DOCSLIB.ORG

Paharpur Buddhist Vihar by S.M Mahmud Al Fuad

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Paharpur Buddhist Vihar by S.M Mahmud Al Fuad Paharpur Buddhist Bihar By S.M. MAHMUD AL FUAD Introduction: Paharpur a significant archeological site in Bangladesh, is arranged in a town named Paharpur (Pahadpur) under the Badalgachhi Upazila of the Naogaon region. It was proclaimed as a World Heritage site in 1985. The town is associated with the close by Railway station Jamalganj, the locale town Naogaon and Jaipurhat town by metalled streets. It is amidst the alluvial level plain of northern Bangladesh. As opposed to the repetitive level of the plain, stands the remains of the grand (about 24m high from the encompassing level) old sanctuary which was covered with wilderness, privately considered Pahar or slope from which the royal residence got the name of Paharpur. • Address: Paharpur Bihar Museum, Naogaon, Bangladesh • Elevation: 80′ 0″ • Built: 8th century AD It is a little town 5 km west of Jamalganj rail station. Here the remaining parts of the biggest known cloister south of the Himalayas have been exhumed. This seventh-century archeological discovery covers around a territory of 27 sections of land. The whole foundation involves a quadrangular court estimating more than 900 sq ft and from 12 ft to 15 ft in stature. With expound door complex on the north, there are 45 cells on the north and 44 in every one of the other three sides with an all outnumber of 177 rooms. The design of the pyramidal cruciform sanctuary is significantly affected by those of Southeast Asia, particularly Myanmar and Java. It took its name from a high hill, which resembled Pahar or hillock. A site exhibition hall fabricated as of late houses the delegate assortment of items recuperated from the territory. History of Paharpur: Various religious communities grew up during the Pāla time frame in old India in the eastern areas of the Indian subcontinent, containing Bengal and Magadha. As per Tibetan sources, five extraordinary Mahaviharas (colleges) stuck out: Vikramashila, the chief college of the period; Nalanda, over the hill yet distinguished; Somapura Mahavihara; Odantapurā; and Jaggadala. The maha viharas shaped an organization; "every one of them was under state watch" and there existed "an arrangement of co-appointment among them. It appears from the proof that the various seats of Buddhist discovering that worked in eastern India under the Pāla were viewed together as framing an organization, an interlinked gathering of foundations," and it was regular for incredible researchers to move effectively from one situation to another among them. Xuanzang of China was a prominent researcher who lived at the Somapura Mahavihara (the biggest college in old India), and Atisa went from Bengal to Tibet to lecture Buddhism. The soonest type of the Bengali language started to arise during the eighth century. The unearthing at Paharpur, and the finding of seals bearing the engraving Shri Somapure-Shri-Dharmapaladeva-Mahavihariyarya-bhiksu-sangghasya, has distinguished the Somapura Mahavihara as worked continuously Pala lord Dharmapala (around 781–821) of Pāla Dynasty. Tibetan sources, including Tibetan interpretations of Dharmakayavidhi and Madhyamaka Ratnapradipa, Taranatha's set of experiences, and Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang, notice that Dharmapala's replacement Devapala (around 810–850) fabricated it after his victory of Varendra. The Paharpur column engraving bears the notice of the fifth regnal year of Devapala's replacement Mahendrapala (around 850–854) alongside the name of Bhiksu Ajayagarbha. Taranatha's Pag Sam Jon Zang records that the cloister was fixed during the rule of Mahipala (around 995–1043 AD). The Nalanda engraving of Vipulashrimitra records that the religious community was annihilated by fire, which additionally slaughtered Vipulashrimitra's predecessor Karunashrimitra, during a victory by the Vanga armed force in the eleventh century. After some time Atisha's otherworldly preceptor, Ratnakara Shanti, filled in as a sthavira of the vihara, Mahapanditacharya Bodhibhadra filled in as an occupant priest, and different researchers spent a piece of their lives at the cloister, including Kalamahapada, Virendra, and Karunashrimitra. Many Tibetan priests visited the Somapura between the ninth and twelfth hundreds of years. During the standard of the Sena administration, known as Karnatadeshatagata Brahmaksatriya, in the second 50% of the twelfth century, the vihara began to decrease for the last time. One researcher expresses, "The remains of the sanctuary and cloisters at Pāhāpur don't bear any clear signs of enormous scope obliteration. The ruin of the foundation, by abandonment or obliteration, probably been at some point amidst the broad turmoil and uprooting of populace resulting on the Muslim attack." A copperplate dated to 159 Gupta Era (479 AD) found in 1927 in the upper east corner of the cloister, refers to the gift of a Brahmin couple to Jain Acharya Guhanandi of Pancha-stupa Nikaya at Vata Gohli, recognizable as the adjoining town of Goalapara Overall Situation Analysis Preservation methods of the site: 1. Authority can provide enough dustbin for ensuring cleanliness. 