sign in sign up
<<
Home , Matricaria chamomilla

chamomilla L.

Scientific name: Matricaria chamomilla L. Synonyms: Matricaria recutita, Chamomilla recutita Family: Compositae/ Genus: Matricaria Species: chamomilla Common name: Babuna, Persian Parts used: , oil, root Description: Matricaria chamomilla is an annual plant.Its thin spindle-shaped roots penetrate flatly into the soil. The stem is erect, branched and has a height of 10–80 cm. The are bi to tri-pinnate, long and narrow. The flower heads are 10 to 30 mm in diameter, pedunculate, and heterogamous. The tubular florets are golden yellow in color and 1.5 to 2.5 mm long. The 11 to 27 white plant are 6 to 11 mm long, 3.5 mm wide, and arranged concentrically. The is 6 to 8 mm wide, flat in the beginning and later hollow, conical or cone-shaped. The fruit is the form of yellowish-brown achene. Chemical Constituents: Essential oils (farnesene, bisabolol, chamazulene), sesquiterpenes, , , and polyacetylenes are considered the most important constituents of the chamomile drug. The coumarins are represented in M. chamomilla by herniarin, umbelliferone, and other minor ones. (Z)- and (E)-2-β-d-glucopyranosyloxy-4-methoxycinnamic acid (GMCA), the glucoside precursor of herniarin, were described as native compounds in chamomile. Eleven bioactive phenolic compounds, such as herniarin and umbelliferone (), chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid (phenylpropanoids), , apigenin-7-O-glucoside, and luteolin-7- O-glucoside (flavones), and rutin (flavonols), and naringenin (flavanone) are found in chamomile extract. contain , chamasulene, apigenin, alpha heteroside, salicylic acid and non-crystalline beta-heteroside. It contains azulene, glucoside, and a resin. Chemical constituents also include some organic (Alkaloid, carbohydrate, phenols, and proteins) and inorganic materials (Aluminum, iron, , sodium and zinc). It also containsplants acids (valerianic), glycosides, polysaccharides, salicylate, tryptophan, amino acids. Structures of isolated chemical constituents of M. chamomilla

337 Action of herb: Carminative, stimulant, attenuate, discutient, disinfectant, antiseptic, sedative, antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory), resolvent, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, stimulant, nervine and emmenagogue Medicinal Uses: Flowers are used in constitutional debility, in hysteria, dyspepsia, and intermittent fever. Oil is externally used in rheumatism and is said to be effective in flatulence and colic. Camomile tea applied to the genitals has a powerful Stimulating effect. Camomile oil is used externally in rheumatism. Camomile used principally as a nervine: irritability, hypersensitiveness, e.g., in neuralgias, rheumatism, toothache, during teething, in false labors pains, dysmenorrhea, metrorrhagia, cramp in the leg, icterus, flatulent colic. It is also prescribed in powder form in itching, moist eczemata, impetigo capitis, open wounds, fistulas. Chamomile flowers help to soothe indigestion, nervousness, depression and headaches. Chamomile reduces gastric acid and actually helps to prevent ulcers. It also promoted tissue regeneration after patients had operations on their intestinal, urinary and genital systems. Chamomile decreases histamine, implicated in ulcers and the skin swelling, puffy eyes and headaches brought on by allergies. It is given to children for digestive and hyperactive problems, to discourage nightmares and to prevent the convulsions that sometimes accompany children’s high fevers. It binds and inactivates bacteria, fungus and toxins, including staph and candida, even in low quantities. Historically, chamomile poultice have been placed on cancers, and its sesquiterpene lactones do show immune system-stimulating and antitumor activity. Compound Preparations: Roghan-e-babunah, Dawa-i-Aabzan, Zimad Sumbul at Teeb, Marham Zardi-i-Baiza-i-Murgh, Ma’jun falasifa, Ma’jun Murawwehul-Arwah, Ma’jun Fitinji.awarish Baboonah, Zimade-e-Muhallil. Dried flower-heads of M. chamomilla liquid extract (1:1 in 45% alcohol) , tinctures and other galenicals.Infusion - 2 tsp/cup three to four times daily. Tincture - 1-4mL (1:5, 40%) three times daily or 7-14mL (1:5, 50%) three times daily. Oil - 2-3 drops of essential oil in hot water basin for steam inhalation. Eyewash - 5-10 drops in warm water. To encourage a baby to sleep - 1-2 cups strained infusion in bath water. Dosage: 1 to 5g. Chamomile has been used as a tea for various conditions and as a topical cream. Typical oral doses are 9 to 15 g/day. Gargles made from 8 g chamomile flowers in 1,000mL of water have been used in clinical trials. By mouth: For upset stomach: A specific combination product containing German chamomile (Iberogast, Medical Futures, Inc) and several other herbs has been used in a dose of 1mL three times daily. For damage to the inside of the mouth caused by chemotherapy or radiation treatments: A mouth rinse made with 10-15 drops of German chamomile liquid extract in 100mL warm water three times daily. For colic: A specific multi-ingredient product containing 164 mg of fennel, 97 mg of lemon balm, and 178 mg of German chamomile (ColiMil, Milte Italia SPA) twice daily for a week. Applied to the skin: For skin breakdown around colostomy appliances, German chamomile solution has been applied on compresses for 1 hour, twice daily. The solution was prepared by steeping 6 grams of dried German chamomile flower heads in 150mL boiled water for 10 minutes. Adverse Reactions: Use of the tea and essential oil has resulted in , contact dermatitis, and other severe hypersensitivity reactions. Cross-reactivity to asters, chrysanthemums, , and other members of the Asteraceae family exists.

