on fossil fuel imports, which particularly in the ASALs. The ASALs can currently account for 25% of Kenya’s support the sustainable cultivation of some foreign exchange earnings,34 species like Jatropha curcas, Moringa sp., and Croton spp. from which biodiesel can be • developing waste-to-energy programmes extracted. According to Muok and Källbäck for converting municipal solid waste (2008) and ESDA (2005) sustainable biofuels (MSW) into energy for domestic supply. and charcoal production in Northern Kenya Such programmes have other added can act as a source of income generation benefits including improving health and for poor families and could both alleviate lowering demand for both landfilling poverty and stem rural-urban migration, as waste and fossil fuels, and well as reverse environmental degradation in the region, • developing Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) programmes • in line with a recommendation of the detailing mitigation opportunities in Energy Act (2006), investment in bio- energy, transport and other sectors. ethanol processing32 to provide ethanol Developed countries can support NAMAs for blending with petrol will increase through technology, financing and capacity energy security, reduce fossil fuel imports, building under the post-Kyoto regime. provide rural development opportunities, Such programmes can help attract some diversify agricultural industries, and create of the funding required to implement green jobs. At the moment, a bio-ethanol large-scale solar (e.g. concentrated solar blending programme is being instituted power plant) and wind energy projects.

32 Kenya has previously experimented with bioethanol-petrol blending (at Muhoroni Sugar Factory), but stopped the programme in 1993; this will therefore, not be an entirely new technology in the country 33 An example is the Co-generation Clean Development Mechanism project 34 Other than the transport sector, Kenya’s manufacturing sector is the largest consumer of fossil fuels imported into the country for heat and steam generation.

62 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

4.2.2.3 Energy Efficiency heating that would otherwise necessitate Energy efficiency is simply defined as using air conditioning. less energy to provide the same service without compromising the quality of service. 4.2.3 Agriculture This falls within the broader concept of eco- Although emissions from the agricultural sector efficiency, which is widely accepted to be the in Kenya are quite low and are considered to ‘efficiency with which ecological resources or be ‘survival emissions’, some mitigation actions goods are used to meet human needs’ (OECD, in this sector are also adaptation measures and 1998 in Mickwitz et. al., 2006). With energy should be promoted as a matter of priority. efficiency proposed as a route to promote Mitigation measures to adopt in the agricultural sustainable development, the following energy sector include but are not limited to the efficiency programmes and projects should be following: implemented: • applying agricultural technologies to • mandatory energy audits by large increase food production while simultane- commercial and industrial consumers should ously limiting or reducing GHG emissions, be enforced in line with the Government e.g. through the appropriate use of of Kenya Energy Policy (Sessional Paper biotechnologies,36 as subscribed in the No. 4 of 2004), which encourages energy National Biotechnology Development Policy efficiency and conservation in all sectors of (2006), the economy. This will readily help identify consumption patterns where significant • proper management of agricultural waste energy savings can be made, that includes using waste to produce biogas, which consequently also reduces the direct • reviewing the tax policy on importation of release of methane emissions into the motor vehicle with a view to incorporating atmosphere. Reducing methane emissions measures that will encourage importation from uncontrolled anaerobic decomposition of environmental-friendly and low-fuel are potential CDM opportunities that Kenya consuming motor vehicles such as hybrid is yet to tap into, designed models, • encouraging improved crop production • providing subsidies and other tax incentives practices, e.g. mulching instead of repeated to promote and sustain wider adoption of tilling to control weeds. Methane is energy-efficient fluorescent light bulbs and produced in termites as part of their normal other energy saving electrical gadgets used digestive process and repeated tilling only by households,35 and enhances emissions37 from these creatures, which are the second largest natural source • reviewing the country’s building codes of methane emissions globally, with a view to incorporating measures that will encourage ‘climate-proofing’ and the • promotion of intercropping in plantations38 construction of energy-efficient buildings, especially tree-based intercropping (TBI) e.g. buildings that use as much natural as an agro-forestry system where a crop light as possible while avoiding direct solar is established between planted tree rows.

35 For instance, according to the KPLC, the planned Government’s programme to replace 1 million incandescent bulbs with fluorescent bulbs will save the country 49 MW, equivalent to the current installed capacity of the Kindaruma hydro plant 36 See ‘Tackling Climate Change on the Ground’-World Business Council for Sustainable Development, WBCSD (2009) 37 See http://www.epa.gov/highgwp/sources.html 38 This recommendation should strictly apply to plantations and private land; otherwise, if broadly interpreted, it could lead to encroachment into natural and reserve forests National Climate Change Response Strategy

residues and cow-dung as manure, which, - directly reduces GHG emissions as they are of non-fossil origin (i.e. are renewable and part of the natural cycles), and therefore - according to unpublished data may be better in fixing soil carbon compared to conventional methods.39

4.2.4 Transport The transport sector accounts for a large share of global GHG emissions and are on the increase even in developing countries where these emissions are still low. In Kenya, the transport An anaerobic digester and discharge Agroforestry systems are known to store more sector emissions are growing rapidly due to system for biogas generation. carbon than conventional cropping systems increases in private car use that is expanding Controlled methane emissions such through two mechanisms: TBI systems as incomes rise, the middle class expands and as this can provide rural farming increase carbon storage in the biomass of the public transport sector continues to erode. communities with clean energy as planted trees and increase carbon stored in well as enable them benefit from the soil, and This trend could potentially ‘technologically the CDM opportunities. Photo by lock in’40 Kenya towards a high emissions path Camco Kenya. • promotion of organic farming, e.g. using crop (see figure 4) and negate the opportunities it

Per capita emissions in Kenya 14 Figure 4: GHG Emissions trend in Kenya. The figure follows a typical Environmental Kuznets curve, i.e. 12 at low economic growth rates, emissions are low and vice versa; 10 hence the exponential growth in emissions particularly from 2000 8 to date with improved growth rates. The transport sector 6

contributes significantly to these CO2 emissions in t increasing emissions, especially as a result of high private car 4 use. Emissions are calculated based on the capita emissions 2 data from the International Energy Agency (IEA) while the 0 population data is sourced from 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 the World Bank. As of 2007, Year Kenya’s emissions stood at 11.43 MtCO2eq. Only emissions due to 39 See e.g. http://www.rodaleinstitute.org/ob_31 combustion are tracked. 40 ‘Technological lock-in’ refers to the concept that once led down a certain technological path, an entity (country, region, organisation, etc) may find that the process of reverting to another, principally, a cleaner path, may prove quite difficult either due to prohibitive costs or the learning process that accompanies such transitions

64 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Interventions

could derive from the carbon markets. Kenya • creating awareness and possibly car- therefore needs to put in place measures that pooling policies through punitive taxes and can curb GHG emissions in this sector. Some of charges, e.g. road and fuel levies to reduce these measures include the following: unnecessary travel, • promotion of low-cost public transport • strictly enforcing vehicle inspection rules to modes such as bus rapid transit (BRT)41 ensure motor vehicles are well-maintained and other means of mass transport, in order to reduce pollution. In addition, the Government should enact a law that proper urban and transport planning to • would compel vehicle owners to install facilitate efficient and low GHG modes of pollution-control devices, such as the three- transportation, e.g. decongesting roads, way catalytic converters that can inter alia • encouraging non-motorised modes of converting nitrogen oxides including the infrared-active global-warming causing

nitrous oxide (NO2) to nitrogen and oxygen, • developing a Light Rail Transit (LRT) in major cities and towns to decongest traffic, and • improving the rail-network to facilitate low-cost and low-carbon long-distance transportation of cargo and passengers.

4.2.5 Carbon Markets: a Benefit of Mitigation Developing countries (also known as Non-Annex 1) such as Kenya can choose to undertake mitigation projects in the sectors described above (e.g. energy, transport, agriculture) as well as manufacturing and others. These projects can gain monetarily from ‘carbon markets’ that allow them to sell certified An artist’s impression of the emission reduction (CER) credits to developed Bangkok Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) transport (NMT) by creating bikeways and countries (also known as Annex 1) to help the line. A well developed BRT system pedestrian walkways, latter cost-effectively mitigate against climate would offer a fast, comfortable • creating transport demand management change. This is legislated under the Kyoto and convenient means of Protocol’s CDM compliance markets. Carbon movement within a busy traffic measures that encourage or favour public transport and NMT,42 markets also comprise of the buying of ‘carbon metropolis such as Nairobi, and offsets’ by individuals and organisations who would attract middle-income • creating a programme to phase out old and wish to voluntarily offset their GHG emissions, people “to get out of their cars”. inefficient (high fuel-consuming) motor Many developing countries are i.e. under the Voluntary Carbon Markets (VCM). developing BRT systems to help vehicles, while encouraging importation Details about these have been provided in them reduce their transport GHG of efficient vehicles through tax incentives Chapter 1. Measures that Kenya can implement emissions. Photo source: http:// and other financial tools, in order to effectively participate in and benefit transitmy.org/2010/03/17/do- bus-lanes-worsen-congestion/ 41 GTZ (2008): There is no clear definition of what constitutes a BRT. A BRT is instead defined by various features which makes the system faster than conventional bus transport systems and these could include dedicated (exclusive right-of way) lanes; rapid boarding and alighting; free transfers between lanes; pre- board fare collection and verification; clear route maps; real-time information displays, etc 42 For more information concerning the first four interventions, see Karekezi S., Majoro L. and Johnson T.M, 2003: Climate Change and Urban Transport: Priorities for the World Bank National Climate Change Response Strategy

from the carbon markets are highlighted below. support, and • exploring ways of integrating carbon markets 4.2.5.1 The Clean Development Mechanism into the main economy and opening it to (CDM) conventional legal and banking systems. In order for Kenya to participate effectively in the carbon markets including the CDM, the 4.2.5.2 Reduced Emissions from Deforestation following measures will need to be undertaken: and Degradation in Developing • calculation of the baseline GHG Grid Countries Emission Factor (GEF) for the electricity Carbon emissions from deforestation and forest grid of Kenya to facilitate CDM projects in degradation account for about 20% of global the power sector and assist carbon project anthropogenic emissions (IPCC-WG I, 2007). developers and consultants, Since the eleventh session of the Conference • target capacity building for the private sector of Parties (COP-11) to the UNFCCC in December and investors to increase the knowledge of 2005, strategies and incentives for Reduced GHG reduction project development and Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation markets, e.g. developing a handbook for (REDD) in developing countries have emerged CDM Project Activities detailing the role as one of the most active areas discussed of government and the UNFCCC, CDM cycle, during climate change negotiations and a REDD types of projects, eligibility criteria, CDM Mechanism has now been created under the transaction costs and how to sell Certified Copenhagen Accord. Emission Reductions (CERs), Specific recommendations that can enable • need for a government-fronted manual that Kenya to benefit from REDD opportunities guides CDM implementation; this can be include: placed on a public website, as has been done by a number of countries including • robust monitoring, reporting and Tanzania, verification (MRV) institutional • strengthening relevant institutions such as arrangements (clear credible national forest the DNA and removing barriers to carbon monitoring baselines and guidelines), trading such as high initial transaction costs • filling the historical data gaps on forest and low level of awareness of CDM potential cover throughout the country, on the part of private sector, particularly investment and financial organisations, • addressing the risk of non-permanence and leakage as a necessary condition for any • providing tax incentives and favourable parties or entities to participate in a REDD import tariffs on technology for projects mechanism and activities, that reduce emissions, • assistance with methodology development • having clear energy pricing and CDM project especially on REDD, which has the potential policies including a general institutional to not only mitigate climate change but framework and good governance, also support livelihoods, maintain vital • ensuring that Kenya establishes itself as a ecosystem services, and preserve globally cost-effective host country to GHG emission significant biodiversity, reduction projects, • need for financial support, technology • designing a general ranking of the easiest transfer and provision for capacity building and most viable project types to the most especially among forest-dependent difficult and least viable (low hanging fruits communities, and first to build momentum), • joint action involving both the public and • creating a database of existing projects, private sectors in order to mobilise the emission reduction volumes, other benefits, necessary finance and accelerate REDD project developers, financiers, government actions.