2. Government can provide enough law enforcement agencies members for ensuring security. 3. Authority can plant more trees in the area of the central temple. 4. Authority can provide enough picnic spots for ignoring chaos. 5. They can give a handbill & enough billboard for informing the history of the vihara. Current situation: 1. For lacking dustbin that place was not enough clean. 2. Tourists are not using dustbins for dust. 3. Tourists don’t know the history. 4. There were not enough shops & restaurants. 5. There was not any residential hotel for a night stay or taking a rest. 6. Food quality of local foods was too unhygienic. 7. There was not any market for buying something which can represent Paharpur in our memories. 8. Member of Law enforcement agency was only 3 when I visited the vihara. 9. Authority was not strict. But there was a good time for visiting the place for ensuring safety which was very good. 10.There was not enough tourist just because of a pandemic. 11.There was a specific season for the tour according to locals. They informed me that winter season is a too good time for visitors & they face very pressure from tourist on that time. 12.For minimum shops & restaurant local people earn a good amount of money every day. 13.Behaviour of tourists was not satisfying. 14.Some tourists doing smoke openly. 15.Local politicians created syndicates against new businessmen. Financial Situation of the locals: There was a very certain amount of shops & restaurants. For this reason, the owner of those shops & restaurants earns a good amount of money. But, still maximum people of that locality dependent on agro. If they want they can start relating business of tourists. Perhaps, a syndicate of local politicians is the only barrier to their business. Scope for Betterment and Improving: 1. More good restaurants should be made whose are ensure good, healthy & hygienic foods. 2. Need residential hotels for foreign tourists & visitors. 3. Need to develop local markets. 4. Need to inform practical knowledge to the youth who represents Paharpur globally in the future. 5. Need a strong authority to ensure the security & proper use of the dustbin. 6. Need to make enough picnic spots for a study tour. 7. Custodian(chief of that site) are not allowed to talk with journalists. It is very bad. 8. There always should stay enough law enforcement agency members for protecting the tourist from any kind of occurrence. 9. Authority must take a step against local politicians whose are created syndicate. Conclusion: Paharpur Buddhist Vihara is one of the ancient civilizations of Bangladesh. We should take more steps to make this site attractive to local & foreign tourists. We have to keep this place always neat & clean. We have to ensure the safety of peoples. We can invite people of our community to visit the place & gain knowledge on our history. Picture of Central Temple: Collected From: Wikipedia.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Current and Future Themes of the Religion and Nature in Ancient
    Religion, ‘Nature’ and Environmental Ethics in Ancient India: Archaeologies of Human:Non- Human Suffering and Well-being in early Buddhist and Hindu contexts Julia Shaw (UCL Institute of Archaeology) Abstract: This paper assesses archaeology’s contribution to debates regarding the ecological focus of early Buddhism and Hinduism and its relevance to global environmentalism. Evidence for long-term human:non-human entanglement, and the socio- economically constructed element of ‘nature’ on which Indic culture supposedly rests, challenges post-colonial tropes of India's utopian, 'eco-friendly' past, whilst also highlighting the potency of individual human:non-human epistemologies for building historically grounded models of Indian environmentalism. For early Buddhism,I mediate between two polarized views: one promoting the idea of ‘eco-dharma’, as a reflection of Buddhism’s alignment with non-violence (ahiṃsā), and the alleviation of suffering (dukkha); a second arguing that early Buddhist traditions have been misappropriated by western environmentalism. I argue that the latter view subscribes to canonical models of passive monks removed from worldly concerns, despite archaeological evidence for socially-engaged monastic landlordism from the late centuries BC. Others cite this evidence only to negate Buddhism’s eco- credentials, thereby overlooking the human:non-human entanglement theme within modern environmental discourse, while the predominant focus on non-human suffering overlooks convergences between modern and ancient ecological ethics and environmental health. Case studies include examples of Buddhist land and water management in central India, set within discussions of human v. non-human-centric frameworks of well-being and suffering, purity and pollution, and broader Indic medico-ecological epistemologies, as possible models for collective responses to environmental stress.