338 Contraindications: The use of chamomile-containing preparations is contraindicated in persons with hypersensitivity to ragweed pollens. Avoid during pregnancy and lactation, hormone-sensitive condition such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids. Interactions: Birth control pills (Contraceptive drugs) interacts with German Chamomile Some birth control pills contain estrogen. German chamomile might have some of the same effects as estrogen. But German chamomile isn't as strong as the estrogen in birth control pills. Taking German chamomile along with birth control pills might decrease the effectiveness of birth control pills. If you take birth control pills along with German chamomile, use an additional form of birth control such as a condom. Some birth control pills include ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel (Triphasil), ethinyl estradiol and norethindrone (Ortho-Novum 1/35, Ortho-Novum 7/7/7), and others. Estrogens interacts with German Chamomile Large amounts of German chamomile might have some of the same effects as estrogen. But large amounts of German chamomile aren't as strong as estrogen pills. Taking German chamomile along with estrogen pills might decrease the effects of estrogen pills. Some estrogen pills include conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin), ethinyl estradiol, estradiol, and others. Medications changed by the liver (Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) substrates) interacts with German Chamomile Some medications are changed and broken down by the liver. German chamomile might decrease how quickly the liver breaks down some medications. Taking German chamomile along with some medications that are broken down by the liver can increase the effects and side effects of some medications. Before taking German chamomile, talk to your healthcare provider if you are taking any medications that are changed by the liver. Some medications changed by the liver include lovastatin (Mevacor), ketoconazole (Nizoral), itraconazole (Sporanox), fexofenadine (Allegra), triazolam (Halcion), and many others. Sedative medications (Benzodiazepines) interacts with German Chamomile German chamomile might cause sleepiness and drowsiness. Drugs that cause sleepiness and drowsiness are called sedatives. Taking German chamomile along with sedative medications might cause too much sleepiness. Some of these sedative medications include alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan), midazolam (Versed), temazepam (Restoril), triazolam (Halcion), and others. Sedative medications (CNS depressants) interacts with German Chamomile German chamomile might cause sleepiness and drowsiness. Medications that cause sleepiness are called sedatives. Taking German chamomile along with sedative medications might cause too much sleepiness. Some sedative medications include pentobarbital (Nembutal), phenobarbital (Luminal), secobarbital (Seconal), fentanyl (Duragesic, Sublimaze), morphine, zolpidem (Ambien), and others. Tamoxifen (Nolvadex) interacts with German Chamomile Some types of cancer are affected by hormones in the body. Estrogen-sensitive cancers are cancers that are affected by estrogen levels in the body. Tamoxifen (Nolvadex) is used to help treat and prevent these types of cancer. German chamomile seems to also affect estrogen levels in the body. By affecting estrogen in the body, German chamomile might decrease the effectiveness of tamoxifen (Nolvadex). Do not take German chamomile if you are taking tamoxifen (Nolvadex).

339 Warfarin (Coumadin) interacts with German Chamomile Warfarin (Coumadin) is used to slow blood clotting. German chamomile might increase the effects of warfarin (Coumadin). Taking German chamomile and warfarin (Coumadin) together might slow blood clotting too much and cause bruising and bleeding. Be sure to have your blood checked regularly. The dose of your warfarin (Coumadin) might need to be changed. Microscopic characteristics of M. chamomilla Receptacle and bracteoles of M. chamomilla possess schizogenous secretory ducts; vascular bundles with phloem fibres; spiral, annular, reticulate and pitted vessels.Compositetype glandular hairs with short, bi-seriate stalk and enlarged head are present in almost all parts of florets.Ovarieshave longitudinal bands of small mucilage cells.Stigma is present with elongated papillae at the apex. Pollen grains are spherical or triangular in shape with numerous short spines. Powder microscopy of M. chamomilla Powder of M. chamomilla is greenish yellow to yellowish brown. Pollen grains are numerous, spiny, 18–25µm in diameter. Fragments of yellow or white corolla were observed with polygonal, small epidermal cells having straight or slightly wavy walls, papillosed, and sometimes bearing glandular hairs of composite type. Fragments of the fibrous layer of anther. Fragments from ovary are with glandular hairs and rows of small mucilage cells. Green fragments of parenchyma of involucre were present. Stigma with papillae was observed. Cells of the achenes were present with sclariform perforations in walls.Fragments of fibro-vascular bundles were found to consist of spiral, annular and reticulate vessels and sclerenchyma fibers. Fragments of involucral bracts with epidermis had elliptical stomata, vessels and fibres. Calcium oxalate crystals were small in size and found in clusters. Fragments of lignified parenchyma of the filaments and occasional fragments of vessels were found present.

Chamomile papillose stigma, Chamomile sclerous ring at ovary base style and pollen grain

Chamomile, close-up of sclerous ring at Chamomile inner and outer ovary base and tricolpate pollen grain

340

Calcium oxalate microrosette crystals Outer epidermis with oil droplet

Pollen tubes in chamomile flower Chamomile outer epidermis and oil Figure: Microscopic characters of Matricaria chamomilla (Source: Amy Brush, Traditional Medicinals) Foreign organic matter Not more than 10% stems and not more than 2% foreign organic matter. Total ash Not more than 13%. Acid-insoluble ash Not more than 4%. Moisture Not more than 12%. Pesticide residues Normally, the maximum residue limit of aldrin and dieldrin for M. chamomilla is not more than 0.05 mg/kg. Heavy metals Recommended lead and cadmium levels are not more than 10 and 0.3mg/kg, respectively, in the final dosage form of the plant material. Chemical assay of M. chamomilla M. chamomilla contains not less than 0.4% v/w of essential oil. High-Performance thin-layer chromatography of M. chamomilla High performance thin-layer chromatography of M. chamomilla extract was carried out. Anis aldehyde and UV 366nm were used for the identification of different zones.

341

Figure: Thin layer chromatography of M. chamomilla extract in several fractions. Anti-oxidant activity was carried out by Nóbrega et al. (2013) using luminol- chemiluminscencemethod. M. chamomilla extract revealed IC50 = 0.14 g/mL as shown in figure below.

Figure: Anti-oxidant activity of M. chamomilla extract Anti-spasmodic activity of M. chamomilla Achterrath-Tuckermann et al. (1980) compared the anti-spasmodic activity of essential oil of chamomile with papaverine in reducing isolated guinea pig ileum spasm. Apigenin and bisabolol, the active constituents of M. chamomilla were found to exhibit dose-dependent spasmolytic effects on isolated guinea pig ileum. Anti-ulcer activity of M. chamomilla Mann and Staba (1986) and Szelenyi et al. (1979) carried out anti-ulcer activity in rats and found that chamomile flowers and its active constituent, bisabolol inhibited stomach ulcers caused by stressful stimuli, alcohol and indomethacin. Anxiolytic and sedative activity of M. chamomile