66 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

Communication, Education and 5 Awareness Programmes

68 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Communication, Education and Awareness Programmes

5.0 Communication, Education and Awareness Programmes

Climate change awareness is low countrywide. 5.1 Communication This was evident from findings of consultative workshops conducted in all the eight provinces The crucial role of communication is to make of Kenya during preparation of this Strategy. citizens better-informed on climate change The need for awareness creation, targeting issues and actively participate in programmes specific groups and communities, and using to combat it. There is therefore need to different tools and media such as the print and develop appropriate models of communications electronic media, drama, community forums that will serve to transmit and disseminate (barazas43) is therefore pressing. Equally information on climate change. The essential important is the incorporation of climate characteristics of such communication models change into the nation’s educational curricula should include: at different levels, starting with primary • community ownership and participation through to tertiary institutions. through ensuring local content,

The UNEP Division of Environment Law and • language and cultural relevance, Conventions (UNEP-DELC) acknowledges that many governments and NGOs are already • using appropriate technology that can be working actively to raise awareness on climate owned and controlled by the people to change. It however, accepts that the scale of meet their real needs, and Climate change awareness is the changes required and the vast number of • learning and sharing among networks of low countrywide. The need for people and interests that must be informed people with similar concerns. awareness creation, targeting and influenced call for outreach activities specific groups and communities, of a much greater magnitude. Borrowing It is vital for the Government to gather and using different tools and from the Communication, Education and and systematise already available data and 44 media such as the print and Public Awareness (CEPA) programme of the generate additional information to ensure an electronic media, drama, Conventions on Biological Diversity (CBD), adequate analysis including disaggregated community forums (barazas) an effective public education and awareness data for marginalised groups. The following is therefore pressing. Equally programme on climate change will entail: measures should be pursued for effective important is the incorporation of climate change communication: climate change into the nation’s • communicating the scientific and techni- educational curricula at different cal work of the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol, • Communication needs assessment: There levels, starting with primary and the post Kyoto agreement documents is need to assess the information needed through to tertiary institutions. in a language that is accessible to many by marginalised groups, and their most different groups, accessible source of information at local, national and international levels (e.g. • integrating climate change into education radio, television, and printed materials systems of all Parties to the Convention, as well as theatre, storytelling and other and traditional community media), • raising public awareness of the impor- • Improving access to climate change tance of climate change and its implica- information: This should be done through tions to our lives. formats and communication channels

43 Kiswahili for public forums 44 See http://www.cbd.int/cepa/ National Climate Change Response Strategy

that are easy to understand and use. Ministry of Education should incorporate There is need to have well developed climate change into school curricula at ICT infrastructure and skills to facilitate all levels as part of education and public effective dissemination of climate awareness. The expected outputs should change information and education. The include: Government should develop a website on - updated school curricula with climate climate change issues and all the relevant change content, information, programmes, projects, related to climate change and establish one-stop - updated textbooks and other learning resource centres which should be equipped material with climate change content, with climate change material, - better educated pupils/students in the • Dissemination of credible and reliable field of climate change, and climate change information and re- - updated or new courses incorporating search findings: The Government should climate change issues, put in place strategic planning and public review processes to facilitate ‘credible fact finding’ on (a) key climate science issues, • Develop, strengthen and harmonise (b) comprehensive climate and ecosystem national education, research institutions on issues regarding the observing and data management systems, and programmes impacts of, adaptation to and mitigation and (c) the development of decision sup- against climate change. This in turn should port resources, lead to the development of technological • Supporting public debate on climate capacity in various climate change fields, change issues by promoting parliamentary public hearings, participatory policymak- • Involvement of local administration ing initiatives at both central and local and community leaders: Educating level, and a vibrant civil society, and and training development workers, local authorities, community leaders on climate • Developing a comprehensive communi- change results in committed mutual cations plan: The Government needs to understanding and concerted action develop a comprehensive communications against climate change, and implementation plan and funding plan, based on an inventory of existing commu- • Developing and disseminating climate nication activities and building on experi- change literature in local languages for ence from several short-term pilot projects the benefit of marginalised populations and to determine and shape ongoing effective the general public, thereby encouraging communication strategies. their involvement in adaptation and mitigations programmes. Scientific data 5.2 Education and terminologies should be well explained and simplified in literature, which could A major concern in Kenya is the lack of be in the form of brochures, illustrated adequate climate change information, pamphlets, billboards and journals. knowledge and long-period data to researchers, planners, policy-makers and the general public on climate change impacts, adaptations and 5.3 Public Awareness mitigations measures. The following measures Everyone should be well informed of climate should be pursued: change, its impacts and the necessary adaptation and mitigation measures to be • Curricula review to integrate climate taken. Public awareness and education on change into education systems: The climate change – particularly the importance

70 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Communication, Education and Awareness Programmes

of actions that reduce GHG emissions– needs • schools or colleges’ competitions where to be improved. Training at community level is students perform drama, poetry, essays and necessary to ensure that various communities music with climate change themes and the are aware of climate change and can use best get rewarded, climate data and information acquired through systematic observations. • decentralising Environmental Committees to the village level, Some ways of raising public awareness include: • formation of youth, women’s and men’s • establishing a National Climate Change groups, CBOs, as forums for outreach, Awareness campaign. The National AIDS/ and including existing youth groups and STD Control Programme (NASCOP) model initiatives in ongoing climate change and for sexually transmitted diseases can be decision making activities, adapted, • documenting climate change impacts and • using print and electronic media to pass linking them to community livelihoods, climate change information in various articles and programmes on climate change • online blogging on sites such as Facebook, in the media, Twitter, Google Groups, and Yahoo Groups through which various topics on climate • Education-based entertainment: educating change could be discussed, the citizens on climate change while entertaining them at the same time • formation of online networks, which are through theatrical performances, almost similar to online blogging but differ in the sense that there is a possibility • mainstreaming climate change awareness for physical contact and face-to-face in all programmes and projects undertaken discussions, by the Government, NGOs, CBOs, media etc, • using graphical images to pass climate change information, • creating climate change training material and programmes for target groups of • eco-tournaments – using sporting events stakeholders and specific groups, i.e. (athletics, football, etc) to raise awareness women, men children, youth, people with disabilities, religious groups, • encouraging individual voluntarism in raising awareness, and • promotional activities and sponsorship of events with climate change themes, e.g. • involving the corporate sector, especially a reward scheme for pupils or individuals the mobile telephone industry e.g. to who plant trees and maintain them, display ‘airtime top-up messages’ on climate change. Vulnerability Assessment, Impact 6 Monitoring and Capacity Building

72 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Vulnerability Assessment, Impact Monitoring and Capacity Building

6.0 Vulnerability Assessment, Impact Monitoring and Capacity Building

6.1 Vulnerability assessment information on how climate change elements – temperature rise, change in precipitation, The IPCC defines vulnerability as ‘the extent to extreme weather events (such as floods and which climate change may damage or harm a drought), sea level rise and other seasonal shifts system’ and adds that ‘vulnerability depends – will affect these ecosystems and their services not only on a system’s sensitivity, but also on e.g. water supply (quantity and quality), air 45 its ability to adapt to new climatic conditions.’ quality, human and domestic health, habitat- loss, etc. Although chapter 2 of this Strategy has attempted to discuss Kenya’s vulnerability to Thorough periodic nationwide assessments climate change impacts, the level of knowledge of how these changes will affect human about Kenya’s current vulnerability is still more population, infrastructure, the environment, or less general. It is accepted that ‘Kenya is the economy and society as a whole should vulnerable to climate change because most be conducted. An understanding of how of her people depend on climate sensitive ecosystems might evolve is needed in order natural resources for their livelihoods. However, to project how humans will modify their how vulnerability varies across the country is environment in the future and in turn be something that is yet to be determined. An affected by the changes (Odada et. al., 2009). How vulnerability varies across appropriate approach to coping with climate Kenya is something that is change impacts requires proper knowledge of Such assessments should lead to the yet to be determined. An the vulnerable nature of communities, groups development of essential climate change appropriate approach to coping and sectors. This will then inform the measures scenarios and corresponding policy responses. with climate change impacts that need to be taken in order to minimise the The indicators to be monitored would include requires proper knowledge negative impacts of climate change, and exploit changes in the atmosphere, marine and of the vulnerable nature of the beneficial ones. Vulnerability assessments terrestrial biodiversity as well as important communities, groups and can address these needs and should therefore be ecosystems such as major water towers (the sectors. This will then inform carried out. This will involve assessing past and Mau Escarpment, Cherenganyi Hills, Mount the measures that need to be projected climate change evidence and impacts Kenya, Mount Elgon and the Arberdare Ranges), taken in order to minimise the in the country and identifying sectors as well as major lakes such as Victoria and Turkana, water negative impacts of climate regions that are most vulnerable, and therefore quantity including river floods and droughts, change, and exploit the in high need of remedial interventions. freshwater quality, agriculture, forestry, and beneficial ones. human health, among others. 6.2 Climate change impacts and GHG emissions monitoring Trends in GHG Emissions Local capacity to monitor and determine the Climatic and Ecosystem Trends status and trends of GHG emissions in Kenya There is limited information regarding the is lacking. Only a few institutions, notably status of key natural ecosystems such as major the International Energy Agency (IEA), water catchment areas, lakes and major rivers. periodically monitor and report on Kenya’s Further, there is inadequate national and local GHG emissions. The IEA’s data shows that

45 IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001 National Climate Change Response Strategy

Kenya’s GHG emissions in 2007 were 11.43 targeted capacity-building framework, and mega tonnes (Mt)46. build the capacity of local communities to help them adapt to the adverse impacts of The overall objective of the UNFCCC is to climate change. Further, the actions being stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere recommended in the Strategy will require at a level that would prevent dangerous people with adequate necessary skills to anthropogenic interference with the climate implement. system. To facilitate the realisation of this objective, Annex-1 Parties to the Convention In line with the UN’s ‘Acting on Climate Change, are required to monitor and report yearly on the UN System Delivering as One’ report, the their GHG emissions to the UNFCCC Secretariat following are as some of the key critical areas through National Inventory Reports (NIRs). for Kenya where capacity building should be Developing countries including Kenya could targeted: and should also develop and implement a GHG Monitoring and Reporting Programme to assess, Training on Climate Change Competencies quantify and report on sectoral GHG emissions. and Strengthening Institutions: In view of the risks and This information could feed into the National opportunities presented by Communications (NCs) as is the requirement • regional and sub-regional preparatory climate change, enhanced under the UNFCCC, but would more importantly workshops for climate change negotiators capacity building is required be useful in identifying ‘high-emissions’ where Kenya would participate with other to strengthen capability of sectors and areas where significant GHG developing countries, SIDS and LDCs, on developing countries like Kenya reductions can be realised. the UNFCCC negotiation process, which have very few climate • technical and policy support to Kenya as change specialists in the areas 6.3 Capacity Building a party to the UNFCCC for preparing its of science, policy, adaptation, National Communications, mitigation carbon trading and Capacity building for climate change refers to the development or strengthening of personal carbon markets. Therefore, it • support to the country in its efforts to is important to put in place skills, expertise, relevant institutions and organisations to reduce GHG emissions and/ implement UNFCCC decisions through a targeted capacity-building country-driven approaches, framework, and build the or to reduce vulnerability to climate-related capacity of local communities to impacts. The need for capacity building is • awareness-raising, development of help them adapt to the adverse enshrined in Article 9 (d) of the UNFCCC, which communication tools, training and impacts of climate change. calls upon the Subsidiary Body for Scientific planning workshops at local, national, and Technological Advice (SBSTA) – the body regional and global levels, created under Article 9 of the Convention – to provide ‘ways and means of supporting • capacity building and support for the endogenous capacity-building in developing modernisation and development of countries.’ national meteorological services e.g. the Kenya Meteorological Department and In view of the risks and opportunities IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications presented by climate change, enhanced Centre (ICPAC), capacity building is required to strengthen capability of developing countries like Kenya • mobilising and enhancing the capacity of which have very few climate change specialists the Government, employers and workers’ in the areas of science, policy, adaptation, organisations to contribute to coherent mitigation carbon trading and carbon markets. policies and effective programmes leading Therefore, it is important to put in place a to greening economies with green jobs,

46 CO2 Emissions from fuel combustion only. Emissions are calculated using IEA’s energy balances and the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines. Also, see chapter 4 under mitigation for GHG emission trends

74 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Vulnerability Assessment, Impact Monitoring and Capacity Building

• capacity building in the use of geo- - building on existing structures e.g. referenced demographic and socioeconomic MEMR, NEMA, climate change depart- data, in addition to setting up a GHG ments and Inter-Ministerial Committee reduction policy and tools, and on Climate Change to raise awareness,

• strengthening the Designated National - building on existing forms and centres Authority (DNA), including additional to bring together expertise (e.g. through personnel. the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN- Capacity Building in Adaptation ISDR) hosted workshops, ICPAC training • providing advisory services on how to forums, the media and regional links; mainstream climate change considerations invest in ‘translators’ working manuals, into development decision-making e.g. for the achievement of the MDGs, - engage people at the grassroots to • supporting city and other local build on existing coping/adaptation governments mainstream climate change mechanisms, adaptation into their programmes, • strengthening planning and capacity • providing a coordinating framework to development initiatives to reduce risk, facilitate oversight and national ownership prepare and recover from disasters through: including strengthening institutions in charge of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) - implementing the National Disaster cope with climate disasters through: Management Policy with a National Disaster Management Authority (NAD- - improving application of advanced IMA) to coordinate the activities of technology (weather and climate different stakeholders and initiatives information) in risk identification and engaged in disaster management, evaluation, - building on cross-sectoral liaison - invest in user specific models and ap- within existing disaster and hazard plication products, structures e.g. the Early Warning Sys- tem (EWS) of the Kenya Arid Lands and - improve downscaling of climate models Resource Management Project (ALRMP) and National Disaster Operation Centre - build forums for data integration and (NDOC), exchange (extensive regional net- works), - monitor research and outputs of NGOs and other organisations to encourage - invest in climate information systems, collaboration rather than duplication,

