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Little-known and remarkable facts about Paul and his times.

MARVIN R. WILSON

Tarsus, Paul’s birthplace, is at least Paul was a weaver of tent cloth living abroad in the first century. 4,000 years old. In 41 B.C., Antony from goats’ hair. The term, howev- Every major city had at least one and Cleopatra held a celebrated er, can also mean “leatherworker.” synagogue, and had at least meeting there. Other early translations of Luke’s eleven. The Jewish population of term mean “maker of leather Rome alone was 40,000-50,000. At least seven of Paul’s relatives thongs” and “shoemaker.” are mentioned in the New Testa- Wine was a common drink of Paul’s ment. At the end of his letter to the Paul, the “ to the Gen- day, but it was not the wine of our Romans, Paul greets as “relatives” tiles,”had plenty of opportunity to day. In the Greco-Roman world, Andronicus and Junia, Jason, Sosi- preach to Jews in his travels. There pure wine was considered strong pater, and Lucius. In addition, Acts were some four to five million Jews and unpleasant, so some mentions Paul’s sister and his neph- ew, who helped Paul in prison (:16-22).

It is possible that Paul’s “relative” Lucius is Luke, the author of the and the Acts of the Apos- tles. On his second jour- ney, Paul may have gone to Troas (where Luke lived-or at least where he joined Paul) because he knew a relative he could stay with there (:8, 11).

What type of fish did Paul eat? Probably not catfish. Catfish was the largest native fish of the Sea of (sometimes weighing up to 20 pounds), but Jewish dietary laws would have prevented at least the early Paul from eating fish without scales (Deut. 14:10).

It’s not clear exactly how Paul sup- THICK-SKINNED APOSTLE. Paul was not only stoned on more than one ported himself on his missionary occasion for his , he was beaten five times with thirty-nine lashes. Accord- journeys. Luke calls him a “tent- ing to Jewish law, at each beating Paul likely received thirteen stripes on the maker” (skenopoios), which suggests chest and twenty-six on the back.

2 Christian History diluted wine with seawater. In cold weather, city snack shops in sold hot wine.

Paul read pagan poets. In his writ- ings, he quotes Epimenides of (Tit. 1:12), of (:28) and , author of the Greek comedy Thais (1 Cor. 15:33).

Many Roman men of Paul’s day curled their hair. Men also applied oil and grease to their hair; it was one way people deloused themselves. These concoctions were made from such substances as the marrow of deer bones, the fat of bears and sheep, and the excrement of rats. WHAT HORSE? Though many depictions of Paul’s conversion show him Demand for wild animals for enter- fallen from a horse, neither Paul nor Luke, in his Acts of the , tainment in Paul’s day turned hunt- ever mention that Paul was riding a horse when he was struck down on ing into a major business. Gladiato- the way to . rial shows usually included animal hunts or fights with leopards, - Paul’s letters, not the , give died at about age 58, an old age given thers, bears, lions, tigers, elephants, us the earliest information we have the times and the hard life he lived. ostriches, and gazelles. In 55 B.C. at about . All his letters were Pompeii’s games, 400 leopards and probably written before the first In later art, Paul is often depicted 600 lions were killed. In A.D. 80, at Gospel was penned. The earliest with a and book, which is the dedication of the Colosseum by reference to the sayings of Jesus said to symbolize the manner of his , 9,000 animals were come from Thessalonians, which (beheading by sword), and his killed in a hundred days. Paul wrote about A.D. 50. writings, which became “the .” Paul may have recorded some He may have not been as old as the of the ’s painting on the cover im- MARVIN R. WILSON is professor of bibli- . Many scholars think Paul plies, but Paul lived a relatively long cal and theological studies at Gordon Col- is quoting hymns in passages life. He was probably born about lege, Wenham, Massachusetts. He is author like and Philip- A.D. 6 and probably died about of Our Father : Jewish to the pians 2:1-11. A.D. 64—which means he may have Christian Faith (Eerdrnans, 1989).