342 Avallone et al. (1996) conducted anxiolytic and sedative activity in which it was observed that M. chamomilla extract significantly reduced locomotor activity in rats. Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activity of M. chamomilla Anti-inflammatory activity of M. chamomilla was assessed on animals by Gerritsen et al. (1995); Isaac, (1979); Jakovlev et al. (1979) and Ammon et al. (1996). In the above mentioned studies Bisabolol, the active constituent of M. chamomile was found to reduce inflammation, fever, adjuvant arthritis, yeast-induced fever in rats. Apigenin, another active constituent of M. chamomilla exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema and delayed–type hypersensitivity in mice. Anti-microbial activity of M. chamomilla Suganda et al. (1983) found that an ethanolic extract of M. chamomilla inhibited the growth of Herpes and Poliovirus. Kedzia, (1991) studied the anti-microbial activity of α-bisabolol, an active ingredient of M. chamomilla essential oil against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Lu et al. (1998) studied M. chamomilla esters and lactones that showed activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. avium . Kedzia (1991); Szalontai et al. (1976, 1977); Ahmed et al. (1994) investigated that Chamazulene, α-bisabolol, flavonoids and umbelliferone exhibited ani-fungal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes , T. rubrum and Candida albicans . Anti-cancer activity of M. chamomilla Pre-clinical studies on skin, prostate, breast and ovarian cancer models were carried out by Way et al. (2004), Birt et al. (1997), Patel et al. (2007), Gates et al. (2007) and Shukla et al. (2005). All these studies revealed favorable growth inhibitory effects. Effectiveness of M. chamomilla against infant colic/diarrheal conditions Clinical trials carried out by Kell (1997) and Gardiner (2007) revealed safe and effective utilization of M. chamomilla in treatment of colic and diarrheal conditions in infants. Effectiveness of M. chamomilla for the treatment of eczema Nissen et al. (1988) explored the moderate effectiveness of topical application of M. chamomilla in the treatment of atopic eczema. Anti-osteoporosis activity of M. chamomilla Kassi et al (2004) reported that M. chamomilla extract stimulated osteoblastic cell differentiation and also revealed an anti-estrogenic effect, signifying an estrogen receptor-related mechanism. Anti-diabetic activity of M. chamomilla Kato et al. (2008), Eddouks et al. (2005) and Cemek et al. (2008) studies exhibited effectiveness of M. chamomilla in controlling diabetes by suppressing blood sugar levels, increasing liver glycogen storage and inhibition of sorbitol in the human erythrocytes, due to independent pharmacological activity of chamomile extract from insulin secretion as well as studies revealed M. chamomilla protective effect on pancreatic β-cells in diminishing hyperglycemia-related oxidative stress.

References Achterrath-Tuckermann U, Kunde R, Flaskmap E, Isaac O, Theimer K. Pharmacological investigations with compounds of chamomile V.Investigations on the spasmolytic effect of compounds of chamomile and Kamillosan® on the isolated guinea pig ileum. Planta Med. 1980;39:38–50. [PubMed] Aertgeerts P et al. Vergleichende Prüfung von Kamillosan® Creme gegenüber steroidalen (0.25% Hydrocortison, 0.75% Fluocortinbutylester) und nichtsteroidalen (5% Bufexamac) Externa in der Erhaltungstherapie von Ekzemerkrankungen. Zeitschrift für Hautkrankheiten , 1985, 60:270–277. African pharmacopoeia , 1st ed. Lagos, Organization of African Unity, Scientific, Technical & Research Commission, 1985.

343 Aggag ME, Yousef RT. Study of antimicrobial activity of chamomile oil. Planta medica , 1972, 22:140–144. Albring M et al. The measuring of the anti-inflammatory effect of a compound on the skin of volunteers. Methods and findings in experimental and clinical pharmacology , 1983, 5:75–77. Al-Hindawi MK, Al-Deen IH, Nabi MH, Ismail MA. Anti-inflammatory activity of some Iraqi plants using intact rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 1989;26:163–8. Ammon HPT, Kaul R. Pharmakologie der Kamille und ihrer Inhaltsstoffe. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung , 1992, 132(Suppl. 27):3–26. Amsterdam JD, Li Y, Soeller I, Rockwell K, Mao JJ, Shults J.A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral Matricaria recutita (chamomile) extract therapy for generalized anxiety disorder.J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;29:378–82. Anonymous. A superior variety of German chamomile identified. CIMAP Newsletter. 1993;20:13. Anonymous.Azulene in pharmacy and cosmetics. Dragoco Rep. 1969;16:23–5. Antonelli G. Matricaria chamomilla L. and Anthemis nobilis L. in intermittent fevers in medicines. Biol Abstr. 1928;6:21145. Arak E, Tammcorg I, Myaecorg U. Dynamics of some components of chamomile essential oil. Ref Zhurnal. 1980;10:760–1. Benner MH, Lee HJ. Anaphylactic reaction to chamomile tea. Journal of allergy and clinical immunology , 1973, 52:307–308. Bianco MI, Lúquez C, de Jong LI, Fernández RA. Presence of Clostridium botulinum spores in Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile) and its relationship with infant botulism. Int J Food Microbiol. 2008;121:357–60. Birt DF, Mitchell D, Gold B, Pour P, Pinch HC. Inhibition of ultraviolet light induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice by apigenin, a plant . Anticancer Res. 1997;17:85–91. Blokhina O, Virolainen E, Fagerstedt KV. Antioxidants, oxidative damage and oxygen deprivation stress: a review. Ann Bot. 2003;91:179–94. Bottcher H, Gunther I. Chamomile: industrial profiles. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2005. Storage of dry drug; pp. 211– 3. Bradley P. The British herbal compendium. In: Bradley P, editor. 1st ed. London: British Association; 1992. British herbal pharmacopoeia. London, British Herbal Medicine Association, 1990. Bruneton J. Pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, medicinal plants . Paris, Lavoisier, 1995. Carl W, Emrich LS. Management of oral mucositis during local radiation and systemic chemotherapy: a study of 98 patients. Journal of prosthetic dentistry , 1991, 66:361–369. Carle R, Fleischhauer I, Fehr D. Qualitätsbeurteilung von Kamillenölen. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung , 1987, 127:2451–2457. Carle R, Gomaa K. Chamomile: a pharmacological and clinical profile. Drugs of today , 1992, 28:559–565. Carle R, Isaac O. Die Kamille-Wirkung and Wirksamkeit. Zeitschrift für Phytotherapie , 1987, 8:67–77. Casterline CL. Allergy to chamomile tea. Journal of the American Medical Association , 1980, 244:330–331. Cellarova E, Grelakova K, Repcak M, Honcariv R. Morphogenesis in callus tissue cultures of some Matricaria and Achillea species. Biol Plant. 1982;24:430–6. Cemek M, Kaga S, Simsek N, Buyukokuroglu ME, Konuk M. Antihyperglycemic and antooxidative potential of Matricaria chamomilla L. in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J. Nat Med. 2008;62:284–293. Chandra V, Misra PN, Singh A. Lucknow Extension Bulletin. Lucknow (NBRI): Economic Botany Information Service. 1979 Chandra V, Singh A, Kapoor LD. Experimental cultivation of some essential oil bearing plants in saline soils, Matricaria chamomilla L. Perfum Essent Oil Rec. 1968;59:871. Chandra V. Cultivation of plants for perfumery industry at Lucknow.Indian Perfumer. 1973;16:40–4. Chizzola R, Mitteregger U. Cadmium and zinc interactions in trace element accumulation in chamomile.J Plant Nutr. 2005;28:1383–96. Cho UH, Seo NH. Oxidative stress in Arabidopsis thaliana exposed to cadmium in due to hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Plant Sci. 2005;168:113–20. CIMAP releases the variety vallary of German chamomile. CIMAP Newsl. 1995;22:6. Cinco M et al. A microbiological survey on the activity of a hydroalcoholic extract of chamomile. International journal of crude drug research , 1983, 21:145–151. Crevin JK, Philpott J. 1st ed. USA: Duke University Press; 1990. Herbal medicine past and present. Das M, Mallavarapu GR, Kumar S. Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita ): Economic botany, biology, chemistry, domestication and cultivation. J Med Aromat Plant Sci. 1998;20:1074–109.