- improve community & family prepared- • developing structures that facilitate sus- ness information tools, tained application of the National Disaster Management Policy by: - invest in people-centred early warning systems (EWS) on climate change, - investing in implementing structures with clear responsibilities and points • enhancing communication among scien- of contact, tists, decision/policy makers, NGOs and communities through: - building partnerships with local com- munities, National Climate Change Response Strategy

- providing a role for national leadership management and invest in regional part- in international policy dialogue e.g. nerships through: for the National Adaptation Platform, - the use of the National Disaster • mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduciton Management Policy to facilitate the (DRR) and adaptation e.g. putting meas- introduction of Disaster Trust Funds, ures to reduce poverty and empower mar- risk transfer mechanisms and formal ginal communities through: donor partnerships,

- tackling underlying vulnerability/ - building on regional partnerships to poverty as detailed by the Vision 2030 share costs and expertise, and pool (especially important for slow-onset resources at the district level with the disasters), engagement of NGOs, private sector and Government special projects, if - mainstreaming risk and adaptation necessary through regulation, within the Government plans and budgets, - investing in institutional capacity building, collaborative projects and - using the development of a National networks (to increase awareness on Adaptation Platform as a tool to international funding) and strengthen mainstream climate change adaptation, links with development banks and initiate systematic development donor agencies, programmes and enhance national partnership with UN agencies, - the use of international funding opportunities e.g. from the GEF to fund - investing in ‘climate-proofing’ large-scale adaptation projects. development agenda and increasing awareness of DRR in projects, Capacity Building in Finance/Mitigation • assisting Kenya to improve its level of par- - investing in local adaptive capacity ticipation in the CDM, and e.g. invest in projects that protect livelihood assets like special water • supporting the identification of policy op- management projects in arid lands tions that enable the rural poor to engage which could facilitate cross - sectoral in climate change mitigation by building and multi-scale coordination, the foundation for pro-poor payment for markets. • promoting flexibility in approaches to dis- aster risk management through: Capacity Building in Technology transfer • supporting education, training, informa- - regularly updating risk plans and tion exchange, best practices and national information, strategy initiatives related to the develop- ment and applications of/access to state- - decentralising responsibilities and of-the-art climate friendly technologies, skills, • creation of regional networks of climate - ensuring community participation change focal points in governments to pro- e.g. through skills sharing forums/ mote exchange of experience and knowl- initiatives, and edge on technology transformation,

• creating financial mechanisms for disaster • training programmes and capacity building

76 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Vulnerability Assessment, Impact Monitoring and Capacity Building

in the use of the patent information sys- Mechanism under the Copenhagen Accord tems and practical mechanisms for tech- to prepare developing countries like Kenya nology transfer, and for REDD, e.g. to

• capacity building seminars/workshops in - train personnel in carbon markets; different regions to assist promote imple- offsets mechanisms; documentation mentation of new standards aiming at the (e.g. developing Project Idea Notes reduction of GHG emissions through radio (PINs) and Project Design Documents and ICT devices. (PDDs)); Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV); forest mapping, Capacity Building to enhance Reduced Emis- and participatory forest management, sions from Deforestation and Degradation and (REDD) programmes in Developing Coun- tries - help communities develop alternative • Capture opportunities offered by the livelihoods (i.e. there is always an UN-REDD Programme and Forest Carbon economic drive behind deforestation). Partnership Facility as well as the REDD Research, Technology Development, 7 Absorption and Diffusion

78 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Research, Technology Development, Absorption and Diffusion

7.0 Research, Technology Development, Absorption and Diffusion

7.1 Research and Development the growing human population. Thanks to the Research and development is important IPCC and other research organisations and not only in understanding the causes, individuals involved in climate change issues, manifestations and impacts of climate our knowledge is advancing rapidly. Through change, but also in responding to it. Indeed, research and economic analysis, the most research activities are explicitly encouraged cost-effective measures to mitigate climate by numerous international Conventions and change can be identified. Further, research is Agreements including the UNFCCC and the required in predicting climate-related changes Kyoto Protocol, which call on Parties to at local levels so that appropriate adaptation promote, and to cooperate in, scientific, measures can be taken. technological, technical, socioeconomic and other research, systematic observation and Kenya’s sectoral research needs on climate development of data archives. change include the following:

Research focusing on technological development 7.1.1 Agriculture, Livestock and Food plays an important role in preparing a low- Security carbon society of the future by improving As an important sector to the country’s existing climate-friendly technologies and economy and one of the sectors most developing new ones. Agricultural research on vulnerable to climate change, there is need to the other hand, facilitates the identification scale up research in agriculture in areas that of cost-effective ways of producing food for respond to climate change including:

Research produces improved local crop and livestock breeds with higher productivity and disease resistance. (Source: KARI, undated) National Climate Change Response Strategy

• strengthening biotechnological research • investing in research on the production in crop and livestock varieties that are chain and sustainability of biofuels par- resistant or tolerant to pests and diseases, ticularly biodiesel, drought, and have improved nutritional value, • promoting development of appropriate local capacity in the manufacture, instal- • undertaking countrywide assessments to lation, maintenance and operation of determine regional vulnerability of the basic renewable technologies such as bio- sector to climate change elements, digesters, solar water heating systems and hydro-turbines, • strengthening research in vaccines against priority livestock diseases and inoculants • promoting development, commercialisa- for improving soil nitrogen and phos- tion and widespread utilisation of renew- phorous in acid soils and enhancing soil able energy technologies, biological resources, • promoting research into efficient methods • promoting research that combines tra- of conversion of wood and agricultural ditional and modern methods of food waste (coffee husks, used tea leaves, etc) preservation, into commercially useful forms of energy, A Jatropha curcas plant from and whose seeds biodiesel can be • promoting sericulture and apiculture tech- extracted. Research studies to nologies, • promoting research on improved kilns and support the sustainability of ‘jikos’ for the production and use of char- biofuels, especially those fol- • strengthening research on good agricul- coal respectively that will reduce biomass lowing a life cycle approach tural practices, consumption while generating the same such as life cycle assessment amount of energy. (LCA), should be promoted. • integrating a long-term climate-risk Photo by Camco Kenya perspective into district planning and 7.1.3 Forestry investments, Forestry research areas that address climate change and which should be promoted include • strengthening research on better market- the following: ing strategies/identification of new market niches for livestock products, and • promoting cross-breeding to produce superior tree species, i.e., those that are: • validating indigenous knowledge (IK) with a view to disseminating it for integration - fast-maturing into conventional technologies. - heat and drought-tolerant, and - pest- and disease-resistant in order to 7.1.2 Energy enhance forest seed banks, and allow Kenya can and should undertake research the forestry industry to counter the in the following energy research areas that threat of climate change, together with the transfer from and absorption of the advanced and clean energy technologies • initiating research to generate information of developed, industrialised countries, will to support forest management and enable it avoid a high-emissions path: conservation e.g. by:

• investing in research and development in - monitoring regeneration and growth of renewable technologies such as cogenera- natural forests tion, geothermal, wind, solar, small hydro - developing and demonstrating methods and biomass, of natural forest rehabilitation

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- proper site-species matching, • assessing the risks of populations to climate change (including short and long- • developing technologies to rehabilitate term public health effects of e.g. extreme naturally degraded areas or those cleared weather events) using climate-disease for charcoal burning, prediction models, and identifying the most effective interventions, • developing technologies for domestication of indigenous species, • guiding health-promoting mitigation and adaptation decisions in other sectors, • developing research on management of in- • undertaking research to improve decision vasive species such as Prosopis julliflora, support in matters related to climate change impacts and health, • validation and integration of indigenous knowledge and technologies in woodlands • estimating the costs of protecting health management, from climate change,

• market research on wood species of high • support the use of Geographic Information A map showing an acute diar- market demand, Systems (GIS) to map the spatial distribution rhoea and cholera situation in of interacting risk factors and other critical Kenya following flash floods • developing on-farm efficient wood conver- data, and to communicate research results in 2009. With the projected sion technologies, effectively to policymakers, stakeholders climate change extremes like and the public, torrential rainfalls and floods • demonstrating alternative plantation which will result in frequent species including indigenous species, • promote research on socioeconomic water-borne diseases’ out- implications of climate change e.g. climate breaks, such disease surveil- • developing integrated strategies for the change-related migration leading to high lance and mapping will become management of new insect pests, population densities in urban centres and even more pertinent in identi- the likely spread of infectious diseases, fying disease patterns so that • promoting research programmes on indig- appropriate measures can be enous tree germination, growth rates and • promote more research on epidemiology, taken. Map provided by the flexible forest management regimes, laboratory science, infectious disease Ministry of Public Health and ecology of all diseases that are likely Sanitation during the NCCRS • evaluating the potential for remunerating to become more prevalent with climate development process. natural resource users for natural forests change, and conservation and restoration with funds from carbon markets (e.g. under a REDD+ • support Kenya Medical Research Institute scheme), and (KEMRI) to engage in innovative research to produce vaccines against diseases such as • determining the carbon sequestration malaria, cholera and others whose outbreaks capacity of various indigenous species by will intensify with climate change. age, ecology, spacing and the effects of climate variables. 7.1.5 Water Research on climate change-related water 7.1.4 Health challenges should span hydrological systems, In line with the recommendations of the drinking water, wastewater and storm-water report ‘Protecting Health from Climate Change: issues, and should involve: Global Research Priorities’ by the World Health >1000 cases Organization (2009), the following are some • intensified research on hydrologic cycle 501-1000 cases of the priority climate change-related health 1-500 cases predictions as these have a direct effect research areas that Kenya should undertake: on the spatial and temporal distribution of National Climate Change Response Strategy

rainfall and therefore the quantity of fresh resource managers, policy makers, water available for domestic, commercial and industrial use, • undertaking ecosystem-based monitoring of aquatic, marine ecosystems and fisher- • assessment of watersheds and water ies under the major current uses, includ- resource vulnerability due to hydrological ing full fisheries closures, gear-managed cycle changes, and open access management systems,

• assessment of water quality as it relates • evaluating current natural resource man- to source and receiving waters, storage, agement schemes and determine their ef- treatment, conveyance and demand, in fectiveness in adapting to the impacts of addition to research on adaptation and climate change and providing ecosystem management practices to protect and services, manage water quality, • investigating the adaptation strategies • assessment of the potential impacts of of communities dependent on fisheries climate change on water, waste-water and resources, storm-water infrastructure – including risk exposure of key infrastructural nodes • identifying policy processes and finance to weather extremes – and the impact mechanisms that will best enable small- of rising sea level on coastal water scale fisheries to implement adaptation infrastructure, and measures,

• assessing the use of cost effective • identifying changes in yield, distribu- and environmentally friendly water tions, and markets, including agriculture purification methods e.g. using locally and fisheries, available natural adsorbents to purify water in drought prone ASAL regions. • improving reporting standards and access to fisheries catch data to improve assess- 7.1.6 Fisheries ment of the impacts of climate change Enhancing the resilience of fisheries and on fisheries, aquaculture systems to climate change impacts will require research in the following areas: • identifying extinction-prone species, and

• supporting vulnerability assessments of • analysing of environmental consequences aquatic, coastal and marine ecosystems of shore protection and promotion of to determine resilient regions and species shore protection techniques. to be accorded conservation priority, 7.1.7 Wildlife and Rangelands • evaluating current land-ocean interac- Kenya’s rangelands and wildlife are already tions and the impact of their changes on being affected by climate change. With fisheries resources, projected future climate change expected to be worse, there is urgent need to initiate • assessing the socioeconomic impacts of research in the following priority areas to climate change on the livelihoods of fish- make our rangelands and wildlife resources ing and coastal communities, more resilient to climate change:

• assessing the level of awareness of • assessing current climate change threats climate change-related impacts among and risks to wildlife, and vulnerability different groups e.g. local communities, indicators:

82 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Research, Technology Development, Absorption and Diffusion

- analyse the current climate variability - make a projection of future changes in marginal rainfall areas, in the climate induced human dis- turbances in the wildlife areas under - identify rainfall homogenous areas, business as usual scenarios,

- identify and analyse climate risk fac- - make a projection of future trends in tors, human-wildlife conflicts,