Issue 47 3 The Trial and Testimony of the Early Church This informative series of six half-hour programs takes you to the actual locations to show what the early church was like, how it spread, and the persecution it endured. Host for the award-winning series is Steve Bell. Actors Nigel Goodwin, Russell Boulter, and Jane Campion dramatize leading figures and events from the early church. Included in PDF are a leader’s guide, student handouts, program scripts, and a script of an early church document, Octavius of Minucius Felix. Documentary, 3 hours. * DVD - #500823D, $24.99 Sale $19.99

A.D. The earliest experiences of the Christian church after Jesus’ ascension are powerfully dramatized in this remarkably authentic TV epic covering the years A.D. 30-69. This Biblically and historically accurate drama comes complete with a 56-page study guide in PDF, providing a 12-week course. Performances from an all-star cast, together with the scope of the project, make this great -based family entertainment. Drama, 6 hours. DVD - #109269D, $24.99 Sale $12.99

Augustine: A Voice for All Generations (354-430) is one of the greatest theologians of the Christian Church. His works, including The City of , On the , and , have had an inestimable impact on the Church and, by extension, on Western Civilization at large. Hosted by Augustine expert Mike Aquilina and shot on location in Rome and Milan, this documentary travels back to the fourth century to discover why Augustine has become a “Voice for All Generations.” Documentary, 55 minutes. * DVD - #501515D, $19.99 Sale $9.99

Paul the Apostle From the Emmy award-winning director Roger Young ( and Jesus) comes the spectacular story of . This augmented adaptation, largely based on the biblical account, profiles ’s most prolific messenger. Beautifully shot in the Moroccan desert, Paul the Apostle is a sweeping saga of the man who brought to the Western world. Drama, 145 minutes. * DVD - #501420D, $19.99 Sale $7.99

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www.VisionVideo.com • 1-800-523-0226 Please use source code CH047d when ordering. Boundary Breaker / 8 Paul of Tarsus crossed all types of barriers to gain followers for Jesus of . James D. Smith III

On the Road with Paul / 16 The ease—and dangers—of travel in the ancient world. Edwin M. Yamauchi

Into the Heart of / 20 Why did Paul, the traveling missionary, set down roots in and ? Dan P. Cole

Bald, Blind, & Single? / 32 Answers to some of the most puzzling questions about Paul. Stephen M. Miller

ANCIENT STYLUS AND INKWELL, the type Paul’s secretaries likely used in transcribing his letters.

Subversive Conservative / 35 Features How could Paul communicate his radical message to those threatened by it? • Stench, Pain, and Misery / 14 Craig Keener • From Child-Killing to / 27 Legacy of Liberty / 38 • The Real of Romans / 31 Paul’s teachings on and freedom have shaken the church in every age. Departments F. F. Bruce • Did You Know? / 2 The Natural / 40 • From the Editor / 6 To Paul and the early church, religious experiences were commonplace. • CH Timeline / 24 An interview with Gordon Fee • Map: Beyond Corinth & Ephesus / 26 HISTORY IN THE MAKING: Billy Graham Had a Dream / 44 • The Gallery: Paul’s Inner Enthusiasm for racial reconciliation has never been so high among Circle / 28 American evangelicals. Why? • Recommended Resources / 43 Edward Gilbreath

©1995 CHRISTIAN HISTORY COVER: “ Paul in Prison• by Rembrandt (1606-1669) Wikimedia Commons. CHRISTIAN HISTORY (ISSN 0891-9666) is published quarterly (February, May, August, ) by Today, Inc., 465 Gundersen Drive, Carol Stream, IL 60188. Printed in U.S.A. Post International Publications Sales Agreement No. 546526. GST R126028836. SUBSCRIPTION SERVICE: Please write to CHRISTIAN HISTORY, P.O. Box 11618, Des Moines, IA 50340; include current address label with all correspondence. For faster service, call toll-free: 1-800-873-6986. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR: Please write to Mark Galli, managing editor, CHRISTIAN HISTORY, 465 Gundersen Drive, Carol Stream, IL 60188, or E-Mail: [email protected]. We do not accept unsolicited manuscripts; please send a query letter first. PERMISSIONS: Requests to reprint photographs or text should be directed to Mary Ann Jeffreys at the Carol Stream address; phone: 1-708-260-6200 Ext. 318, or E-.Mail: [email protected]. REPRINT 2019. Paul—Church of Ss. Peter and Paul, Belozersk George Shuklin / Wikimedia Belozersk George Shuklin / and Paul, of Ss. Peter Paul—Church 4.0] [cc-by-nc-nd Ancient stylus and inkwell—© 2012-2017 Magikos Fakos Issue 47 5 From the Editor Christian History