344 Das M, Mallavarapu GR, Kumar S. Isolation of a genotype bearing fascinated capitula in chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita ) J Med Aromat Plant Sci. 1999;21:17–22. Della Loggia R et al. Depressive effects of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rausch.tubular flowers, on central nervous system in mice. Pharmacological research communications , 1982, 14:153–162. Della Loggia R et al. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of chamomile preparations. Planta medica , 1990, 56:657–658. Della Loggia R. Lokale antiphlogistische Wirkung der Kamillen-Flavone. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung , 1985, 125(Suppl. 1):9–11. Dempsey DM, Shah J, Klessig DF. Salicylic acid and disease resistance in plants. Crit Rev Plant Sci. 1999;18:547– 75. DePasquale A, Silvestri R. Content of the active principles in various parts of Matricaria chamomilla . Atti-Conv Naz Olii Essenz Sui Deriv Agrum. 1975;607:130–6. Deutsches Arzneibuch 1996. Vol. 2. Methoden der Biologie . Stuttgart, Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, 1996. Dölle B, Carle R, Müller W. Flavonoidbestimmung in Kamillenextraktpräparaten. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung , 1985, 125(Suppl. I):14–19. Dstychova E, Zahejsky J. Contact hypersensitivity to camomile. Ceskoslovenska dermatologie , 1992, 67:14–18. Duke JA. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1985. CRC handbook of medicinal herbs; pp. 297–414. Dutta PK, Singh A. Effect of different spacings on fresh flower and oil yield of Matricaria chamomilla.Indian J Agron. 1964;9:1–12. Dutta PK, Singh A. Symposium on “Production and Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in India”. Jammu: RRL; 1961. Effect of , and potassium singly and in combination on oil content of Matricaria chamomilla; p. 11. Earle L. 1st ed. London: Ebury Press; 1991. Vital oils. Eddouks M, Lemhadri A, Zeggwah NA, Michel JB. Potent hypoglycaemic activity of the aqueous extract of in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract.2005;67:189– 195. El-Hamidi A, Saleh M, Hamidi H. The effect of levels on growth yield and oil production of Matricaria chamomilla . Lloydia. 1965;28:245–51. Eliasova A, Repcak M, Pastirova A. Quantitative changes of secondary metabolites of Matricaria chamomilla by abiotic stress. Z Naturforsch. 2004;59c:543–8. Estra farmakope Indonesia. Jakarta, Cetakan Kedua, Hal 152, Departemen Kesehatan, Republik Indonesia, 1974. European pharmacopoeia , 3rd ed. Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 1997. Pharmacopée française . Paris, Adrapharm, 1996. Exner J, Reichling J, Becker H. Flavonoid in Matricaria chamomile. Planta Med. 1980;39:219–30. Farnsworth NR, ed. NAPRALERT database . Chicago, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL, August 8, 1995 production (an on-line database available directly through the University of Illinois at Chicago or through the Scientific and Technical Network (STN) of Chemical Abstracts Services). Fluck H. 1st ed. London: W. Foulsham and Co. Ltd; 1988. Medicinal plants and authentic guide to natural remedies. Franke R. Chamomile: industrial profiles. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2005. Plant sources; pp. 39–42. Franke R. Cultivation. In: Franke R, Schilcher H, editors. Chamomile: Industrial profiles. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2005. pp. 77–165. Franz Ch, Bauer R, Carle R, Tedesco D, Tubaro A, Zitterl-Eglseer K. Study on the assessments of plants/herbs, plant/herb extracts and their naturally or synthetically produced components as additives for use in animal production. CFT/EFSA/FEEDAP/2005/01. 2005:155–69. Franz Ch. Content and composition of the essential oil in flower heads of Matricaria chamomilla L. during its ontogenetical development. Planta Med. 1979;36:282–3. Fuchs J, Milbradt R. Skin anti-inflammatory activity of apigenin-7-glucoside in rats. Arzneimittel-Forschung , 1993, 43:370–372. Galambosi B, Marczal G, Litkey K, Svab J, Petri G. Comparative examination of chamomile varieties grown in Finland and Hungary. Herba Hungarica. 1988;27:45–55. Gamal-El-Din KM, Abd-El-Wahed MSA.Effect of some amino acids on growth and essential oil content of chamomile plant. Int J Agric Biol. 2005;7:376–80. Gardiner P. Complementary, Holistic, and Integrative Medicine: Chamomile. Pediatr Rev. 2007;28:16–18. Gasic O, Lukic V, Adamovic R, Durkovic R. Variability of content and composition of essential oil in various chamomile cultivators ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) Herba Hungarica. 1989;28:21–8. Gasic O, Lukic V, Nikolic A. Chemical study of Matricaria chamomilla L-II.Fitoterapia. 1983;54:51–5.