- collect and analyse historical data on • identification of botanical composition climate induced impacts in the areas, of grazing animal diets; interaction of climate change and other environmental - collect and analyse data on climate factors on invasive plant species; iden- induced human disturbances in the tification, characterisation and transfer wildlife areas, of microbial endophytes into native plant materials to improve success of rangeland - assess the socioeconomic dynamics restoration, and and activities of the communities liv- ing in and around wildlife protected • creating a National Biological Inventory areas, and Monitoring Partnership that facili- tates a more strategic and cohesive use - assess the current human-wildlife of the conservation community’s moni- conflicts, toring resources, and generates empiri- cal data needed to track the impacts of - carry out sensitivity analysis, climate change on the distribution and abundance of wildlife. • assessing future climate variability and the vulnerability of species and ecosys- 7.2 Technology Transfer tems to projected climate change: In the context of climate change, technology transfer is defined as ‘a broad set of processes - use modelling to project future cli- covering the flows of know-how, experience mate change in the marginal rainfall and equipment for mitigating and adapting to areas and other game reserves, climate change amongst different stakeholders such as governments, private sector entities, - identify rainfall homogenous zones financial institutions, nongovernmental under the changed climate scenarios, organisations and research/education institutions.’47 - analyze future rainfall and tempera- ture characteristics of the homog- Technology transfer is one of the ‘building enous zones, blocks’ of the Bali Action Plan (BAP), which calls for enhanced action on technology - project future changes of the current development and transfer to support action vulnerability indicators, on mitigation and adaptation, including, inter alia, consideration of: - project future changes in the socio- economic dynamics in the surround- • effective mechanisms and enhanced ing communities, means for the removal of obstacles to,

47 IPCC (2000) Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer: A Special Report of the Working Group III of the IPCC-Summary for Policy Makers,p.4, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/spm/srtt-en.pdf National Climate Change Response Strategy

and provision of financial and other in- • accelerating North-South transfer of centives for, scaling up of the develop- technology through Foreign Direct In- ment and transfer of technology to devel- vestment (FDI) including taking advan- oping country Parties in order to promote tage of ‘free-patent’ technologies, access to affordable environmentally sound technologies, • development partner initiatives,

• ways to accelerate deployment, diffusion • establishment and capacity enhancement and transfer of affordable environmen- of local technological innovation cen- tally sound technologies, tres which will help strengthen institu- tional technology generation and transfer • cooperation on research and development through learning-by-doing approach, of current, new and innovative technol- ogy, including win-win solutions, and • technology transfer within a future cli- Even though environmentally mate change agreement framework, and sound technology is a key means • the effectiveness of mechanisms and to achieving a climate-resilient/ tools for technology cooperation in spe- • including climate change research and low carbon growth trajectory cific sectors. development in all budgets of Ministries as well as technology transfer with substantial allocations to institu- to developing countries being Even though environmentally sound tions of higher learning to strengthen a major component of the technology is a key means to achieving a research capacities. UNFCCC, achievements in the climate-resilient/low carbon growth trajectory area have been minimal. For as well as technology transfer to developing this reason, it is obvious that countries being a major component of the 7.2.1 Technology Transfer through the CDM technology development (in UNFCCC, achievements in the area have been or its Future Successor both developed and developing minimal. For this reason, it is obvious that The CDM does not have an explicit technology countries), transfer to and technology development (in both developed transfer mandate but it usually leads to such, diffusion in developing countries and developing countries), transfer to and i.e., to the transfer of clean technologies from to help them meet sustainable diffusion in developing countries to help them developed countries to developing countries. development needs should be meet sustainable development needs should If the technology to be used in a CDM project urgently accelerated. be urgently accelerated. is not available in the CDM host developing country, the technology must be imported. As required under the UNFCCC, Kenya undertook This is often from a developed country where in 2005 a technology needs assessment such technologies exist; hence, the project study that highlighted Kenya’s mitigation leads to a technology transfer. This technology technological needs and the barriers to may consist of ‘hardware’ elements such as technology transfer to Kenya. In view of this, machinery and equipment involved in the the following section highlights some of the production process, and/or ‘software’ elements channels through which technology transfer to including knowledge, skills and know-how. and within Kenya may be achieved including through: The CDM or its future successor therefore, presents great opportunities for developing • the Kyoto Protocol’s CDM or its future countries like Kenya to access advanced successor, climate-friendly technology that has so far only been developed and used in developed • the United Nations Industrial Develop- countries like the USA, France, Germany, ment Organization (UNIDO), Japan, and the UK. In the UNFCCC’s 2008 report on CDM, about 36% of 3,296 registered • accelerating South-South transfer of and proposed CDM projects involve technology technology, transfer according to claims made by project

84 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Research, Technology Development, Absorption and Diffusion

participants in their project design documents the past and ongoing mitigation programmes (PDDs). The report lists Kenya among of the KNPC include those in industrial energy developing countries whose rate of CDM management and CDM opportunities, as well technology transfer is significantly higher as waste minimisation with tandem methane than the average. reduction, among others.

Areas of opportunities for technology transfer 7.2.3 Accelerating North-South Technology under the CDM for Kenya include: Transfer Most climate-friendly technologies have so • bagasse-based cogeneration projects e.g. far been developed and used in developed the Mumias Sugar Company Cogeneration countries, from where they are expected to Project, transfer to developing countries through well-known channels including trade, foreign • landfill gas waste management, which is still an untapped CDM potential in Kenya, direct investment (FDI) and cross-border The CDM or its future successor technology licensing. In order to attract these presents great opportunities for • efficient hydroelectric power generating technologies, the Government needs to tackle developing countries like Kenya equipment to replace the old technology barriers that have and continue to hinder to access advanced climate- currently in use, FDI in the country. These include insufficient friendly technology that has so human capabilities, high transaction costs, far only been developed and • wind power generation, which has huge trade and policy barriers as well as institutional used in developed countries potential in northern parts of the coun- limitations such as weak intellectual property like the USA, France, Germany, try, protection laws and enforcement. Japan, and the UK. • geothermal power generation technolo- The FDI remains the major channel of gies, technology transfer to developing countries • energy efficiency technologies, like Kenya, and Kenya’s private sector can therefore play an important role. Indeed, the • technologies that remove industrial GHG world corporate sector, essentially the World such as perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocar- Business Council on Sustainable Development bons, etc, and (WBCSD), has realised the role it can play in helping developing countries grow sustainably. • innovative agricultural (land-use) tech- In 2008, the WBCSD formed the Eco-Patent nologies that reduce GHG emissions while Commons initiative to encourage the sharing delivering economic benefits to poor of patents that provide environmental communities, among others. benefit but do not represent an essential source of business advantage. This sharing 7.2.2 Technology Transfer through UNIDO of environmental patents ‘can promote The UN report Acting on Climate Change: the environmental sustainability including eco- UN System Delivering as One (2008) identified efficiency, enabling technology innovation to UNIDO as one of the UN bodies through meet social innovation’ (WBCSD, 2008). It is which coordination of the transfer of clean in such initiatives where the private sector in technology to the developing world can be Kenya needs to get involved to support the facilitated. UNIDO’s role as a host organisation transfer of advanced technologies of developed for the Cleaner Production (CP), which was countries to Kenya. created to foster environmentally sound production and consumption in developing 7.2.4 South-South Technology Transfer countries, also makes it a suitable channel for Technologies to support adaptation to climate transfer of technology. Kenya has an active change is an area that the international Cleaner Production centre, the Kenya National discourse on climate change technology Cleaner Production Centre (KNCPC). Some of transfer (CCTT) has not dealt with much. Despite National Climate Change Response Strategy

the fact that adaptation to climate change is cycling, re-use including as an energy a primary concern of Kenya, the Technology source), Needs and Needs Assessment – Kenya 2005 report did not capture technologies needed to • water resource protection and harvesting, adapt to climate change due to what it termed and as ‘insufficient resources.’ To bridge this technology gap, greater collaborations with • water purification systems. and learning from other developing countries is therefore essential. 7.2.5 Development Partners’ Initiatives To help developing countries meet their South-South technology transfer can be used sustainable development needs, certain to solve food insecurity and disease problems developed countries have established now exacerbated by climate change elements. funding facilities to facilitate the transfer of Moreover, according to the UNFCCC, 2006,48 their advanced technologies to low-income ‘crop and animal varieties are sensitive to local economies. A good example is the Nordic conditions and therefore much of the technology Climate Facility (NCF), which was created transfer in this area is expected to take place within the Nordic Development Fund (NDF) between regions with similar agro-climatic of the five Scandinavian countries – Norway, conditions.’ Essentially, this means that Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Iceland. The agricultural technology transfer is expected NCF finances projects that have a potential to flow between and among countries in the to combat climate change and reduce poverty South-South technology transfer southern part of the globe because of their in low-income countries such as Kenya. These was successfully tested as early ‘similarities’ in agro-climatic conditions. include energy efficiency, water resource as the 1960s during the Green management, solar technologies, etc. Revolution, when semi-dwarf South-South technology transfer was wheat varieties, originally successfully tested as early as the 1960s during 7.2.6 Establishment and Capacity developed in Mexico, were the Green Revolution, when semi-dwarf wheat Enhancement of Local Technological transferred to India, which varieties, originally developed in Mexico, were Innovation Centres also benefited from infusions transferred to India, which also benefited Kenya should establish and fund local of germplasm collected by the from infusions of germplasm collected by the technological centres that can be used to International Rice Research International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) develop, advance and disseminate local Institute (IRRI) from other parts from other parts of Asia (G.B.Chettri, 2003). technologies. Such centres can be used of Asia. Therefore, South-South and even North-South for educational purposes (e.g. train local technology transfer pathways can enable communities on early warning systems), and the transfer of the following adaptation to promote sustainable agricultural practices, technologies, among others to Kenya: enhance the growth of indigenous small and medium enterprises (SMEs). • agricultural technologies e.g. appropriate biotechnologies, bio-pesticides, and soil The core aim of technology transfer is to management techniques, help facilitate sustainable development in developing countries, and this can only be • cost effective early warning systems, achieved by developing indigenous innovation capabilities in developing countries, i.e. the • low-end energy systems including afford- capabilities to adapt, develop, deploy and able solar lighting systems, operate clean technologies effectively within specific developing country contexts. Further, • waste management technologies (re- empirical evidence suggests that incremental

48 UNFCCC, 2006. Technologies for adaptation to climate change, http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/ tech_for_adaptation_06.pdf

86 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Research, Technology Development, Absorption and Diffusion

and adaptive innovation processes within • establishing linkages between the private developing countries facilitate the diffusion sector (production centres) and local re- and development of technologies.49 This search and academic institutions to devel- requires sufficient innovation capabilities op and commercialise local technologies amongst developing country firms, universities and innovations. and research institutes, and appropriate links with public sector actors including production 7.2.7 Technology Transfer within a Future sectors.50 Agreement Framework It appears that a consensus is emerging This sufficient innovation capability amongst on several elements of a future deal on a developing countries could be realised technology framework. Notably, Parties to through: the UNFCCC seem likely to agree on the establishment of a technology body in the • providing an opportunity for competent future climate change agreement, although personnel to train others on new technolo- the structure, mandate, name and funding gies, and encouraging local and regional of the proposed mechanism remain unclear. institutional partnerships in technology The creation of a technology body has been development and transfer. Local academic supported in particular by developing countries, and research institutions are already un- specifically the G77 and China group, which dertaking this. However, their capacity proposed the establishment of a technology should be enhanced, mechanism, comprising an Executive Body and a Multilateral Climate Technology Fund (MCTF), • ensuring and encouraging equal represen- both subsidiary to the COP. tation of men and women in technology development, training and transfer, Non-Governmental Organisations have also supported the establishment of new • providing incentives to local innovators institutions, with some proposing a mechanism e.g. awards for best technologies, dealing specifically with technology and others proposing a general mechanism for mitigation, • establishing forums for students’ partici- adaptation, technology related measures and pation in technological development e.g. funding.51 The recent creation of a ‘Technology through professional student bodies such Mechanism’ within the Copenhagen Accord, as Engineering Students’ Associations, which is yet to be adopted, gives the strongest Physics Students’ Associations etc. These indication ever that such a mechanism will institutions should be holding forums one day exist. Kenya should place itself where the best science and engineering in- strategically - in terms of building the novators are awarded, with the corporate necessary capacities and identifying priority sector playing a sponsorship role, and areas in which it can benefit from technology transfer through such a mechanism.