    [Show full text]
  • Lion Symbol in Hindu-Buddhist Sociological Art and Architecture of Bangladesh: an Analysis
    International Journal in Management and Social Science Volume 08 Issue 07, July 2020 ISSN: 2321-1784 Impact Factor: 6.178 Journal Homepage: http://ijmr.net.in, Email: [email protected] Double-Blind Peer Reviewed Refereed Open Access International Journal Lion Symbol in Hindu-Buddhist Sociological Art and Architecture of Bangladesh: An Analysis Sk. Zohirul Islam1, Md. Kohinoor Hossain2, Mst. Shamsun Naher3 Abstract There is no lion animal in Bangladesh still live but has a lot of sculptors through terracotta art in architecture, which are specially used as decorative as religious aspects through the ages. The lion is the king of the animal world. They live in the plain and grassy hills particularly. Due to these characteristics, the lion has been considered through all ages in the world as a symbol of royalty and protection as well as of wisdom and pride, especially in Hindu- Buddhist religion. In Buddhism, lions are symbolic of the Bodhisattvas. In Buddhist architecture, lion symbols are used as protectors of Dharma and therefore support the throne of the Buddha’s and Bodhisattvas. The lion symbol is also used in Hindu temple architecture as Jora Shiva Temple, Akhrapara Mondir of Jashore. In Bangladesh, there are various types of lion symbol used in terracotta plaques of Ananda Vihara, Rupbhan Mura, and Shalban Vihara at Mainamati in Comilla district, Vashu Vihara, Mankalir Kundo at Mahasthangarh in Bogra district and Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur in Naogaon district. This research has been trying to find out the cultural significance of the lion symbol in Hindu-Buddhist art and architecture of Bangladesh.
    [Show full text]
  • Aspects of Ancient Indian Art and Architecture
    ASPECTS OF ANCIENT INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE M.A. History Semester - I MAHIS - 101 SHRI VENKATESHWARA UNIVERSITY UTTAR PRADESH-244236 BOARD OF STUDIES Prof (Dr.) P.K.Bharti Vice Chancellor Dr. Rajesh Singh Director Directorate of Distance Education SUBJECT EXPERT Dr. S.K.Bhogal, Professor Dr. Yogeshwar Prasad Sharma, Professor Dr. Uma Mishra, Asst. Professor COURSE CO-ORDINATOR Mr. Shakeel Kausar Dy. Registrar Author: Dr. Vedbrat Tiwari, Assistant Professor, Department of History, College of Vocational Studies, University of Delhi Copyright © Author, 2019 All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the Publisher. Information contained in this book has been published by VIKAS® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. and has been obtained by its Authors from sources believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of their knowledge. However, the Publisher and its Authors shall in no event be liable for any errors, omissions or damages arising out of use of this information and specifically disclaim any implied warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular use. Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. VIKAS® PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTD E-28, Sector-8, Noida - 201301
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter Iv Patronage of Buddhism
    CHAPTER IV PATRONAGE OF BUDDHISM Chapter IV Patronage of Buddhism In this chapter, an attempt has been made to examine the development of Buddhism under the patronage of the royal dynasties, merchants, traders, artisans and householders from the early Buddhist period to 12th century C.E. in the east coast of India. It is true that most of the patronage comes from royal dynasties. In the ancient Indian history patronage was a formal religious system, clearly linked to the ideological needs of a political organisation and its socio economic base. It would thus be interesting to study the attitude of the inhabitants of a particular region regarding patronage towards the religious recipients. The study of Buddhism under the patronage in India especially in east coast of India, undoubtedly of great importance in the spread of Buddhist culture in the study regions. Patronage is support, encouragement, privilege or financial aid that an organisation or individual bestows to another. Patronage can be defined as a multi- dimensional, sometimes loosely codified network of exchanges involving not only the production of art and literature, but also its performance, transmission, reinterpretation and preservation. The giving and receiving may take place between individuals, groups or institutions. The groups are often specialized communities of craftsmen, ritualists or scholars. According to Suchandra Ghosh, patronage is an asymmetrical relationship between one party, the patron and another one, the client. It is quite natural that the patron will be a person who possesses honour as well as economic superiority and this allows patronage.1 In her research paper she used the term „royal patronage‟ which includes not only patronage from the king but also persons who are associated with the royal court like ministers or with the royal house hold like the queen.