345 Gates MA, Tworoger SS, Hecht JL, De Vivo I, Rosner B, Hankinson SE. A prospective study of dietary flavonoid intake and incidence of epithelial ovarian cancer. Int. J Cancer. 2007;121:2225–2232. Gayar F, Shazli A. Toxicity of certain plants to Culex pipens L.larvae (Diptera: Culicidae) Bull Soc Entomol (Egypt) 1968;52:467–75. Ghauri IG, Malih S, Ahmed I. Correct scientific name of “Babuna” used widely as a drug in unani system of medicine. Pak J Sci Ind Res. 1984;27:20–3. Glowania HJ, Raulin C, Svoboda M. The effect of chamomile on wound healing- a controlled clinical-experimental double-blind study. Zeitschrift für Hautkrankheiten , 1986, 62:1262–1271. Gould L, Reddy CVR, Gomprecht RF. Cardiac effect of chamomile tea. Journal of clinical pharmacology , 1973, 13:475–479. Gowda TNV, Farooqi AA, Subbaiah T, Raju B. Influence of Plant density, Nitrogen and Phosphorus on growth, yield and essential oil content of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla Linn.)Indian Perfumers. 1991;35:168–72. Grejtovsky A, Pirc R. Effect of high cadmium concentrations in soil on growth, uptake of nutrients and some heavy metals of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. J Appl Bot. 2000;74:169–74. Grejtovsky A, Repcak M, Gianits L. The influence of soil cadmium eliminating sorbents on Chamomilla recutita. J Environ Sci Health. 1998;B33:307–16. Guenther E. 1st ed. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company Inc; 1952. The essential oil. Guidelines for predicting dietary intake of pesticide residues , 2nd rev. ed. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1997 (unpublished document WHO/FSF/FOS/97.7; available from Food Safety, WHO, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland). Gunes A, Inal A, Alpaslan M, Eraslan F, Guneri Bagci E, Cicek N. Salicylic acid induced changes on some physiological parameters symptomatic for oxidative stress and mineral nutrition in (Zea mays L.) grown under salinity. J Plant Physiol. 2007;164:728–36. Gupta AK, Misra N. Hepatoprotective activity of aqueous ethanolic extract of Chamomile capitula in paracetamol intoxicated albino rats. Am J Pharmacol Toxicol. 2006;1:17–20. Gupta V, Mittal P, Bansal P, Khokra SL, Kaushik D. Pharmacological potential of Matricaria recutita-A review. Int J Pharm Sci Drug Res. 2010;2:12–6. Gutierrez-Coronado MA, Trejo-Lopez C, Larque-Saavedra A. Effects of salicylic acid on the growth of roots and shoots in soybean. Plant Physiol Biochem. 1998;36:563–5. Handa KL, Chopra IC, Abrol BK. Introduction of some of the important exotic aromatic plants in Jammu and Kashmir.Indian Perfumer. 1957;1:42–9. Hare PD, Cress WA, Staden JV. The effects of exogenous proline and praline analogues on in vitro shoot organogenesis in Arabidopsis. Plant Growth Regul. 2001;34:203–7. Hare PD, Cress WA, Staden JV. The regulatory role for proline metabolism in stimulating Arabidopsis thaliana seed .Plant Growth Regul. 2003;39:41–50. Hausen BM, Busker E, Carle R. Über das Sensibilisierungsvermögen von Compositenarten.VII. Experimentelle Untersuchungen mit Auszügen und Inhaltsstoffen von Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert und Anthemis cotula L. Planta medica , 1984:229–234. HJde F. The food plants of the black bean of aphid A.fabae. Tijdschrift Plantenzic Kien. 1950;55:69–87. Hormann HP, Korting HC. Evidence for the efficacy and safety of topical herbal drugs in dermatology.Part 1.Anti- inflammatory agents. Phytomedicine , 1994, 1:161– 171. Horn R. First finding on chemical weed control in chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) Pharmazie. 1969;24:170–3. [PubMed] Horvath E, Szalai G, Janda T. Induction of a biotic stress tolerance by salicylic acid signaling. J Plant Growth Regul. 2007;26:290–300. Huang ZA, Jiang DA, Yang Y, Sun JW, Jin SH. Effects of nitrogen deficiency on gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and antioxidant enzymes in leaves of rice plants. Photosynthetica. 2004;42:357–64. Isaac O, Thiemer K. Biochemische Untersuchungen von Kamilleninhaltsstoffen. Arzneimittel-Forschung , 1975, 25:1086–1087. Isaac O. Pharmacological investigations with compounds of Chamomilla. Planta Med. 1979;35:118–24. [PubMed] Isaac O. Therapy with chamomile-experience and verification. Disch Apoth Ztg. 1980;120:567–70. Issac O. 1st ed. Czecho-Slovakia: Prague press; 1989. Recent progress in chamomile research- medicines of plant origin in modern therapy. Ivens GM. Stinking mayweed. N Z J Agric. 1979;138:21–3. Jakovlev V et al. Pharmacological investigations with compounds of chamomile. II. New investigations on the antiphlogistic effects of (-)-α-bisabolol and bisabolol oxides. Planta medica , 1979, 35:125–240.

346 Jakovlev V, Isaac O, Flaskamp E. Pharmacological investigations with compounds of chamomile VI.Investigations on the antiphlogistic effects of chamazulene and matricine. Planta Med. 1983;49:67–73. [PubMed] Jakovlev V, Isaac O, Flaskamp E. Pharmakologische Untersuchungen von Kamilleninhaltsstoffen. VI. Untersuchungen zur antiphlogistischen Wirkung von Chamazulen und Matricin. Planta medica , 1983, 49:67– 73. Jakovlev V, Isaac O, Thiemer K, Kunde R. Pharmacological investigations with compounds of chamomile II.New investigations on the antiphlogistic effects of (-)-α-bisabolol and bisabolol oxides. Planta Med. 1979;35:125–40. [PubMed] Jellinek JC. α-Bisabolol – an agent, anti-inflammatory pour products cosmetique. Perfume Cosmet Aromes. 1984;57:55–7. Juszczuk IM, Wiktorowska A, Malusa E, Rychter AM. Changes in the concentration of phenolic compounds and exudation induced by phosphate deficiency in bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)Plant Soil. 2004;267:41–9. Kanamori H, Terauchi M, Fuse JI, Sakamoto I. Simultaneous and quantitative analysis of glycoside. Shoyakugaku Zasshi. 1993;47:34–8. Kassi E, Papoutsi Z, Fokialakis N, Messari I, Mitakou S, Moutsatsou P. Greek plant extracts exhibit selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM)-like properties. J Agric Food Chem. 2004;52:6956–6961. Kato A, Minoshima Y, Yamamoto J, Adachi I, Watson AA, Nash RJ. Protective effects of dietary chamomile tea on diabetic complications. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56:8206–8211. Kell T. More on infant colic. Birth Gaz. 1997;13:3. Kerches J. Experiments with the cultivation of chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) Herba Hungarica. 1966;5:141– 7. Kesmati M, Abbasi Zadeh Z, Mofhaddam HF. Study of benzodiazepine like effects of Matricaria recutita on morphine withdrawal syndrome in adult male rats. Pak J Med Sci. 2008;24:735–9. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants-an illustrated dictionary. In: Khare CP, editor. 1st ed. New York: Springer- Verlag; 2007. Khater HF, Ramadan MY, El-Madawy RS.Lousicidal, ovicidal and repellent efficacy of some essential oils against lice and flies infesting water buffaloes in Egypt. Vet Parasitol. 2009;164:257–66. Khayyal MT, el-Ghazaly MA, Kenawy SA, Seif-el-Nasr M, Mahran LG, Kafafi YA, et al. Antiulcerogenic effect of some gastrointestinally acting plant extracts and their combination. Arzneimittelforschung. 2001;51:545–53. Kobayashi Y, Nakano Y, Inayama K, Sakai A, Kamiya T. Dietary intake of the flower extracts of German chamomile ( Matricaria recutita L.) inhibited compound 48/80-induced itch-scratch responses in mice. Phytomedicine. 2003;10:657–64. Kobayashi Y, Takahashi R, Ogino F. Antipruritic effect of the single oral administration of German chamomile flower extract and its combined effect with antiallergic agents in ddY mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;101:308– 12. Koch C, Reichling J, Schneele J, Schnitzler P. Inhibitory effect of essential oils against herpes simplex virus type 2. Phytomedicine. 2008;15:71–8. Koeurik S, Dovjak V. Effect of molybdenum and boron dry matter production and drug yield in chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla ) Nase Liecive Rastliny. 1979;16:69–74. Kotov AG, Khvorost PP, Komissarenko NF. Coumarins of Matricaria recutita . Khim Prirod Sojed. 1991;6:853–4. Kovacik J, Backor M. Changes of phenolic metabolism and oxidative status in nitrogen deficient Matricaria chamomilla plants. Plant Soil. 2007;297:255–65. Kovacik J, Backor M. Oxidative status of Matricaria chamomilla plants related to cadmium and copper uptake. Ecotoxicology. 2008;17:471–9. Kovacik J, Gruz J, Backor M, Strand M, Repcak M. Salicylic acid induced changes to growth and phenolic metabolism in Matricaria chamomilla plants. Plant Cell Rep. 2009;28:135–43. Kovacik J, Klejdus B, Backor M, Repcak M. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity and phenolic compounds accumulation in nitrogen deficient Matricaria chamomilla rosettes. Plant Sci. 2007;172:393–9. Kovacik J, Repcak M, Kron I. Nitrogen deficiency induced changes of free amino acids and coumarin contents in the leaves of Matricaria chamomilla L. Acta Physiol Plant. 2006;28:159–64. Kovacik J, Tomko J, Backor M, Repcak M. Matricaria chamomilla is not a hyperaccumulator, but tolerant to cadmium stress. Plant Growth Regul. 2006;50:239–47. Kovcik J, Gruz J, Backor M, Tomko J, Strnad M, Repcak M. Phenolic compounds composition and physiological attributes of Matricaria chamomilla grown in copper excess. Environ Exp Bot. 2008;62:145–52. Kral ′ova K, Masarovicova E. Hypericum perforatum L. and Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rausch accumulation of some toxic metals.Pharmazie. 2003;58:359–60. [PubMed]