49 Ockwell David and others (2009): Fulfilling the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Bali Action Plan: Maximising the impact of low carbon technology transfer. University of Sussex 50 Juma C. (2006): Re-inventing African Economies-Technological Innovation and the Sustainability Transition. The John Pesek Colloquium on Sustainable Agriculture 51 Christiane Gerstetter and Dominic Marcellion. The Current Proposals on the Transfer of Climate Technology in the International Climate Negotiations. Ecologic Institute, Washington D.C., November 2009 8 Climate Change Governance

88 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Climate Change Governance

8.0 Climate Change Governance

Climate change governance in this context 8.2 Appropriate Legal Framework is interpreted to refer to climate change policy, legal framework and institutional/ A legal framework is the foundation for an organisational framework. effective policy. Being a purposeful statement by a government expressing its recognition of a problem and stating its commitment to 8.1 Climate Change Policy address a problem through specified actions, Kenya’s need to develop a suitable climate one of the key functions of policy is to advise change response strategy including a suitable and direct the government and the governed climate change governance framework on necessary actions to address identified should stem from both the realities of the problems. However, given that policy is not negative impacts of climate change and from binding, there would be no legal consequence obligations placed upon it by the UNFCCC and on a government or a people for failing to Kyoto Protocol. It should be Kenya’s position implement their policy. Thus, every policy that any climate change action taken is not should be translated into law for effective just to meet its international obligations, but implementation but a law has other functions more importantly to address climate change that ought to be well understood. problems that have already been recognised to affect it and its people. These key points inform the need for an appropriate climate change legal framework in Kenya has a number of environment-related Kenya: policies governing various environmental sectors including the Wildlife Policy (Sessional • law provides legitimacy for actions Paper No. 3 of 1975) and Food Policy (Sessional (programmes and activities) to address Paper No. 3 of 1993), but these hardly the problem(s) whose resolution may recognise climate change as a serious threat otherwise be unacceptable, and problem. The closest Kenya ever came to developing a comprehensive environmental • law sets goals that a society desires policy was with the drafting of Sessional to accomplish in light of a recognised Paper No. 6 of 1999 on Environment and problem, Development. However, this policy paper does not adequately recognise climate change, and • law is the only acceptable tool in regulating adaptation and mitigation are not addressed. human behaviour and conduct, and The only policy that has attempted to address climate change to some extent is the draft • law has official sanctions and can ensure National Environmental Policy of 2008. compliance.

• A comprehensive policy on climate change Currently, there are a number of sectoral should therefore be formulated in line with laws – including the new Forests Act (2005), the UNFCCC’s requirement of Parties. Such Agriculture Act (Cap 318 of Kenyan Laws) a policy coupled with a related legislation – which address various aspects of climate proposed in section 8.2 below would change, even though climate change is not support implementation of the NCCRS the focus of the laws. Provisions of such laws comprehensively and effectively. ought to be carefully analysed and reviewed to determine which ones may be strengthened National Climate Change Response Strategy

to facilitate climate change mitigation and vironment Management Authority (NEMA) adaptation in related sectors. In addition, should take the lead as Section 124 of there is a comprehensive environmental the EMCA 1999 obligates NEMA to initiate law – the Environmental Management and legislative proposals for the purpose of Coordination Act (EMCA, 1999) – which has giving domestic effects to international relevant provisions for mitigation against agreements to which Kenya is a Party. climate change. These include provisions for the Although the making of a new legislation establishment of air quality standards together may be time-consuming and expensive, it with emissions requirements (Part VIII), may, given the current circumstances in environmental impact assessment requirements Kenya, be the better option. (Part VI), environmental restoration orders and environmental conservation orders (Part IX). 8.3 Institutions Governing However, EMCA, 1999 does not effectively Climate Change address several climate change issues Between 2008 and 2009, the Ministry of including: Environment and Mineral Resources (MEMR) established its Directorate of Environment • development of national inventories of (DOE) headed by an Environment Secretary. anthropogenic emissions of GHG in Kenya The DOE has 3 directorates covering: by source and removal of GHG by sinks, • Policy Formulation, Interpretation and Im- • national framework for carbon finance, plementation,

• development of national and regional • Programmes, Projects and Strategic Initia- programmes to mitigate climate change tives, and by addressing anthropogenic emissions by source, • Multilateral Agreements.

• promotion of education, training and Within the DOE, MEMR also established in awareness on climate change; appropri- 2009 its National Climate Change Coordinating ate technology transfer arrangements and Office. This office now acts as the Secretariat their authorisation, and for the National Climate Change Activities Coordinating Committee (NCCACC) established • access to environmentally-sound tech- in 1992 as a requirement under the UNFCCC. nologies. Membership of the NCCACC is drawn from line ministries, academia and research institutions, For this reason, there ought to be a law that Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) as well provides legitimacy for all climate change as the private sector. activities including necessary actions intended to mitigate against climate change such as Further, under the oversight of MEMR, provisions authorising carbon trading. The way the National Environment Management to arrive at this law could be through: Authority (NEMA) hosts the country’s Designated National Authority (DNA), which is responsible • strengthening existing EMCA provisions to for approving the CDM projects under the Kyoto adequately provide for climate change ad- Protocol. aptation and mitigation measures agreed in the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol, and/or In the context of the UNFCCC, the Ministry is the focal policy making entity responsible for • developing a new legislation on climate international negotiations while NEMA, as has change, in which case, the National En- been mentioned, hosts the country’s DNA.

90 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Climate Change Governance

Still under the oversight of MEMR, the Kenya • the Government’s obligations towards Meteorological Department (KMD) is mandated meeting GHG emissions reductions as to provide meteorological and climatological well as adaptation and other mitigation services to the country for the benefit of all measures – Article 4 and 12 of UNFCCC and sectors and the public in general. Climate Kyoto Protocol, research and monitoring are also some of what the relevant national laws (in this KMD’s responsibilities. • case EMCA 1999) says about such an institution, In addition, there is a Climate Change Coordination Unit (CCCU) at the Office of • institutions that already conduct climate the Prime Minister, whose aim is to provide change activities and what they do, and high-level political support to climate change activities in Kenya. • plausible effective options.

Confounding the situation further is the need It is important that the package of activities for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to infuse needed to combat climate change be anchored international environment diplomacy on within a policy and legal framework (as described climate change and other similar Multilateral in Sections 8.1 and 8.2 above) that enables Environment Agreements. The inter-weaving Kenya to meet its long-term development goals of diplomacy, policy, politics and practice while fulfilling its global obligations towards is particularly challenging in the case of a combating this problem. A dedicated climate cross –cutting issue like climate change. This change institution is important as it establishes confounding situation is not peculiar to Kenya. a coordination instrument which ensures that Most African countries are yet to streamline all cross-sectoral activities match the overall climate change governance,52 a factor that vision of the NCCRS – a prosperous and climate has contributed to weak engagements in change resilient Kenya. Emphasis should be international negotiations on climate change laid on low carbon development strategies. and country-level effectiveness of climate change programmes and projects. In view of this, it is proposed that:

Because of its diffuse nature, the existing • a dedicated and adequately resourced 53 institutional arrangement has not supported Climate Change Secretariat be a coordinated approach to combating climate established within the Ministry of change. This therefore calls for a focused and Environment and Mineral Resources, with functional climate change governance system – several offices and divisions as shown in guided by appropriate policies and legislation figure 5 on the next page, arrangements – that will among other things, • a National Climate Change Steering facilitate the implementation of this Strategy. Committee (NCCSC) be established by MEMR to help it gather and collate input 8.3.1 Proposed Climate Change Governance and advice from key climate change Structure stakeholders for its use in the coordination In determining an appropriate institution, of Kenya’s climate change activities, and there ought to be careful consideration of: • the NCCACC will continue to serve in its current advisory capacity.

52 Kaudia A. A (2010). Governance And Institutional Arrangements For Climate Change Mitigation. A Discussion Paper Presented to Regional Course Participants. Kenya Forestry Research Institute. March, 2010 53 For more information on other plausible options, refer to the institutional paper developed as part of this Strategy National Climate Change Response Strategy

Figure 4: The Proposed Climate Change Governance Structure

Figure 5: The Proposed Climate Change Governance Structure MEMR

NEM A Secretariat at MEMR

Policy, Law & Strategy Programmes Office

Emissions REDD, Communications, Research, Land- Adapta tion Trading, Education and Early Warning Monitoring & CDM and Use and Programmes Awareness and Disaster Evaluation Technology Land- Division Division Management Division Transfer Use Division Division: Change

the DNA Division

Key Players: Key Players: Key Players: Key Players: Key Players: Key Players: Government, Government, KMD, Interdepartme Investment Government, Local Universities, National Lands ntal committee Promotion KFS, KARI, Authorities, NEMA, Media Information of experts on Centre, NEMA, KEFRI, NEMA, Universities, Training Management M&E, External Government, ICRAF, ICIPE, Private Sector, Institutions, Systems, CC M&E experts, Local local & int’l Civil Society/ Civil Society/ Expert Group, Internal Authorities, NGOs & NGOs NGOs, Local & KSFS, KWS, Auditors, KIRDI, KIPI, Development Development KASALs, FAO External KEBS, KNPC, partners Partners & other local & Auditors, NGOs, local & int’l orgs. & Office of the foreign experts devt. partners PM & development partners

92 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

Climate Change Governance

The Climate Change Secretariat to be • a Designated National Authority (DNA), established at MEMR will provide secretarial responsible for carbon emissions/CDM functions for the two committees (NCCACC and trading and technology transfer under the NCCSC). The IPCC focal point based in KMD Kyoto Protocol or its future successor, will augment the NCCACC and strengthen its scientific advisory capacity. • a REDD and Land-Use Division,

8.3.2 Functions of Various Offices and • an Adaptation Programmes Division, Divisions • a Communications, Education and Public 8.3.2.1 Climate Change Secretariat at the MEMR Awareness Division, This shall be constituted by the MEMR and shall have officers – co-opted from within and outside the public sector – with expertise in climate • a Research, Early Warning and Disaster change matters and can therefore add value to Management Division, and the coordination of the implementation of this Strategy and other climate change activities. • a Monitoring & Evaluations (M&E) Division. The Permanent Secretary in the MEMR shall determine the composition and specific structure This office shall coordinate the functions and of this secretariat, which shall receive and activities of various Programme divisions to collate inputs from the players and stakeholders ensure that all of them work towards achieving involved in the implementation of this Strategy the overall aim of reducing the country’s GHG and ensure that activities implemented by other emissions, and will take responsibility for ministries are undertaken in a timely manner administrative matters of the programmes in and conform to this Strategy’s implementation collaboration with the Programmes divisions. In plan. addition, it should also be the office to develop appropriate climate change mainstreaming 8.3.2.1.1 Policy, Law and Strategy Office strategies and action plans for all key sectors, This office of the Secretariat shall comprise and ensures mainstreaming of climate change key government agencies with policy- and law- adaptation and mitigation measures in ongoing related functions including the Office of the and future activities of all key sectors. Attorney General and key NGOs. It shall, in conjunction with NEMA, initiate all necessary Functions of the proposed divisions of the policy, legal, strategy and planning processes, Programmes Office include the following: and promote and cooperate on legal information on matters related to climate change. This a) Emissions Trading, CDM and Technology office shall also play a key role in international Transfer Division: the DNA climate change negotiations, as well as work This will be the national focal point with other government agencies to phase out (Secretariat’s division) responsible for CDM subsidies that contravene the objectives of the projects, i.e. it will be the DNA. Core functions UNFCCC. of this division shall be to:

8.3.2.1.2 Programmes Office • develop a practical CDM implementation This office shall serve as the central strategy including human and technical administrative office for all climate change requirements, programmes, with focal points (representatives) in each programme division. In addition, it • establish national infrastructure to enable shall serve as the liaison office between the investments in CDM and other emissions programme divisions and the Secretariat. Its reduction projects in the country including divisions or departments shall be: voluntary carbon markets, National Climate Change Response Strategy

• undertake technology needs assessment in approved CDM and other emissions reduc- the country and develop mechanisms for tion projects, and the transfer of environmentally-friendly technologies in strategic areas, • strictly monitor, account for and report to the M&E division on CDM activities, their • facilitate the creation of enabling environ- success and challenges. ments for CDM and technology transfer by e.g. increasing the cost-effectiveness of In addition, this division shall oversee an in- emissions reduction measures and duly clar- ventory of GHG emissions in Kenya by source ifying the ownership of emission reductions and location through: generated by CDM projects, • measuring anthropogenic GHG emissions by • collaborate with local and external partners source, location and quantity, to implement collaborative activities aimed at increasing the use of mechanisms and • developing a national inventory of GHG devices that emit less GHG, emissions, • establishing inventories of forests and other record and report progress in carbon invest- • ecosystems that absorb GHG, and ment and emissions reductions mechanisms through CDM, • providing periodic emissions reports to the M&E office on GHG emissions, status of • regularly communicate effectively with carbon sinks and emissions trading. potential project developers, development partners, investors and decision makers b) REDD, Land-Use and Land-Use Change within the Government, Division This division will be in charge of all activities • establish a fund for CDM, related to REDD, REDD+, Land Use and Land Use Change, and will: • undertake CDM project development, ap- proval and management, • develop monitoring, reporting and verifi- cation (MRV) institutional arrangements • promote renewable energy mechanisms in- – clear credible national forest monitoring cluding energy efficiency, baselines and guidelines,

• confer with UNFCCC’s Expert Group on Tech- • offer options to fill the historical data gaps nology Transfer, on forest cover,

• document current and ongoing CDM and • address the risk of non-permanence and other emissions reduction projects to be leakage as a necessary condition for any brought under the programme, Parties or entities to participate in a REDD mechanism and activities, • coordinate and supervise ongoing CDM and other emissions reduction activities to en- • facilitate fundraising for financial support, sure that they are in line with and contrib- technology transfer and provisions for ca- ute towards meeting the county’s environ- pacity building, and ment and sustainable development goals as well as Vision 2030, • recommend joint action involving both the public and private sectors in order to mo- • establish and maintain a project database bilise the necessary finance and accelerate and keep track of emerging, proposed and REDD actions.