Executive Editor Managing Editor Putting Paul in Kevin A. Miller Mark Galli Art Director Editorial Raymond C. Coordinator His Place Whitlock III Mary Ann Jeffreys ou will find not one article on Paul’s in this issue, and Editorial Senior Editor here’s the reason. Vice President A. K. Curtis Marshall Shelley YEach year hundreds of books worldwide are published on Founder Paul and his writings. His every word—literally—is put under the Consulting Editors Christian History C. Stephen Board Institute microscope of critical study; his every thought, ruminated over by Mark Fackler theologians and preached on by . The question facing us as we Stephen M. Miller prepared this issue was this: What can we say about Paul that hasn’t Terry C. Muck already been said? What has been said over and over concerns Paul Editorial Advisory Board (1994-1995) the theologian, the thinker whose Russell K. ¤ James Bradley Donald F. Durnbauch teachings are the basis of Christian Charles E. Hambrick-Stowe doctrine. This is the Paul we hear Keith J. Hardiman ¤ William Nigel Kerr about each Sunday and read about Tony Lane ¤ Dennis D. Martin Martin Marty ¤ Bradley Nassif ¤ Mark Noll in so many books. Russel E. Richey ¤ Wesley A. Roberts But what about Paul the man? Diana Lynn Severance ¤ Bruce Shelley What about his times? What about James D. Smith III ¤ Ruth A. Tucker ¤ Marguerite Van Die his culture? Thankfully, more and Wacker ¤ Timothy P. Weber more is being published on this di- F. Wright Christianity Today, Inc. mension, what historians call social President, c.e.o. history. So we thought it would be Harold L. helpful to do an issue that would Executive Vice-President, c.e.o. Paul D. Robbins help set Paul in his times. Executive Assistant So in the issue, you’ll find arti- Laurie Power On Tour. Editorial coordinator cles on what it was like to be with Executive Administrator Harry Genet MaryAnn Jeffreys and managing Paul in prison (p. 14) to travel with Senior Vice-Presidents editor Mark Galli in Ephesus Paul (p. 16), to be in the cities he Roy W. Coffman ¤ David O. Stewart at the reported grave of John lived in (p. 20), to read the pagan re- Keith Stonehocker Vice-Presidents the Apostle. As the “ ligious writings he fought (p. 25), to Nate ¤ David Hemstreet ¤ David Neff of the ancient world,” Ephesus be with him as he wrote his letters JoAnn Selander ¤ Marshall Shelley attracted the missionary efforts Harold B. Smith (p. 29)—and on it goes. Advertising of church leaders like John and Besides consulting the usual Linda Schambach, Manager ¤ Larry Chapel Paul. array of books and scholars to pre- Kevin Flanagan ¤ John Grey ¤ Carol Hayes Wendy Hudson ¤ Tom Jones ¤ Cherish Morris pare this issue, editorial coordinator Poormon ¤ Stombres ¤ Mary Thrasher MaryAnn Jeffreys and I hosted the 1995 CHRISTIAN HISTORY Study Circulation/Marketing Carol Thompson, Promotion Director Tour, “In the Footsteps of Paul.” Guided by professor Walter Elwell and Norma Bormann ¤ Bradley Dupuy his wife, Barbara, and accompanied by 31 CH readers, we visited sites in Lynne Hutzel ¤ Julie Kaminski ¤ Sherry Kyle , Ephesus, and Rome to get a better feel for Paul’s life and times. Dianne Lambert ¤ Debra Lane ¤ Mary Loebig Jeremy Longo ¤ Tamara Lundeen ¤ Nancy Nance (For information about our 1996 study tour to England and Scotland, Pat Ostruszka ¤ Louie P. Parker see the advertisement on page 4.) As you can imagine, much, much Francine Quintero ¤ Jo Ann Rosenbaum Jolm VanDyke more could be said about the era, but we’ve tried to give you a taste of Financial Operations the first century Mediterranean world. And that, we trust, will help you Sonua Lee Curtis ¤ Dan Grismore ¤ Gary johnson understand Paul the theologian that much better. Judy Van Zanten Resources -—Mark Galli Ben Black ¤ Rebecca Bright ¤ Kate Bryant Managing Editor Lew Radabaugh Production Vicki Howard, Director P.S. Let me draw your attention to The CHRISTIAN HISTORY Society, Cynthia Cronk ¤ Ted Gysan ¤ Laura Mathieu which has just recently been created. In addition to receiving a quarterly news- Theresa Phillips ¤ James Smeenge Research/Christianity Online letter with extra articles, letters to the editor, and CH news, members receive John C. LaRue, Jr., Director ¤ Sky Findlay discounts on CHRISTIAN HISTORY products, including church history judy Gill ¤ Christina Kirsh ¤ Mary Ellen Knapka books. For more information, check the materials that came with your issue. Kathryn Scanland ¤ Cynia Solver ¤ Ken Stewart Special Sales Joe Barlow, Manager ¤ Andrea Carter