    [Show full text]
  • Reclaiming the Lost Architectural Heritage Sompur Mahavihara
    Reclaiming the Lost Architectural Heritage Sompur Mahavihara: Through Conjectural Restoration Reclaiming the Lost Architectural Heritage Sompur Mahavihara: Through Conjectural Restoration Tanzila Samad Choudhury Dept. of Architecture, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh ABSTRACT ompur Mahavihara, presently known as Paharpur vihara is the second largest Buddhist vihara on S the subcontinent and one of the most important archaeological sites in Bangladesh. This Buddhist monastery, situated in Naogaon district was established when Buddhism attained its peak in Bengal under Dharmapala, second king of Pala dynasty in 8th century. But the mystery of its morphology is unknown. Little study has been done to reveal its actual form. As this monastery is important in the archaeological history of Bengal, an investigation is required to know what the central shrine and the monastery looked like and for morphological evaluation from the previous temples. This essay has several objectives. It is an attempt to comprehend the form of the central shrine and its morphological development from previous examples of the Buddhist monasteries; to restore the disjointed link in relation to the formal evolution of the central shrine of the Paharpur vihara,; to fi nd the relationship between the central shrine of the Paharpur vihara and other contemporary Buddhist developments; and fi nally to suggest a conjectural restoration of Paharpur vihara with its central shrine to reveal its actual form. Keywords: Paharpur, Vihara, Buddhist Temple, Conjectural Restoration INTRODUCTION prayer. The main monastery of Paharpur is cruciform in style, introducing a new style of architecture to A number of monasteries were established during the ancient Asia (monastic-asia.wikidot.com).
    [Show full text]
  • Abode of Buddhist Monks and Its Tages of Development
    Structural Vihar: Abode of Buddhist Monks and Its Stages of Development Ekta P. Dharkar1 1. Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University,, Mahatma Jyotiba Phuley Educational Campus, Amravati Road, Nagpur -440 033, Maharashtra, India (Email: [email protected]) Received: 29 July 2019; Revised: 07 September 2019; Accepted: 22 October 2019 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019): 772-790 Abstract: Viharas is the place where Monk (Bhikhu) use to stay for the small period of three months during Varsavasa period. The purpose of the Vihara (monastery) was to provide residential facilities to the monks and during other times the monks were not expected to stay at a place for more than three nights. In the later period Vihara has played a long and distinguished role; they belong to different creeds, sects and religions, and differ widely in function and organization as well as in size and status. But they all have the common characteristic of collective living for the sake of a higher spiritual life. In the present research paper, it has been tried to show the developmental stages of the Viharas especially the structural Viharas in India, how the small Vihara step by step evolved into the planned Monasteries and later on into the big University. Keywords: Brick Structure, Architecture, Mahavihara, Sangha, Stupa, University, Buddhist Monks Introduction Monastic orders and institutions are found in different ages, countries, and systems of religion and in the religious and cultural history of India. Monasticism has played a long and distinguished role; they belong to different creeds, sects and religions, and differ widely in function and organization as well as in size and status.