94 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Climate Change Governance

c) Communications, Education and climate change in various key sectors in Awareness Division consultation with line ministries and other In order to increase climate change awareness stakeholders, in Kenya, a climate change Communications, Education and Awareness division shall be • develop procedures for evaluating and created within the Programmes Office with the approving climate change adaptation following functions: projects related to land use and land use change, • set communication goals including com- munity empowerment on mitigation and • activities including flood control, adaptation measures, • formulate, implement and promote • develop and implement a programme for programmes for reduction of GHG emissions communication of information on climate including conservation of forests, change, with plans and appropriate proce- dures for communication, • promote sustainable forms of agriculture, and • develop tools for effective outreach, training and capacity building on climate • periodically report on national measures to change, promote climate change adaptation to the Secretariat. • collaborate with learning and training institutions and civil society organisations e) Research, Early Warning and Disaster to disseminate climate change informa- Management Division tion, This division shall work in collaboration with other scientific agencies including the KMD. It • simplify climate change terminology for will be responsible for all matters concerning ease of communication and local under- climate change science and research. It shall: standing, • undertake climate and weather research • collaborate with media houses to dissemi- include climate modelling, nate information on climate change, and • assess climate change threats and risks at • promote and cooperate in education, national and local levels, training and public awareness on climate change matters, encouraging the widest • identify vulnerable communities and participation in this process. groups in order to propose specific sectoral adaptation or cross-sectoral adaptation d) Adaptation Programmes Division measures, Since adaptation is a priority concern of developing countries including Kenya, this • develop concrete plans for systematic division shall equally be of paramount research on climate change and related importance not only to the Programmes phenomena, Office but also to the country as a whole. Its functions shall include: • develop infrastructure for and disseminate scientific information, • identify priority adaptation measures, • develop effective early warning systems • develop and support implementation and issue warnings on likely disasters of plans and projects for adaptation to related to climate change, National Climate Change Response Strategy

• develop and promote implementation of • strictly monitor the implementation of all disaster management programmes, climate change activities in collaboration with the respective offices and the Secre- • publish research results and disseminate tariat, widely, • in collaboration with experts, evaluate • work closely with the Intergovernmental each programme activity at inception and Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and United completion to provide balanced decisions Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and views on success, failures (if any) and opportunities for improvement, • promote scientific and technical coopera- tion on matters related to climate systems • assess and review the viability, methodol- and climate change, and ogy and outcomes of all climate change programmes, • advise the Climate Change Secretariat, through the Programme Office, the Govern- • support the development of relevant poli- ment and the public on matters of science, cies, laws, rules, regulations and standards technology and methodology in relation to in relation to climate change activities, climate change. and

f) Monitoring and Evaluation Division • present periodic reports on the activities This division shall work closely with special- to the respective programme divisions ists, officers implementing programmes, and within the Programmes Office and to the the Secretariat in all of its functions. Its re- Secretariat. sponsibilities shall be to:

96 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

Action Plan, Implementation Framework 9 and Resource Mobilization Plan

98 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Action Plan, Implementation Framework and Resource Mobilization Plan

9.0 Action Plan and Resource Mobilisation Plan

9.1 Action Plan and Costs timeframe, and estimated cost. The estimates were generated by Ministries as part of climate From Chapters 4 to 8, the Strategy has change project concepts they submitted to the outlined sectoral adaptation and mitigation Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources interventions, communication and awareness (MEMR) during preparation of this Strategy. programmes, capacity building, research and The main Action Plan detailing projects and development, and climate change governance. programmes’ implementers, activity costs, and The summarised action plan presented in implementation timeframe is provided in the Table 3 outlines specific activities, their Annex.

Table 3: Annual Budget for Sub- sector/Ministry Annual Cost. Ksh. Billion Climate Change Projects and Programmes (2009 estimates) Productive Sector 76.96 Agriculture 10.60 Tourism 0.04 Marine & Fisheries Resources 2.52 Forestry and Wildlife 32.26 Environment & Mineral Resources 7.39 Cooperative Development and Marketing 0.15 Regional Development Authorities 24.00 Physical Infrastructure & Service Industry 111.52 Energy Sector 73.71 Water & Irrigation 5.96 Roads (maintenance) 20.00 Transport Sector (devt. of BRT and LRT) 11.85 Manpower 37.45 Youth Affairs and Sports 2.75 Gender, Children & Social Development 2.70 Special Programmes (Famine and DRR) 32.00 Education 7.90 Health (Public) 1.30 ICT 0.70 Grand Total (Approx) 235.83 National Climate Change Response Strategy

9.2 Resource Mobilisation Plan is required to set aside 5% as an emergency reserve. Approximately 2% of the funds are The purpose of the Resource Mobilisation ear-marked for constituency-level environment Plan is to ensure proposed programmes and activities. projects are fully implemented. The Plan targets domestic resources from both local Combating climate change as depicted by the and national government as well as from the indicative costs in the Action Plan mentioned private sector. In addition to international above is a high-investment undertaking, hence funding agencies such as the World Bank the need to include these two sources – LATF and International Monetary Fund (IMF), and CDF – in order to have great impact at the Mobilisation Plan also covers external local level especially in dealing with climate- resources from development partners and related emergencies. regional funding agencies such as multilateral development banks e.g. the African 9.2.2 National Adaptation Facility (NAF) Development Bank (AfDB). The Plan covers National planning on climate change a duration of 20 years, coinciding with the adaptation has been located in two exercises country’s Vision 2030 and the initial five years under the UNFCCC in developing countries – coinciding with the Millennium Development National Communications (NCs) and National Goals (MDG) fulfilment. Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) for Least Developed Countries. Other exercises to 9.2.1 Devolved Domestic Funds build capacity, such as through assessments There are two types of devolved funds in Kenya have produced a wealth of information to that can benefit climate change response support adaptation planning. programmes. These are the Local Authority Transfer Fund (LATF) and the Constituency Prior to establishing a significant funding Development Fund (CDF). LATF comprises 5% source for climate change adaptation and of the national income tax collected annually mitigation (e.g. from the recently created and is estimated to constitute about 24% ‘Finance Mechanism’ under the Copenhagen of local authority revenues. At least 7% of Accord) there is a need for national the total fund is shared equally among the governments to establish a coordinated country’s local authorities. Approximately strategy and operational capacity for accessing 60% of the Fund is disbursed according to the this Fund. For mitigation (specifically CDM), a relative population size of the local authorities Designated National Agency is required, and while the remainder is shared out based on the guidelines are available on what is expected. relative urban population densities. The LATF This is not the same for adaptation. monies are combined with local authority revenues to implement local development Adaptation is more closely aligned to priorities. development baselines and is operationally spread across many actors on all levels and The CDF on the other hand was established to linked to global climate policy through more correct imbalances in regional development in channels than just the UNFCCC. Guidelines the country. It targets all constituency-level for mainstreaming adaptation were initially development projects, particularly those aimed developed by the UNDP in the Adaptation at combating poverty at the grassroots. The Policy Framework and more recently by OECD Fund comprises an annual budgetary allocation and several NGOs (see weADAPT.org for an equivalent to 2.5% of the Government’s inventory and comparison of adaptation ordinary revenue. 75% of the Fund is allocated guidelines). It is worth noting that these equally amongst all 210 constituencies while guidelines, however insightful, are simply the remaining 25% is allocated according to voluntary. constituency poverty levels. Each constituency

100 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Action Plan, Implementation Framework and Resource Mobilization Plan

Currently, discussions in the Adaptation Fund The mobilisation of knowledge is required Board include the nature of entities that over the medium term with the consideration would qualify for funding, the role of national of questions including: What will you want coordination, and capabilities required for to know in five or ten years time in order monitoring, reporting and verification. Even to plan effective action? What level of though the form of a national adaptation institutional competence exists now? What strategic and implementing entity has not yet level is achievable within the next five years? been elaborated in the UNFCCC, an entity such It is also important to define institutional as a National Adaptation Facility (NAF) will competence in measurable terms such as be necessary in future. A National Adaptation organisational mandate, staffing, resource Facility or Authority should therefore be budgets, information systems, pilot actions, established to enable mobilisation and even sectoral leadership and local champions. consolidation of resources from multiple Effective monitoring and evaluation will test sources. In developing such a capacity, there the achievements of interventions undertaken are many options that must be based on the to reduce future climate impacts, and public unique structures of national government and accountability will be essential. civil society. The term “authority” is open in that where a cross-sectoral, multi-stakeholder A multi-stakeholder financial facility for capacity is required it might involve a mobilising early actions on adaptation and single ‘authority’ or ‘agency’ or a multi-party learning may be a desirable feature of the structure with operational capacity that might National Adaptation Facility. Such a pilot be termed ‘facility,’ ‘hub’ or ‘partnership.’ It fund would not supplant the larger stream of will also require consultative and governing funding from national budgets or international structures (i.e. advisory committee, council, projects. The governance of the facility board, governing body) and funding will be will need to consider effective decision- vital to its success. A pilot fund54 is suggested making for rapid responses, accountability for gearing up a broad effort, preparing sound and representation of multiple stakeholders, project proposals and mobilising stakeholder transparency in allocating funds as well as engagement. effective reporting to enable an analysis of what works. The NAF should be anchored on a national policy and legal framework that sets out the key aims 9.3 Monitoring and Evaluation and processes with the policy framework then translated into sectoral objectives, targets and Monitoring and evaluation activities will play performance indicators. While all sectors and an important role in ensuring an effective regions will be exposed to climate change, implementation of the project activities early action should be focused with the identified in the NCCRS. These functions will Strategy recognising regional requirements and be performed by the Monitoring and Evaluation the urgent needs of vulnerable socioeconomic division of the Programmes Office as explained groups. in Chapter 8.

54 The choice of the denotation ‘pilot fund’ is deliberate, as ‘facility’ and ‘trust fund’ imply a much larger capacity 10 Recommendations and Conclusions

It is undeniable that climate change is Activities identified in the Action Plan currently affecting Kenya. Droughts and floods require substantial additional and adequate have become frequent and intense and the financial resources for their implementation, country has also seen an increase in average and funding is therefore required from both temperatures, hotter days, colder nights, internal and external sources. Given the successive crop failures and the spread of vector- importance of adaptation, it is recommended borne diseases such as malaria to places where that the Kenyan Government create a multi- the disease is not known to be endemic. These stakeholder National Adaptation Facility climatic changes affect resources critical to the (NAF) for mobilising resources for adaptation health and prosperity of Kenya. For example, activities. the 1999/2000 La Niña droughts resulted in 4.7 million Kenyans facing starvation, while All stakeholders should mainstream climate- according to unofficial reports, the effects of proofing and climate change responsive the 2006-2009 successive drought episodes activities in their programmes and projects. caused 10 million people - over a fourth of the In achieving this, most line ministries country's population - to starve. particularly those offering development and infrastructural services have developed climate As global GHG emissions are continuing change response programmes and projects, unabated, climate change impacts are likely to which form and are included in the Action Plan intensify an already precarious situation into the of this Strategy. future. If no action is taken to reduce or minimise expected impacts from climate change, the costs While Kenya stands to benefit immensely to society and the economy will be immense. from the advanced technology of developed The Strategy therefore identifies the sectors that countries, efforts should be made to support are most vulnerable to climate change impacts local technology generation and application and proposes interventions to reduce or mitigate through institutional capacity building these impacts, while promoting a low-carbon programmes. Consequently new and additional economy and climate change-resilient production resources are needed to support Kenya’s systems. In addition, the Strategy proposes the research, development as well as strengthen establishment of a dedicated climate change academic institutions secretariat that will oversee its implementation.