6 Christian History Galloping through the Gospels The Seven Churches A fast-moving exploration of all the major of Revelation Rediscovered sites featured in the Gospels. Starting with Host David Nunn takes us to for a the , David Nunn follows firsthand visit of the seven cities to which the through the Gospel drama chronologically, messages of the risen Christ were addressed providing fascinating and illuminating in Revelation chapters 2-3. Their significance insights into the life of Jesus and the is explained in graphic detail, and viewers world-changing events that took place at will gain many insights from David's these locations. Documentary, 43 minutes. enthusiastic commentary along the way. DVD - #4830D, $14.99 SALE! $9.99 Documentary, 40 minutes. DVD - #4792D, $14.99 SALE! $9.99

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www.VisionVideo.com • 1-800-523-0226 Please use source code CH047c when ordering. Paul of Tarsus crossed all types of barriers to gain followers for Jesus of Nazareth.

JAMES D. SMITH III

uring the closing years right of appeal. of ’s Early on learned a trait that reign, a boy was born would stand him in good stead in later to a Jewish family in life: how to cross cultural boundar- Tarsus, capital of the ies. Though born in a center of Greek Roman province of culture, Saul was sent to school in Cilicia (in modern-day Jerusalem, where he studied the Jew- Turkey). The family ish scriptures and religious law under traced its descent from the tribe of Ben- renowned “the .” jamin, and they named their son after Gamaliel was a member of the the most llustrious member in their Jewish ruling council (the ) family’s history: Saul, the first king and grandson of the famous rabbi of . As a Roman citizen, the boy Hillel. Gamaliel was gracious. When had three names, by one of which he the Sanhedrin raged against members became famous: Paulus. Tarsus was of a local who taught that Jesus ancient and prosperous; Saul described of Nazareth, recently executed, was it as “no ordinary city.” Industries in , he counseled forbearance. Tarsus included weaving and tentmak- The council demanded the death ing a craft Saul would use later to sub- penalty; Gamaliel convinced them to sidize his travels. enforce a lesser punishment and let His implied the cult members go. that his family owned property. It also Saul, however, did not adopt carried with it privileges-the right to his teacher’s moderation, especially a fair trial, exemption from degrading toward members of this messianic sect. punishments like whipping, and the Saul joined the growing number of

8 Christian History Saint Paul the Apostle —Google Art the Project / Wikimedia El Greco (1541–1614), Saint Paul EVANGELIST EXTRAORDINAIRE. “Many others were engaged in evangelization,” wrote Pauline scholar F. F. Bruce, “but none with the overall strategic planning conceived in Paul’s mind and so largely executed by his dynamic energy.” The sword represents the implement by which Paul is thought to have been martyred.