347 Kumar S, Das M, Singh A, Ram G, Mallavarapu GR, Ramesh S. J Med Aromat Plant Sci. 2001;23:617–23. Kunde R, Isaac O. On the flavones of chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) and a new acetylated apigenin-7- glucoside. Planta Med. 1980;37:124–30. Lal RK, Sharma JR, Misra HO, Singh SP. Induced floral mutants and their productivity in German chamomile (Matricaria recutita ) Indian J Agric Sci. 1993;63:27–33. Lal RK, Sharma JR, Misra HO. Vallary: An improved variety of German chamomile. Pafai J. 1996;18:17–20. Lang W, Schwandt K. Untersuchung über die glykosidischen Bestandteile der Kamille. Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung , 1957, 97:149–151. Lawrence BM. Progress in Essential Oils. Perfume Flavorist. 1987;12:35–52. Leslie GB, Salmon G. Repeated dose toxicity studies and reproductive studies on nine Bio-Strath herbal remedies. Swiss medicine , 1979, 1:1–3. Leung A, Foster S. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1996. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics. Leung A, Foster S. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics , 2nd ed. New York, John Wiley, 1996. Leung AY. 1st ed. New York: John Wiley and sons; 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs and cosmetics; pp. 110–12. Macchioni F, Perrucci S, Cecchi F, Cioni PL, Morelli I, Pampiglione S. Acaricidal activity of aqueous extracts of camomile flowers, Matricaria chamomilla , against the mite Psoroptes cuniculi.Med Vet Entomol. 2004;18:205–7. Mahady GB, Pendland SL, Stoia A, Hamill FA, Fabricant D, Dietz BM, et al. In vitro susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori to botanical extracts used traditionally for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Phytother Res. 2005;19:988–91. Maksymiec W. Signalling responses in plants to heavy metal stress. Acta Physiol Plant. 2007;29:177–87. Manday E, Szoke E, Muskath Z, Lemberkovics E. A study of the production of essential oils in chamomile hairy root cultures.Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 1999;24:303–8. Mann C, Staba EJ. The chemistry, pharmacology and commercial formulations of chamomile. In: Craker LE, Simon JE, editors. Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants- Recent Advances in Botany, Horticulture and Pharmacology. Phoenix: Oryx Pres; 1986. pp. 235–80. Mann C, Staba EJ. The chemistry, pharmacology and commercial formulations of chamomile. In: Craker LE, Simon JE, editors. Herbs, spices and medicinal plants- recent advances in botany, horticulture and pharmacology. USA: Haworth Press Inc; 2002. pp. 235–80. Mann C, Staba J. The chemistry, pharmacology, and commercial formulations of chamomile. In: Craker LE, Simon JE, eds., Herbs, spices, and medicinal plants: recent advances in botany, horticulture and pharmacology , Vol. I. Phoenix, AZ, Oryx Press, 1986:233–280. Mansour MM. Nitrogen containing compounds and adaptation of plants to salinity stress. Biol Plant. 2000;43:491– 500. Martins MD, Marques MM, Bussadori SK, Martins MA, Pavesi VC, Mesquita-Ferrari RA, et al. Comparative analysis between Chamomilla recutita and corticosteroids on wound healing. An in vitro and in vivo study. Phytother Res. 2009;23:274–8. Martin-Tanguy J. Metabolism and function of polyamines in plants: recent development (new approaches) Plant Growth Regul. 2001;34:135–48. Masada Y. 1st ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc; 1976. Analysis of essential oils by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Mathur AC, Sharma MC. Nyrius minor Dist. (Lygaeidae: Namiptera) – A pest pf Matricaria chamomilla. Indian J Entomol. 1962;24:64–6. Matricaria recutita (German chamomile). . The Australian New Crops Newsletter. 1999. Jan 11, [about 7 p., last cited on 2010 July 19]. Available from: http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncn11166.htm . Mazokopakis EE, Vrentzos GE, Papadakis JA, Babalis DE, Ganotakis ES.Wild chamomile ( Matricaria recutita L.) mouthwashes in methotrexate-induced oral mucositis.Phytomedicine. 2005;12:25–7. Mericli AH.The lipophilic compounds of a Turkish Matricaria chamomilla variety with no chamazuline in the volatile oil. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1990;28:145–7. Mills SY. 1st ed. London: Arkana Penguin Books; 1979. The essential book of herbal medicine. Mishra DK, Naik SN, Srivastava VK, Prasad R. Effect of drying Matricaria chamomilla flowers on chemical composition of essential oil. J Med Aromat Plant Sci. 1999;21:1020–5.