102 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

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World Conservation Society (2008): “The Dead- 3. NCCRS Institutional Paper ly Dozen”: Wildlife-Human Disease Threats in (November 2009) the Age of Climate Change 4. NCCRS Consultation Report (January 2010) World Health Organization (2009): Protecting health from climate change-Global research 5. NCCRS Final Consultancy Report priorities (February 2010)

World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism 6. The Consultative Process to Arriving at a (2006 - 2008). Policy Briefs No’s 1 – 9. GEF, Participatory Report (November 2009) UNDP and IUCN 7. Thematic Papers on World Watch Institute (2009). State of the World into a Warming World. Cap 3: Farming a. Agriculture (October 2009) and Land Use to Cool the Planet. b. Rangelands (July 2009) www.worldwatch.org c. Coastal and Marine Ecosystems (October 2009) Yanda P., Wandiga S., Kalangawe R., Opondo M., Olago D., Githeko A., Downs T., Kabumbuli d. Fresh Water Resources (August 2009) R., Opere A., Githui F., Kathuri J., Olaka L., e. Lake Victoria and Lake Turkana Ecosys- Apindi E., Marshall M., Ogallo L., Mugambi P., tems (November, 2009) Kirumira E., Nanyunja R., Baguma T., Sigalla R. f. Forestry (October, 2009) and Achola P. Adaptation to climate change/ variability highland malaria and cholera in the 8. Stakeholders Analysis Report (June 2009) Lake Victoria region. AIACC Working Paper No. 43, October 2006 9. Line-ministries concept papers: from En- ergy, Environment and Mineral Resources, Online resources accessed Forestry, Transport, Water, Agriculture, IPCC: www.ipcc.ch Fisheries, Tourism, Cooperatives KARI: www.kari.org KEFRI: www.kefri.org KIRDI: www.kirdi.go.ke KMFRI: www.kmfri.co.ke Pew Centre: www.pewclimate.org World GHG Emissions: 1990, 2000, 2003 http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/climate-atmos- phere/variable-666.html World Bank Population Data: http://www. google.com/publicdata?ds=wb-wdi&met=sp_ pop_totl&idim=country:KEN&dl=en&hl=en&q=k enya’s+population+graph Annexes

10.1 Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Health Public Construction of more health facilities in- Min. of Public Health and 20 years 0.22 Health cluding setting up 40 nomadic clinics Sanitation, Min. of Medical Services, Bilateral partners, Private sector

Strengthening disease surveillance sup- KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.14 port systems and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- cal Services, Bilateral part- ners, Private sector

Establishing clear linkages and instrumen- KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.05 tation required for efficient dissemina- and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- tion up to District level cal Services, Bilateral part- ners, Private sector

Strengthening Health Systems Governance KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.43 through employing additional employment, and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- implementation of policies and guidelines; cal Services, Bilateral part- and improving logistics and supply systems ners, Private sector

Strengthening Public Health Education KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.43 and Health Promotion programmes (social and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- access) to reduce vulnerability cal Services, Bilateral part- ners, Private sector

Improving access to water and Sanita- KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.25 tion, e.g. through the demonstration of and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- ECO-SANITATION Technologies, protecting cal Services, Bilateral part- wells and springs, encouraging rain water ners, Private sector harvesting, and promotion of proper stor- age of domestic water

Addressing childhood malnutrition through KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.03 enhanced feeding programmes, microte- and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- aching during clinical visits and purchase cal Services, Bilateral part- & supply of pediatric mixes, Vitamin A and ners, Private sector other Vitamins supplements

108 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Prevention of immunizable diseases KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.08 through enhanced awareness campaigns and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- focusing on households, mothers and chil- cal Services, Bilateral part- dren; procuring vaccines and procurement ners, Private sector of additional cold-chain storage facilities

Capacity building of Public Health person- KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.01 nel through training technical staff and Sanitation, Min. of Medi- cal Services, Bilateral part- ners, Private sector

Strengthening Research and other medical KEMRI, Min. of Public Health 20 years 0.03 Laboratory Capacity through investing in and Sanitation, Min. of Medical level 2 and 3 facilities, training in instru- Services, development part- mentation, and construction of additional ners, Private sector, research laboratories and academic institutions

Sub-total 1.3

Productive Agriculture Increasing the acreage under irrigated MOA, Private Sector, Develop- 20 years 5.2 agriculture ment Partners

Investing in water harvesting programme, MOA, Private sector, NGOs, 20 years 2 e.g. construction of water pans development partners

Provision of farm inputs such as fertiliz- MOA, private sector, NGOs, 20 years ers and environmental-friendly pesticides, development partners, Min. 0.8 e.g. through Govt. subsidies of Finance

Promotion of conservation agriculture- MOA, Private Sector, Develop- 20 years 0.82 Agroforestry, Soil and water conservation ment Partners, NGOs

Financial and technical support to the Or- MOA, Private Sector, Develop- 20 years 0.5 phan Crops Programme ment Partners

Enhanced agricultural research, including MOA, KARI (CGIAR) and Aca- 20 year 1.28 international collaborations demic & Research Institutions

Sub-total 10.6

Marine and Assessment of marine and inland water Dept. of Remote Sensing, 20 years 1.14 Fisheries resources Min. of Fisheries, KMFRI Resources Evaluation of current land ocean interac- KMFRI, Academic & Research 20 years 0.381 tions and their impact of their changes on Institutions, Min. of Fisher- fisheries resources ies, Dpt. of Remote Sensing National Climate Change Response Strategy

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Assessment of socio-economic impacts of KMFRI, KIPRA and other re- 20 years 0.026 climate change on livelihoods of riparian search institutions communities

Capacity building in climate change mon- Min. of Fisheries, KMFRI, Dept. 20 years 0.035 itoring and oceanographic studies of Remote Sensing, Academic & Research Institutions

Developing mitigation measures against Min. of Fisheries, KMFRI, 20 years 0.035 resource decline, e.g. through Devt. Partners • enactment of necessary laws • strengthening monitoring and surveying systems • upscaling sustainable aquaculture activi- ties in fresh, brackish and marine water systems to ensure food security

Mitigation against loss of biodiversity KMFRI, Min. of Fisheries, For- 20 years 0.35 through restoration of degraded ecosys- estry, Devt. Partners tems e.g. mangrove restoration, planting of vegetation to prevent riverine and lake- shore erosion

Enhancing adaptive capability of ripar- Min. of Fisheries, KMFRI, Min. 20 years 0.0735 ian communities e.g. through creation of of Special Programmes, Min of alternative sources of livelihoods such as Finance, MOA bee-keeping, aquaculture, etc

Reducing the sector’s carbon emissions Min. of Fisheries KMFRI, 20 years 0.13 through promotion of solar lamps for “da- MEMR, Private Sector, Devt. gaa” fishing, solar driers for fish curing, Partners improved energy fish smoking ovens, etc, and planting of trees around ponds

Climate change education and public Min. of Fisheries, KMFRI, 20 years 0.35 awareness among the riparian communi- MEMR. NGOs, Youth and Wom- ties en Groups

Sub-total 2.52

Forestry Afforestation and Reforestation targeting Min. of Forestry, KFS, KEFRI, 20 years 5.55 and Wild- additional 4.1 million Ha of land under MEMR, MoT, Devt. Partners life forest cover • Rehabilitation and restoration of all de- graded forests and riverine vegetation • Production of 3.5 billion seedlings in 35,000 schools countrywide

110 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

• Production of 4 billion seedlings by KFS for rehabilitation of degraded forest areas, reclaimed forests and farmlands, • Establishment of additional arboreta • Other interventions

Enhancing Conservation and Manage- Min. of Forestry, KFS, MEMR, 20 years 4.05 ment of all types of forests CBOs, ICRAF, NGOs and Pri- • Preparation and maintenance of a com- vate Sector prehensive forest resources data base • Development and implementation of forest management plans • Recruit an additional Forest Rangers • Capacity building and strengthening of Forest Conservation Committees and Community Forest Associations • Fencing of the Mau Complex and other major water towers • Other interventions

Promoting Sustainable Management and Min. of Forestry, KFS, KEFRI, 20 years 3.0 Utilization of Industrial Forest Plantations MEMR, CBOs, ICRAF, NGOs and • Emergency reforestation of open areas Private Sector Min. of Forestry through community programmes • Establishing plantation monitoring unit • Enhancing silvicultural and selective based harvesting • Promotion of efficient wood conversion technologies • Other interventions

Engagement with an Expanded Portfo- Min. of Forestry, KFS, KEFRI, 20 years 2.39 lio of Stakeholders e.g. MEMR, CBOs, ICRAF, NGOs and • Strengthening collaboration with e.g. Private Sector, Community schools, youth groups, Community As- Forest Associations (CFAs) sociations • Strengthening partnership with the Min. of Devt. of Northen Kenya and other Arid Lands • Mainstreaming gender in environment and forestry • Extensive national tree planting cam- paigns and education • Other interventions National Climate Change Response Strategy

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Mobilization of Volunteers to Support Min. of Forestry, KFS, KEFRI, MEMR, 20 years 3 Forestry and Environmental Conserva- CBOs, NGOs and Private Sector, tion Programmes institutions, Devt. Partners, Com- • To plant and raise seedlings—which munity Forest Associations (CFAs), KFS can purchase Min. of Youth Affairs and Sports

Pursuit of Innovative Funding Mecha- Min. of Forestry, KFS, KEFRI, 20 years 8 nisms for Forestry Development MEMR, CBOs, NGOs and Pri- • Payment for environmental services vate Sector, Devt. Partners • Preparation of tree planting proposals for funding through the Constituency Development Fund (CDF) and Local Au- thority Transfer Fund (LATF) • Setting up a Forest Management and Conservation Fund (FMCF) • Revenues from sale of plantation timber • And other measures

Operationalization of the Forests Act NEMA, Min. of Forestry, KFS, 20 years 4.5 (2005) and Environment Management KEFRI, MEMR, CBOs, NGOs and and Coordination Act 1999 Private Sector • Full staffing of field stations • Setting up institutional linkages to sup- port wider stakeholder participation • Establishment of guidelines to enable KFS, communities and the private sector • Other interventions

Research targeting current climate change KWS, KEFRI, Academic and 20 years 0.14 threats and risks to wildlife and rangeland research institutions, Mul- resources; and wildlife’s vulnerability to tilateral Organizations such current climate variability, e.g as the UNEP, NGOs, Wildlife • analyse the current climate variability in Conservation Societies, Devt. marginal rainfall areas Partners, MoT • assess the socioeconomic dynamics and activities of the communities living in and around wildlife protected areas

Research to project future climate change KWS, KEFRI, Academic and re- 20 years 0.39 scenarios and likely impacts on wildlife search institutions, Multilateral and rangelands Organizations such as the UNEP, NGOs, Wildlife Conservation So- cieties, Devt. Partners, MoT

Developing the National Wildlife Adapta- KWS, UNEP, MoT, Forestry, 20 years 1.47 tion Strategy MEMR, Devt. Partners, Private Sector, NGOs, Wildlife Conser- vation Societies

112 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Awareness raising by Wildlife Clubs of Ke- KWS, Wildlife Clubs of Kenya, 20 years 0.073 nya MoT, Devt. Partners, Private Sector

Subtotal 32.26

Environ- Green Schools Programme targeting pri- MEMR, Min. of Forestry, KFS, 20 years 1.0 ment mary and secondary schools KEFRI, CBOs, KARI, NGOs and • Tree planting, roof water catchment, Private Sector biogas production • Promote environmental education

Integrated Natural Resource Conservation MEMR, Min. of Forestry, KFS, 15 year 1.66 and management programme targeting KEFRI, CBOs, KARI, NGOs and rural communities Private Sector • Diversification of livelihoods • Tree nursery development & seedling

Environmental governance programme MEMR, NEMA and lead agen- 6 years 0.33 • Regulation of environmental & natural cies resource use

Pollution and waste management Pro- MEMR, NEMA, Private Sector, 15 years 1.66 grammes targeting urban councils, public Institutions institutions, private institutions • Minimise pollution through reduce, re- use, recycle and recover (4Rs)

Capacity building in climate change MEMR, Forestry, KFS, NEMA 6 years 0.33 • Participation in LPAC, National & Inter- and other relevant govern- national training/exchange programmes ment agencies

Investment in climate change programmes and MEMR, Forestry, Agriculture, 20 years 1.0 projects together with other relevant ministries Water and Irrigation, Devt. and institutions-Agriculture, Forestry, Water, etc Partners,

Climate change activities governance MEMR 20 years 0.60 (the cost of running the proposed climate change secretariat)

Lake Turkana Basin Ecosystem and Liveli- MEMR, Min. of Forestry, KFS, 20 years 0.5 hoods Sustenance Programme KEFRI, CBOs, KARI, NGOs and • Promote integrated environmental man- Private Sector agement • Promote renewable energy technologies National Climate Change Response Strategy