Issue 47 9 they discovered he couldn’t see at all. They had to lead him by the hand the rest of the way to Damascus. Saul didn’t eat or drink for three days, though it’s not clear whether this was a self-imposed fast or the result of trauma. On one of those days, he expe- rienced another , in which a man came to him and laid hands on him in . Then the vision came true: a man named Ananias came and prayed for Saul. That’s when, as the historian Luke put it, “Something like scales fell from Saul’s eyes.” Saul gained not only eyesight but a new religious outlook. He was con- vinced that Jesus, the executed Naza- rene itinerant was alive and calling him to special service. Astonishingly, Saul-a devout, ethnocentric Jew-now believed his life mission was to talk about Jesus to non-Jews. Saul submitted to , the rite of for followers of The Way. He then disappeared into Ara- bia for three years, from about A.D. 33 to 36. Where he went and what he did remains a mystery, but during this time, he received revelations. He said ANCIENT IVY LEAGUE. Paul received a superior education at the feet of Rabbi Jesus came to him and taught him a Gamaliel. After Gamaliel died, it was said that “The glory of the ceased, message of forgiveness and and purity and saintliness perished.” through faith. Saul decided to visit the leaders of Jewish leaders who steadily harassed extradite members of The Way to Jeru- the The Way in Jerusalem, especially and even killed followers of “The salem for trial. On his way to Damas- Peter and James. They taught him Way,” as it was called. cus, however, Saul’s plans, and life, about the emerging movement, the Saul could not help but be - were changed. details of Jesus’ life and teachings, and ate—a great deal was at stake. He was their own encounters with the resur- devoted to his Jewish heritage and tra- Thunderous about-face rected Jesus. ditions, and his sharp intellect quickly At about noon as Saul and his Still, Saul would later make it clear perceived that this new sect threatened group neared Damascus, a bright that nobody taught him anything everything he stood for. So he joined light flashed around them. Saul fell about the gospel, the fundamental wholeheartedly in restraining mea- to the ground stunned, and he heard message of Christ. His message and sures against The Way. a voice: “Saul, Saul, why do you per- calling, he argued, came by direct rev- During one meeting of the Sanhe- secute me?” elation from Christ, negating any con- drin, a follower of the Way, Stephen, He was mystified: “Who are you, tribution of even key figures like Peter appeared before the council. His replies lord?” he asked, not knowing what and James. Saul’s type-A personality infuriated the members, who began had thrown him to the ground. and his of personal superlatives taking off their cloaks and picking up Then he heard, “ Jesus, whom (e.g., he once called himself the “chief rocks. Saul volunteered to watch their you are persecuting. Now get up and of sinners”) remained characteristics cloaks as they pummelled the radical go into the city, and you will be told throughout his life. to death. what you must do.” During these years, Saul’s life was Harassment of The Way now Saul’s traveling companions had in danger. On two occasions, devout intensified, and Saul secured seen the light, and they heard noises Jews—perhaps former colleagues papers from Jerusalem’s high afterward, but they couldn’t make tried to murder him. And despite his

requesting that Damascus synagogues sense of it. As they helped Saul up, dramatic turnaround, Saul remained Wikimedia “Rabbi Gamliel”; (1906–1913); the Hebrew caption says Encyclopedia and Efron Jewish Gamaliel— Brockhaus

10 Christian History unknown and distrusted by The Way’s adherents in . Rumors circulated that Saul’s conversion was a fake, a clever ruse to ferret out more mem- bers to put in jail. Joseph of (known as ) gained a wel- come for Saul by introducing him to churches. Still, Saul seems to have felt more comfortable in his home town, and he stayed in and around Tarsus for the next decade.