    [Show full text]
  • (Hyderabad) Civilsprep.Com
    MEDIEVAL INDIA PREVIOUS YEAR www.laex.in 9141 21 29 29 / 9121 44 29 29 (Bangalore) Civilsprep.com 9052 29 29 29 / 9052 49 29 29 (Hyderabad) Medieval History Upsc Previous Year Questions www.laexias.com https://elearn.laex.in m Medieval History Upsc Previous Year Questions 1. Feudalism 01 - 01 2. Early medieval period 750 to 1200 AD(tripartite struggle) 01 - 02 3. Early medieval period 750 to 1200 AD(ruler of South India) 02 - 04 4. Delhi Sultanate 04 - 08 5. Regional Kingdom 08 - 10 6. Vijayanagar Kingdom 10- 13 7. Bahmani Kingdom 13 - 14 8. Bhakti and Sufi movement 14 - 19 9. Mughal Empire 21 - 27 10. Maratha Empire 27 - 28 11. Miscellaneous topics 28 - 31 www.laexias.com https://elearn.laex.in m Medieval History Upsc Previous Year Questions Medieval History Previous Year Questions 1. Feudalism 5) The fragmentation of political authority. 1. With reference to Indian history, Educational objective: to know about which of the following are the impact feudalism. essential clement/elements of the feudal system? 2. Early medieval period 750 to 1200 1) A very strong centralized political AD (tripartite struggle) authority and a very weak provincial or local political authority 1. Who among the following laid 2) Emergence of administrative foundation of Rashtrakuta structure based on control and Empire? possession of land a) Amoghavarsha I 3) Creation of lord-vassal relationship b) Dantidurga between the feudal lord and his c) Dhruva overlord d) Krishna I Select the correct answer using the code given below. 2. Consider the following statements: a) l and 2 only 1) The Ikshvaku rulers of Southern b) 2 and 3 only India were antagonistic towards c) 3 only Buddhism.
    [Show full text]
  • The Temple in South Asia (Tuesday July 5 9.30 – 5.00) Convenors: Dr
    PANEL: The Temple in South Asia (Tuesday July 5 9.30 – 5.00) Convenors: Dr. Adam Hardy (University of Cardiff) & Dr. Crispin Branfoot (De Montfort University) Early Architecture and its Transformations: Kanganhalli Michael W. Meister: University of Pennsylvania The recently excavated Buddhist stupa at Kanganhalli, Karnataka, provides, among many important narrative panels from the first centuries BCE and CE, unique visual evidence for forms of early built architecture in South Asia. Within the visual idiom of Kanganhalli, what you see is what was built, unmediated by the iconic transformation of later stone representations and replicas that move away in significant ways from the early impermanent architecture of India. A preliminary report on the site and sculptures of Kanganhalli was given by the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India at the 15th conference of South Asian Archaeology in Leiden in 1999. It is important now to illustrate the depth of new evidence for architecture this new material provides. New evidence on early architecture of Bengal Prof. Dr. Enamul Haque: The International Centre for Study of Bengal Art, Dhaka The story of architecture in Bengal covers a long period of more than two thousand years. Largely a product of the soil, it however maintained a close interactive contact with development of architecture in other regions of the subcontinent. Although Bengal is found to have made important conributions, the fact is hardly recognised in the standard works on Indian architecture. Not unnaturally, even if some mention has been made, such references remain embedded in publications of comprehensive character that are concerned with various aspects of life and culture of Bengal or India.
    [Show full text]
  • MAINAMATI CULTURAL COMPLEX Submitted By
    MAINAMATI CULTURAL COMPLEX THE HUB OF CULTURE AND MEMORIES Submitted by Kazi Umme Mazhabin Methila ID : 10308016 Seminar 2 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Bachelor of Architecture Department of Architecture BRAC University Abstract Comilla is one of the richest heritage site of Bangladesh. This site is unique among all the archaeologically important sites of Bangladesh. About 50 scattered ancient remains of settlement from the 8th - 12th century AD known as Mainamati are located throughout the comilla district. At mainamati the principal monument is the Shalban Bihara which is the main interest here. The Shalban Bihara is the middle of the mainamati range. Excavations have been continued since 1955 and items such as copper plates, gold and silver coins, and more than 150 bronze statues have been found. The largest number of stone sculptures and terra cotta plaques have been found in comilla's archaeological sites, representing Bengal and the sub- continent. The excavation of the Mainamati sites are noteworthy for revealing previously unknown facts about Bangladesh's political, religious, historical and Buddhist architecture. The proposal of this project is to design a research institute for the students of archaeology department and the people who are interested to do research on excavation, preservation and exploring the sites of archaeology. A museum should be design for a complete tourist facility which will contains an archive along with the library facility. An accommodation for the researcher and the tourist should be design so that they can stay as long as they can visit the other historical sites in Mainamati.