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Special support to Nairobi River/Dam project MEMR, City Council of Nai- 20 years 0.5 • Routine cleanup, surveillance robi, Devt. Partners, Private • Maintenance works Sector • Addressing emerging governance issues

Sub-total 7.39

Tourism Establishing a tourism industry climate MoT, MEMR KATO, KATA, Eco- 20 years 0.003 change response consultative team. Key tourism Kenya, KWS and Re- activities:- gional tourism associations, • Research continuous Development partners • Annual workshops • Annual reports and updates

Putting priorities and targets for tourism MoT, KTF, MEMR, Development 20 years 0.0026 development in line with Vision 2030 and partners, State Law Office the strategic plan support the desired mitigation and adaptation measures • Ensure legislation that enforces respon- sible practices (by June 2013) • One major conference every two years • Reviews every five years

Climate change awareness among industry MoT, KTF, Regional Organisa- 3 years 0.0016 stakeholders tions, MEMR, Development • 8 regional seminars by June 2013 partners

Diversification of tourism destinations in MoT, KTF, Local Community 20 years 0.0024 Kenya through identification and market- organisations, Development ing of new market areas partners, investors

Develop and enforce the Green Strategy MoT, MEMR, KTF, Development 2 years 0.02 and Code (June 2011) partners, State Law Office Create a Green Code certification scheme (June 2012)

Brand Kenya as a green destination MoT, Brand Kenya Board, MDRs, 20 years 0.01 • Develop Green Brand based on the Green KTF, Development partners Code by June 2013 • Marketing (Display the Green brand on all marketing material) continuously

Subtotal 0.0396

Regional Tana & Athi River Development Authority (TARDA) Min. of Regional Develop- 10 yrs 4.5 Development • High Grand Falls Multi-Purpose Project ment, MOA, MOW, MEMR, Min. Authorities • Munyu Multi-Purpose Reservoir and of Forestry, KWS, KenGen, MOE Kibwezi Irrigation Project

114 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

• Upper Tana Catchment Afforestation and 1 Conservation Project

Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA) Min. of Regional Develop- 0 yrs 4.5 • Nandi Hydropower Integrated Develop- ment, MOA, MOW, MEMR, Min. ment Programme of Forestry, KWS, KenGen, MOE • Magwagwa Multipurpose Project • – Teremi Multipurpose Project

Ewaso Ng’iro North Development Authority Min. of Regional Develop- 10 yrs 3 (ENNDA) ment, MOA, MOW, MEMR, Min. • Integrated Development Programme of Forestry, KWS, KenGen, • Programme On Development Of Gum MOE, Min of Gender and Youth Arabic And Gum Resins

Coast Development Authority (CDA) Min. of Regional Develop- 10 yrs 4.5 • Sabaki River Integrated Development ment, MOA, MOW, MEMR, Min. Project of Forestry, KWS, KenGen, MOE • Lake Chala Integrated Water Resource Project • Mwache Dam Multi-Purpose Develop- ment Project

Kerio Valley Development Authority (KVDA) Min. of Regional Develop- 10 yrs 4.5 • Turkwel Multipurpose Project: Down- ment, MOA, MOW, MEMR, Min. stream Riverine Conservation and irrigation of Forestry, KWS, KenGen, MOE • Development of Arror Integrated Multi- purpose Project • Cherangany Hills Watershed Conserva- tion and Rehabilitation Project

Ewaso Ng’iro South Development Authority Min. of Regional Develop- 10 yrs 3 (ENSDA) ment, MOA, MOW, MEMR, Min. • Lower Ewaso Ngiro River Basin Integrated of Forestry, KWS, KenGen, MOE Multipurpose Project • Integrated Mau Catchment Conservation And Development Project

Subtotal 24

Coopera- Farming Approach Interventions Cooperatives, Private Sector, 20 years 0.1 tives • Coffee processing waste-pulp and husk MEMR, Devt. Partners Develop- used for domestic and industrial heating ment (steam turbines, gasification technol- ogy, compacted in burners or briquettes through carbonisation) National Climate Change Response Strategy

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

• Sustainable forestry to support tea fac- tory tea drying • Mini or Micro hydro for power generation for all factory processing units • Biogas digesters for cattle dung and also organic fertiliser production • Methane reduction in processing activi- ties of rice and coffee pulp processing • Promoting sustainable use of agricul- tural waste

Lifestyle and livelihoods interventions Cooperatives, MOE, Private 20 years 0.05 • Promotion of energy efficient cookstoves Sector, MEMR, Devt. Partners • Development of rural sewage treatment plants

Sub-total 0.15

Physical Water & Construction of inter basin and intra-ba- MOW, Disciplined Forces, Local 20 years 0.7 Infrastructure Irrigation sin water transfers Authority, Regional Devt., and and Service Private Sector Industry Installation of hydrometric stations (hy- MOW, Local Authority and pri- 20 years 0.026 drological monitoring) vate sector

Procurement of additional water treat- MOW, Local Authority, MOH 20 years 0.05 ment chemicals and technologies and Sanitation

In conjunction with the Ministry of Ag- MOW, Local Authority, Private 20 years 2.0 riculture, undertaking irrigation projects Sector

Construction and maintenance waterpans MOW, Local Authority, MOH 20 years 0.112 and Sanitation, MEMR, Private Sector

Construction and maintenance of large 24 MOW, Min. of Public Works, 20 years 2.8 dams Disciplined Forces

Construction and maintenance of 1000 Min. of Forestry, MOW, Pri- 20 years 0.25 boreholes vate Sector, Min. of Tourism, MDNKALs, Exploitation of deep aquifers MOW, Private Sector, Local Au- 20 years 0.018 thorities Artificial recharging of aquifers MOW, Local Authorities, Pri- 20 years 0.005 vate Sector and Individuals Sub-total 5.96

116 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Energy Accelerated development of geothermal GDC, KENGEN, Min. of Energy, 10 years 20.3 power by the government and its devel- devt. partners opment partners

Accelerated development of geothermal IPPs 10 years 12.1 power by the private sector (GDC will take up if there are no suitable investors)

Accelerated development of green energy GDC, KENGEN, Min. of Energy, 5 years 15 (solar, wind, renewable biomass, etc) by devt. partners the govt. and its devt. partners

Accelerated development of green energy IPPs 5 years 22.5 (solar, wind, renewable biomass, etc) by the private sector

Provision of efficient (fluorescent) bulbs Min. of Energy, KPLC, develop- 10 years 0.36 to domestic consumers ment partners, private sector

Water catchments protection programmes KPLC, MOE, Private sector, de- 10 years 0.375 e.g. afforestation velopment partners

Provision of improved jikos Min. of Energy, Private sector, 10 years 0.075 devt. partners

Promotion of low-end solar devices in- Min. of Energy, Private sector, 10 years 3 cluding solar drip irrigation, solar water devt. partners heating, etc

Subtotal 73.71

Transport Development of a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Min. of transport, Min. of 4 years 8.75 system Roads, KRB, devt. Partners, private sector, local authorities

Development of Light Rail Min. of transport, Min. of 4 years 3.10 Roads, KRB, devt. Partners, private sector, local authorities

Subtotal 11.85

Roads Road maintenance Min. of Roads, KRB, Devt. 20 years 20 Partners, Local Authorities, Private Sector

Sub-total 20 National Climate Change Response Strategy

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Manpower Gender, Establish a Consolidated Social Protection Min. of Gender, Children & 20 years 2.7 Children & Fund targeting the aged, destitute chil- Social Services, NGOs, CBOs, Social dren and the disabled Devt. Partners, Min. of Finance Services • Flag out and register the very poor men, women, destitute children and persons with disability for support • Disburse the social protection fund to identified beneficiaries • Disburse self-help grants for boosting existing enterprises or establishment of new income generating activities by poor rural and urban women and men. • Provide food rations to the hungry at times of need • Education and awareness programmes • Train women and men in Self-help groups in environmental management • Expand Women Enterprise Fund kitty • Support environmental conservation groups • Support Self-Help groups in planting of emerging crops i.e. aloe-vera, neem, and mangrove trees as alternative sources of income • Disburse grants to self help groups in support of environmental conservation projects such as tree nursery develop- ment, afforestation, riverbank protec- tion, construction/ installation of rain water harvesting tanks

Sub-total 2.7

Youth Mass tree planting countrywide under Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.3 Affairs and the theme “Planting Our Future” using Sports, MEMR, Forestry, KFS, Sports “Groasis Water Box” technology to en- NEMA, Devt. Partners, NGOs, hance tree survival especially in arid and CBOs, Private Sector semi-arid regions

“Trees for Jobs” Programme as a way of Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.4 creating employment for the youth and Sports, MEMR, Forestry, KFS, involves planting and nurturing of seed- NEMA, Devt. Partners, NGOs, lings to full growth and paying the youth CBOs, Private Sector, Multilat- eral Organizations

Mass clean-ups in both village and urban Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.25 centres, with the aim of achieving proper Sports, MEMR, NEMA, Devt.

118 ‘together we can tackle climate change’ Annex: Action Plan and Costs

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

waste management to e.g. reduce harm- Partners, NGOs, CBOs, Private ful/toxic gases such as methane emis- Sector, Multilateral Organiza- sions from anaerobic degradation tions

Countrywide Environmental Clinics to dis- Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.5 seminate and share information with the Sports, MEMR, NEMA, Devt. Part- youth on environmental issues ners, NGOs, CBOs, Private Sector, Multilateral Organizations

Keep Kenya “Klean” (3K) campaign tar- Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.3 geting the removal of all harmful includ- Sports, MEMR, NEMA, Devt. Part- ing global warming substances like CFCs ners, NGOs, CBOs, Private Sector, Multilateral Organizations

Youth Sensitization Programmes on En- Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.6 vironmental Management and Climate Sports, MEMR, NEMA, Devt. Part- Change to e.g. foster sustainable utili- ners, NGOs, CBOs, Private Sector, zation of natural resources; enhance un- Multilateral Organizations derstanding of climate change and what response measures can be taken against it

Establishment of tree nurseries for the Ministry of Youth Affairs & 20 years 0.4 mass tree planting programme as well as Sports, MEMR, NEMA, Forest- for sale to other organization such as KFS ry, KFS, Devt. Partners, NGOs, that may requires tree seedlings for their CBOs, Private Sector, Multi- own tree planting programmes lateral Organizations

Sub-total 2.75

Special Pro- Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 3.4 grammes improving application of advanced tech- grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, nology (weather and climate information) Devt. Partners, and other or- in risk identification and evaluation ganizations involved in DRR including NGOs

Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 0.7 Implementing the National Disaster Man- grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, agement Policy and establishing the Na- Devt. Partners, and other or- tional Disaster Management Authority ganizations involved in DRR including NGOs, private sector

Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 1 Enhance communication among scien- grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, tists, decision/policy makers, NGOs and Devt. Partners, and other or- communities ganizations involved in DRR including NGOs National Climate Change Response Strategy

Sector Sub-Sector Description of Specific Implementing Institutions Implementa- Resource Activities tion requirement Timeframe per year (Billion Ksh.)

Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 1.75 developing structures that facilitate conti- grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, nuity of the National Disaster Management Devt. Partners, and other or- Policy ganizations involved in DRR including NGOs

Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 1.75 mainstreaming DRR and adaptation e.g. grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, putting measures to reduce poverty and Devt. Partners, and other or- empower marginal communities and people ganizations involved in DRR including NGOs

Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 0.8 promoting flexibility in approaches to di- grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, saster risk management Devt. Partners, and other or- ganizations involved in DRR including NGOs

Disaster Risk Reduction Ministry of Special Pro- 20 years 22.6 creating financial mechanisms for disas- grammes, NDOC, KMD, ICPAC, ter management and invest in regional Devt. Partners, and other or- partnerships; strategic fund for disaster ganizations involved in DRR management including NGOs, multilateral organizations

Sub-total 32.0

Education Climate Mainstreaming climate change education Spread across all ministries 20 years 7.9 Change and awareness and departments, but the Education lead agencies include Min. & Aware- of Education; MEMR, NEMA, ness Special Programmes, Gender & Social Services, and Youth Affairs and Sports, NGOs, CBOc, devt. partners and multilateral organizations

Sub-total 7.9

ICT ICT and Climate-proofing the ICT sector; acceler- Min. of Communication, 20 years 0.7 climate ated development of the sector to help Devt. Partners, Private Sector change pro- mitigate, e.g. through telecommuting grammes

Sub-total 0.7

Grand Total 235.83

120 ‘together we can tackle climate change’

Comments and Views are invited from the public. Please address them to:- THE PERMANENT SECRETARY Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources NHIF BUILDING, RAGATI ROAD, UPPERHILL P.O. Box 30126 Nairobi 00100 • TEL 020-2730808 Email: [email protected] Also visit MEMR website http://www.environment.go.ke

6 ‘our environment our life’ ‘together we can tackle climate change’