Outward bound By the mid-40s, The Way had spread north to in . Its mem- bers, many of whom were “Greeks” (i.e., non-Jewish), had become known as “.” Barnabas, one of the leaders, traveled to Tarsus to get Saul. Together they spent a year teaching converts in Antioch. The leaders, apparently impressed with Paul and Barnabas’s work with Greek converts, determined that these two should take the Christian mes- sage to Cyprus and Minor. So they departed on what has become known as Paul’s first missionary journey. Several aspects of this trip deserve notice. First, Saul began using his Roman name, Paulus. Second, early on, perhaps on Cyprus, Paul became the leader of the mission-Luke, who chronicled their journey, no longer writes of “Barnabas and Paul” but of “Paul and Barnabas.” Finally, on this PAUL’S RELIGIOUS RIVAL. What the inside of the ancient Parthenon might journey Paul’s missionary style blos- have looked like. Paul confronted such impressive and grand paganism in his somed, particularly his drive to win famous Hill in . followers for Jesus Christ and his will- ingness to cross political, cultural, and religious barriers to do so. coming to the point that the long though, some Jews argued abusively His experience in Pisidian Antioch awaited Messiah had come: “We with him. He abruptly halted the (in Asia Minor) would become typi- tell you the good news: What God debate and revealed his strategy. cal. “On the ,” Luke records, promised our fathers he has fulfilled “We had to speak the word of God “they [Paul and Barnabas] entered the in us, their children, raising up Jesus to you first,” he said. “Since you reject synagogue.” After the Hebrew scrip- . . . Therefore, my brothers, I want you it and do not consider yourselves wor- tures were read, the leaders of the syn- to know that through Jesus the for- thy of eternal life, we now turn to the agogue, as was customary, turned to giveness of is proclaimed to you. .” Paul believed that although the guests and said, “Brothers, if you Through him everyone who is he was called to spread the message of have a message of encouragement for justified from everything you could not grace among Greeks, he was still obli- the people, please speak.” be justified from by the law of Moses.” gated, as a Jew, to offer it first to his Paul rose and said, “Men of Israel Throughout the town, word spread countrymen. and you Gentiles who God, of the unusual visitors, and on the Many of the Greeks joined the listen to me!” Then he reviewed the next Sabbath, “almost the whole city” fledging Christian church there. Still,

New York Public Library York New history of the Jewish people, finally turned out to hear Paul. This time, Jewish dissidents convinced city

Issue 47 11 about the many Greek conversions they had witnessed. This had a powerful effect on the assembly. Then James concluded, “It is my judgment that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turn- ing to God.” He limited therequire- ments on Gentile converts to just four areas of abstinence: food sacrificed to idols, sexual immorality, meat from strangled animals, and meat juices. Two Jerusalem delegates, Judas and , were sent with Paul and Barna- bas to deliver the ruling to the Antioch church. Though the issue was formally set- tled, Paul would battle it for the rest of his life. (At one point, he had to confront Peter when he temporarily retreated from the council’s decision).