    [Show full text]
  • Thank You Sponsors MESSAGE from the HON’BLE PRESIDENT PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC of BANGLADESH
    Contents Message from Hon’ble President of Bangladesh .................................................................................................................... 03 Message from Hon’ble Prime Minister of Bangladesh ............................................................................................................ 04 Message from Hon’ble Foreign Minister of Bangladesh ......................................................................................................... 05 Message from Hon’ble State Minister for Foreign Affairs of Bangladesh ................................................................................. 06 Exclusive Interview with Ambassador of Bangladesh to the Netherlands ................................................................................ 07 Bangladesh – Flag & National Emblem .................................................................................................................................. 11 Bangladesh at a Glance ........................................................................................................................................................ 12 Sheikh Mujib My Father ........................................................................................................................................................ 14 History of Bangladesh .......................................................................................................................................................... 18 Bangladesh Vision 2021 ......................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • A Report on Heritage Site: Somapura Mahavira by Mahjabeen Siddique
    A Report on Heritage Site: Somapura Mahavira By Mahjabeen Siddique Introduction Bangladesh is a land filled with rich history, culture and antiquities. It has beautiful monuments and historical places that have been cherished and preserved for centuries. Among many, one iconic historical place is Somapura Mahavira located in Paharpur The marvelous structure attracts tourists from around the world and is a peak into the pages of history. Background of the Site: Somapura Mahavira, Paharpur Somapura Mahavira was a monastic institution and it was one of the biggest and most famous ones in ancient Bengal. The complex that was excavated at Paharpur is the monastic institution now known as Somapura Mahavira which was built by Dharmapala the second Pala King. In 1985 the Somapura Mahavira was enlisted as a Unesco Heritage Site. Collected From: Brittanica Situation Analysis Multiple internal and external factors affect the 60 Dome Mosque. They are given below, Environment of the Site The Somapura Mahavira is situated in the beautiful countryside. The local people in this rural setting often visit this place. Various students and tourists from around the world come to visit the central shrine that represents medieval architecture Cleanliness and Locality The site of the Somapura Mahavira is kept clean and the local people also make sure that the place stays clean. As for the locality, the total population of Naogaon district is around 25 lac. It has a literacy rate of 44.39% and most of the people’s occupation here is related to agriculture The total population of the area is about 25 lac, and most of the people of the district are farmers.
    [Show full text]
  • Heritage India Special
    Volume No. 8 July - August 2017 Issue No. 4 From the Editor’s desk… “India is, the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only.” These words of the American author Mark Twain so well express the unique and rich cultural heritage and tradition of India. Heritage India’s history dates back probably to the beginning of human civilisation, in the mysterious culture of the Indus River that flourished in 2500 BC. Our history is punctuated by constant integration India of migrating people from diverse cultures. The evidence of iron, copper and other metals which were widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at very early period is indeed indicative of the Special progress that this part of the world had made even then. Geographically, India is a vast country so much so that even one of its states is bigger than many countries of Europe. Amidst the diversity, we do have a cultural unity in India in as much as our philosophy of life, our customs, creeds and traditions are basically, more or less, the same. This issue of Scribbles is an attempt to take a look at the glorious heritage of India. Under this theme, we have looked at eight major topics - Architecture, Food, Education, Literature, Indian-ness of India, Clothing, Arts, and Subjects that originated in India. The eight Sanmartini teams were allotted one topic each.
    [Show full text]