348 Misra N, Luthra R, Singh KL, Kumar S, Kiran L. Recent advances in biosynthesis of alkaloids. In: Nanishi K, O- Methcohn, editors. Comprehensive natural product chemistry (CONAP) Oxford: Elsevier Publisher; 1999. pp. 25–69. Misra PN, Kapoor LD. Matricaria chamomilla L. – A remunerative crop for saline alkali-soils. Indian Forester. 1978;104:631–7. Nidagundi R, Hegde L. Cultivation prospects of German chamomile in South India. Nat Prod Radiance. 2007;6:135–7. Nissen HP, Blitz H, Kreyel HW. Prolifometrie, eine methode zur beurteilung der therapeutischen wirsamkeit kon Kamillosan®-Salbe. Z Hautkr. 1988;63:84–90. Nogueira JC, Diniz Mde F, Lima EO.In vitro antimicrobial activity of plants in Acute Otitis Externa. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;74:118–24. Ohe C, Miami M, Hasegawa C, Ashida K, Sugino M, Kanamori H. Seasonal variation in the production of the head and accumulation of glycosides in the head of Matricaria chamomilla . Acta Horticulture. 1995;390:75–82. Pamukov D, Achtardziev CH. 1st ed. Priroda: Bratislava; 1986. Natural pharmacy (in Slova) Park YS, Min HJ, Ryang SH, Oh KJ, Cha JS, Kim HY, et al. Characterization of salicylic acid-induced genes in Chinese cabbage. Plant Cell Rep. 2003;21:1027–34. Pasechnik LK. Cholagogic action of extracts prepared from wild chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) Farmakol Toksikol. 1996;29:468–9. [PubMed] Pastirova A, Repcak M, Eliasova A. Salicylic acid induces changes of coumarin metabolites in Matricaria chamomilla L. Plant Sci. 2004;167:819–24. Patel D, Shukla S, Gupta S. Apigenin and cancer chemoprevention: progress, potential and promise. Int J Oncol. 2007;30:233–245. Patra DD, Misra HO, Lal RK, Agarwal KK, Prasad A, Anwar M, et al. Lucknow: Farm Bulletin CIMAP; 2005. Matricaria recutita cultivation; p. 7. Paulsen E, Andersen KE, Hausen BM. Compositae dermatitis in a Danish dermatology department in one year. Contact dermatitis , 1993, 29:6–10. Paun E, Mihalopa A. Elaboration of cultural practices for chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). An Inst Cercot Pentrru Cereale Plants Tehn Fund, Ser B Agrochim Agrotechn. Pasuni Finete. 1966;34:663–70. Peskova RE. Effect of trace elements on the yield and quality of pharmaceutical chamomile flowers ( Matricaria chamomilla ) and peppermint leaves ( Mentha piperita ) var. rubescens. Izvestiia Akadmii Nauk Lat SSR. 1968;7:111–9. Pino JA, Bayat F, Marbot R, Aguero J. Essential oil of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rausch.From Iran. J Essent Oil Res. 2002;14:407–8. Pinto SA, Bohland E, Coelho Cde P, Morgulis MS, Bonamin LV. An animal model for the study of chamomilla in stress and depression: pilot study. Homeopathy. 2008;97:141–4. Pirzad A, Alyari MR, Shaliba S, Zehtab-Salmasi, Moammadi A. Essential oil content and composition of German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) at different irrigation regimes. J Agron. 2006;5:451–5. Polish pharmacopoeia . Warsaw, 1965. Pothke W, Bulin P. Phytochemical study of a new hybrid chamomile variety. II. Essential oil. Pharm Zentralle. 1969;108:813–23. Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials . Geneva, World Health Organization, 1998. Ramos MF, Santos EP, Bizarri CH, Mattos HA, Padilha MR, Duarte HM. Preliminary studies towards utilization of various plant extracts as antisolar agents. Int J Cosmet Sci. 1996;18:87–101. Rauschert S. Nomenklatorische Probleme in der Gattung Matricaria L. Folia geobotanica phytotaxonomica , 1990, 9:249–260. Redaelli C, Formentini L, Santaniello E. HPLC determination of coumarins in Matricaria chamomilla . Planta Med. 1981;43:412–3. Redaelli C, Formentini L, Santaniello E. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of apigenin and its glucosides in flowers of Matricaria chamomilla and chamomille extracts. Planta medica , 1981, 42:288–292. Reichling J, Becker H. Tissue culture of Matricaria chamomilla L.: I. Isolation and maintenance of the tissue culture and preliminary phytochemical investigations. Planta Med. 1976;30:258–68. Reichling J, Beiderbeck R, Becker H. Vergleichende Untersuchungen Uber sekundare Inhaltsstoffe bei pflanzentumoren, Blite Kraut und wurzel der Matricaria chamomilla L. Planta Med. 1979;36:322–32. Reichling J, Bisson W, Becker H, Schilling G. Zusammensetzung und accumulation des etherischenol in Matricaria chamomilla Radix. 2. Mitt. Z. Naturforsch. 1983;38:159–61.