Sermon of a lifetime With this issue settled, Paul invited Barnabas on another journey to see how their new converts were faring. Barnabas insisted on taking , an early companion of their first jour- ney. But Paul balked. John Mark had deserted them after their first stop, and that, insisted Paul, disqualified him. Paul and Barnabas argued so A HOUSE OF MANY FUNCTIONS. The synagogue was not only a sharply, they parted ways. Barnabas house of worship, but also a school for , a court to and John Mark sailed for Cyprus; Paul settle disputes, a hall for political gatherings, a hotel for travelers, and a took a new partner, Silas, and went treasury to donations. Since every key Jewish activity took place through Syria and Cilicia, delivering there, it was a strategic place for Paul to preach in. the results of the Jerusalem Coun- cil. Along the way, Paul picked up a authorities to run Paul and Barnabas naturally balked. convert named Timothy, whom Paul out of town. Paul and Barnabas were furious— circumcised! Why the seeming turn- In the next city they visited, Ico- to them, the requirement sabotaged about? Apparently, Paul didn’t see nium, a plot was hatched to kill them. their message of grace. So the church this as a requirement for salvation, but In , Paul was stoned till his of Antioch appointed Paul and Barna- he didn’t want to offend local Jewish attackers thought he was dead. Still, bas, among others, to go to Jerusalem Christians who were still uncomfort- Paul and Barnabas established a num- to settle the matter. able with the Council’s decision. Later ber of churches in Asia Minor, filled After Peter, James, and the Jerusa- Luke, a Greek physician who wrote a with both Jews and Greeks. By A.D. 48, lem elders gathered, a heated discus- history of the movement, also joined Paul and Barnabas were back home in sion ensued. Peter made an impas- the group. Antioch and spent a lengthy time recu- sioned speech against the advocates Perhaps the most significant inci- perating. of , concluding, “Why do dent of this journey occurred when you try to test God by putting on the Paul was mysteriously prevented from Breaking the Law necks of the disciples a yoke that nei- further travel in Asia Minor. Luke About this time, some Jewish Chris- ther we nor our fathers have been able says obliquely, “The Spirit of Jesus tians arrived in Antioch and insisted to bear? No! We believe it is through would not allow them” to go further. that Christians had to obey the laws the grace of our Lord Jesus that we are This revelation or circumstance was of Moses, including the injunction that saved, just as they are.” accompanied by a dream in which males be circumcised. Greek converts Then Paul and Barnabas talked Paul saw a man from 1866) Society, Religious and their Religious Lessons (The Scenes from the Life of St. Paul Howson,

12 Christian History CASE OF MISTAKEN IDENTITY. After Paul healed a man with a withered hand, the people of Lystra thought Paul and Barnabas were and Hermes and tried to worship them. Paul protested with an impassioned ser- mon, but luke writes, “Even with these words, they had difficulty keeping the crowd from sacrificing to them.”

(modern northern Greece) who said, Paul must have been deeply dis- At the mention of a , “Come over to Macedonia and help turbed by Athens’s pagan temples, some listeners sneered, and Paul’s us.” Paul concluded he was called , and images. Yet, as he preached speech came to an end. Only a few to preach there and sai led for Mace- on Mars Hill, he decided to enter Athenians became Christians. donia. The Christian message had the intellectual world of Athens. He Still, this speech better than any crossed another boundary, moving out affirmed the traditions of the Athe- other illustrates Paul’s ability to cross of the Middle East and into . nians: “Men of Athens! I see that in all sorts of bow1daries to get his mes- On this leg of the journey, Paul every way you are very religious,” and sage across. Historian Henry Chad- founded churches in , Thessa- quoted Greek poets and philosophers wick wrote, “Paul’s genius as an apol- lonica, and Berea, among other places. approvingly. ogist is his astonishing ability to reduce Paul’s longest stay was in the large Then he gently but firmly called to an apparent vanishing point the gulf commercial city of Corinth, where deri- his audience to Christian faith: “The between himself and his converts and sive treatment by the synagogue again God who made the world and every- yet to ‘gain’ them for the [authentic] led him to begin work among Greeks. thing in it . . . does not live in temples Christian gospel.” During his more than eighteen months built by human hands. . . . We should there (from A.D. 50 to 52), a charismatic not think the divine being is like gold Death threats and volatile church was born. or or stone-an image made by Paul returned to Antioch, then One city where he failed to estab- man’s design and skill. In the past, revisited churches in Asia Minor and lish a church became, ironically, the God overlooked such ignorance, but settled down in Ephesus for more scene of his most famous sermon. Ath- now he commands all people every- than two years (from about A.D. 52 ens was the cradle of democracy, the where to repent. For he has set a day to 54). Then he was off to Jerusalem. home of philosophers Socrates, , when he will judge the world with In part, he wanted to deliver a fam- Aristotle, Epicurus, and the by the man he has appointed. ine relief fund he had been collect- Stoic, and was graced by magnificent He has given proof of this to all men ing from Gentile churches for Jeru-