349 Repcak M, Imrich J, Franekova M. Umbelliferone, a stress metabolite of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. J Plant Physiol. 2001;158:1085–7. Rice-Evans CA, Miller NJ, Paganga G. Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radic Biol Med. 1996;20:933–56. Rivera IG et al. Genotoxicity assessment through the Ames test of medicinal plants commonly used in Brazil. Environmental toxicology and water quality , 1994, 9:87–93. Sadr Lahijani MS, Raoof Kateb HR, Heady R, Yazdani D. The effect of German chamomile ( Marticaria recutita L.) extract and tea tree ( Melaleuca alternifolia L.) oil used as irrigants on removal of smear layer: a scanning electron microscopy study. Int Endod J. 2006;39:190–5. Salamon I. Chamomile a medicinal plant. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 1992;10:1–4. Sanchez E, Soto JM, Garcia PC, Lopez-Lefebre LR, Rivero RM, Ruiz JM, et al. Phenolic compounds and oxidative metabolism in green bean plants Ander nitrogen toxicity. Aust J Plant Physiol. 2000; 27:973–8. Schilcher H, Imming P, Goeters S. Active chemical constituents of Matricaria chamomilla L. syn. Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. In: Franke R, Schilcher H, editors. Chamomile-industrial profiles. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2005. pp. 55–76. Schilcher H, Kamille D. 1st ed. Germany: Wissenschaft Verlagsgesellschaft; 1987. Handbuch fur arzte, apotheker und andere naturwissenschaftler. Schilcher H. Influence of and some heavy metals on growth of Matricaria chamomilla L.and the biosynthesis of essential oil. Acta Horticulture. 1978;73:339–41. Schilcher H. Recent knowledge in quality evaluation of camomile blossoms respectively camomile oil. 2. Quality evaluation of the volatile oil in Flores Chamomillae. Grading of commercial camomiles into 4 respectively 5 chemical types. Planta Med. 1973;23:132–44. Sgherri C, Cosi E, Navari-Izzo F. Phenols and antioxidative status of Raphanus sativus grown in copper excess. Physiol Plant. 2003;118:21–8. Shahi NC. Traditional cultivation of Babunah Chamomilla recutita (L.)Rauschert syn. Matricaria chamomilla L. Lucknow. Bull Medico-Ethnobotanical Res. 1980;1:471–7. Shakirova FE, Sakhabutdinova AR, Bezrukova MV, Fatkhutdinova RA, Fatkhutdinova DR. Changes in the hormonal status of seedlings induced by salicylic acid and salinity. Plant Sci. 2003;164:317–22. Sharma A, Kumar A, Virmani OP. Cultivations of German chamomile – a review. Curr Res Med Aromat Plants. 1983;5:269–78. Sharma ML, Shukla VS, Nigam IC, Chopra IC. The essential oil of Matricaria chamomilla . J Tech Assoc India. 1961;16:59–61. Shipochliev T. Uterotonic action of extracts from a group of medicinal plants.Veterinarno-Meditsinsiki Nauki. 1981;18:94–8. Shnitzler AC, Nolan LL, Labbe R. Screening of medicinal plants for antileishmanial and antimicrobial activity. Acta Hortic. 1996;426:235–42. Shukla S, Mishra A, Fu P, MacLennan GT, Resnick MI, Gupta S. Up-regulation of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 by apigenin leads to growth inhibition and apoptosis of 22Rv1 xenograft in athymic nude mice. FASEB J. 2005;19:2042–2044. Singh A, Singh M, Singh K, Singh DV. Comparative efficacy of thiobencarb, nitrofen and oxyflurofen in German chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) Indian Perfumer. 1989;33:228–31. Singh A. Cultivation of Matricaria chamomilla . In: Atal CK, Kapur BM, editors. Cultivation and utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants. Jammu-Tawi: Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR); 1982. pp. 653–8. Singh A. Cultivation of Matricaria chamomilla . In: Handa HS, Kaul MK, editors. Supplement to cultivation and utilization of aromatic plants. Jammu-Tawi: Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR); 1997. pp. 241–53. Singh LB. Utilization of saline-alkali soils for agro-industry without reclamation. Econ Bot. 1970;24:439–42. Skorzynska-Polit E, Pawlikowska-Pawlega B, Szczuka E, Drazkiewicz M, Krupa Z. The activity and localization of lipoxygenases in Arabidopsis thaliana under cadmium and copper stresses.Plant Growth Regul. 2006;48:29. Smith TA. Polyamines. Annu Rev Plant Physiol. 1985;36:117–43. Srivastava JK, Gupta S. Antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of chamomile extract in various human cancer cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:9470–8. Stiegelmeyer H. Therapie unspezifischer Magenbeschwerden mit Kamillosan® Kassenarzt. 1978;18:3605–6. Stohs SJ, Bagchi D. Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity of metal ions. Free Radic Biol Med. 1995;18:321–36. Subiza J et al. Allergic conjunctivitis to chamomile tea. Annals of allergy , 1990, 65:127–132. Subiza J et al. Anaphylactic reaction after the ingestion of chamomile tea: a study of cross-reactivity with other composite pollens. Journal of allergy and clinical immunology , 1989, 84:353–358.

350 Subiza J, Subiza JL, Marisa A, Miguel H, Rosario G, Miguel J, et al. Allergic conjunctivitis to chamomile tea. Ann Allergy. 1990;65:127–32. Svab J. New aspects of cultivating chamomile. Herba Polonica. 1979;25:35–9. Szoke E, Kzovkina IN, Verzar-Petri G, Smirnov AM. Effect of growth regulators on biomass formation in callus culture of chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) Herba Hungarica. 1979;18:41–57. Szoke E, Kzovkina IN, Verzar-Petri G, Smirnov AM. Tissue culture of the wild chamomile. Fiziologiya Rastenii (Mosc) 1977;24:832–40. Szoke E, Verzar-Petri G, Shavarda AL, Kuzovkina IN, Smirnov AM. Differences in the essential oil composition in isolated roots, root callus tissues and cell suspensions of Matricaria chamomilla . Izvestiia Akadmii Nauk SSSR-Seriia Biolgicheskaia. 1980;6:943–9. The Indian Pharmaceutical Codex. Vol. I. Indigenous drugs . New Delhi, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1953. Thiemer VK, Stadler R, Isaac O. Biochemische Untersuchungen von Kamillen inhaltsstoffen. Arzneimittel- Forschung , 1972, 22:1086–1087. Tubaro A, Zilli C, Radaelli C, Loggia RD. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of a chamomile extract after topical application. Plant Med. 1984;50:359. Yihak E, Sarkany-Kiss J, Verzar-Petri G. Phytochemical investigation of apigenin glycosides of Matricaria chamomilla.Pharmazie. 1962;17:301–4. Tyler VE, Brady LR, Robbers JE, eds. Pharmacognosy , 9th ed. Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1988. Uteshev BS, Laskova IL, Afanasev V.The immunomodulating activity of the heteropolysaccharides from German chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) during air and immersion cooling.Eksperimental ′naia i Klinicheskaia Farmakologiia. 1999;62:52–5. Valavanidis A, Vlahogianni T, Dassenakis M, Scoullos M. Molecular biomarkers of oxidative stress in aquatic organisms in relation to toxic environmental pollutants. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2006;64:178–89. Vanacker H, Lu H, Rate DN, Greenberg JT. A role for salicylic acid and NPR1 in regulating cell growth in Arabidopsis. Plant J. 2001;28:209–16. Vilaginès P, Delaveau P, Vilagines R. Inhibition of poliovirus replication by an extract of Matricaria chamomilla (L) Comptes Rendus de l ′Academie des Sciences-III. 1985;301:289–94. Voemel A, Reichling J, Becker H, Draeger PD. Herbicides in the cultivation of Matricaria chamomilla . I. Influence of herbicides on flower production and weed. Planta Med. 1977;31:378–89. Wagner H, Bladt S, Zgainski EM. 1st ed. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1984. Plant Drug Analysis; pp. 32–34. Wagner H, Wierer M, Bauer R. In vitro inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis by essential oils and phenolic compounds.Planta medica , 1986:184–187. Waller GR, Nawacki E. 1st ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1978. Alkaloid biology and metabolism in plants. Way TD, Kao MC, Lin JK. Apigenin induces apoptosis through proteasomal degradation of HER2/neu in HER2/neu-overexpressing breast cancer cells via the phosphatidylinositol-3'-kinase/Akt-dependent pathway. J Biol Chem. 2004;279:4479–4489. Weiß RF. Kamille-"Heilpflanze 1987". Kneipp-Blätter , 1987, 1:4–8. Weizman ZVI, Alkrinawi S, Goldfarb DAN, Bitran G. Efficacy of preparation in infantile colic. J Pediatr. 1993;122:650–2. [PubMed] Yang CW, Lin CC, Kao CH. Endogenous ornithine and arginine contents and dark induced praline accumulation in detached rice leaves. J Plant Physiol. 1999;155:665–8. Youngken HW. Textbook of pharmacognosy , 6th ed. Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1950. Zalecki R. Cultivation and fertilizing of the tetraploid form of Matricaria chamomilla L. II.Spacing and density of sowing. Herba Polonica. 1972;18:70–8. Zalecki R. Cultivation and fertilizing of the tetraploid Matricaria chamomilla L.I.The sowing time Herba Polonica. 1971;17:367–75.

351