—Johann Heiss (1640–1704) anagoria / Wikimedia Heiss (1640–1704) anagoria / —Johann and Barnabas in Lystra Paul architecture and sculpture. by raising him from the dead!” salem Christians, to show them the

Issue 47 13 solidarity of Christians elsewhere. Stench, But Paul was a realist, and he recognized his reputation among Pain, and Misery Jews in Judea would likely lead to more persecution and perhaps arrest. When his friends tearfully tried to dissuade him, he forged ahead. He Life in a Roman Prison said he felt “compelled by the Spirit” to go so that he could “complete the aul may have spent as much as 25 percent of his time as a task Jesus has given me— missionary in prison. We know of his brief lock-up in Philippi, the task of testifying to the gospel of Ptwo years’ incarceration in , and at least another two in God’s grace.” Rome. Yet Paul says he experienced “far more imprisonments,” than his After a delay-due mostly to opponents. To understand Paul, we need to understand where he spent another plot against his life-Paul and so much time. companions arrived in Jerusalem in about A.D. 57. Since his reputation was Bloody ordeal shaky among many Jewish Christians, Roman imprisonment was preceded by being stripped naked and the Jerusalem elders asked Paul and then flogged, a humiliating, painful, and bloody ordeal. The bleeding his companions to partake in Jewish wounds went untreated; prisoners sat in painful leg or wrist chains. purification rites. As with Timothy’s Mutilated, blood-stained clothing was not replaced, even in the cold circumcision, though it was against of winter. In his final imprisonment, Paul’s principles, he complied for the Paul asked for a cloak, presumably Because of sake of harmony. because of the cold. He may have accomplished har- Most cells were dark, especially the miserable mony in the church, but within a the inner cells of a prison, like the week, the city was in an uproar. Some one Paul and Silas inhabited in conditions, many Jews recognized Paul in the temple Philippi. Unbearable cold, lack of area one day, and they began shout- water, cramped quarters, and sick- prisoners begged ing, “Men of Israel, help us! This is ening stench from few toilets made the man who teaches all men every- sleeping difficult and waking hours for a speedy death. where against our people and our miserable. law and this place.” People came Male and female prisoners were running from all directions. They sometimes incarcerated together, which led to sexual immorality seized Paul and dragged him from the and abuse. temple. They were about to kill him Prison food, when available, was poor. Most prisoners had to pro- when Roman troops showed up and vide their own food from outside sources. When Paul was in prison in arrested Paul and chained him. When Caesarea, Felix, the procurator, gave orders to the that “none it was discovered that Jerusalem Jews of his friends should be prevented from attending to his needs.” were still plotting Paul’s murder, Paul Because of the miserable conditions, many prisoners begged for a was transferred secretly by night to speedy death. Others simply committed suicide. Caesarea. The main , disturbing the The privileged few peace, was enough to keep him jailed All of this could be mitigated to some extent if the prisoner was for three years as Roman authorities important or paid a bribe (as Governor Felix hoped to receive from Paul tried to figure out what to do with in Caesarea). this troublemaker. Paul used the time A prominent individual, or one expected to be released, might be to meet with Christians who visited kept under house arrest if he or she could afford the rent. In Rome, him in prison, and to write letters to where housing prisoners was excessively expensive, Paul was given the churches he had founded. privilege of house arrest, and he paid the rent himself (exactly how, we For the next few years, he was don’t know). He probably lived in a third-floor apartment; first floors dragged before one Roman official were used for shops, and the second floor was expensive. In his final after another. On such occasions, he imprisonment in Rome, though, Paul ended his life in the woeful condi- often described his conversion and tions of a Roman prison. called those present to repent and —John McRay, professor of New Testament believe in Christ. With deft use of his and archaeology, Wheaton College (IL) rights as a Roman citizen, he avoided being whipped.

14 Christian History When Paul stood trial before Fes- tus, Roman governor of Judea, Jew- ish leaders were unable to prove the accusations they were making. Paul said, “I have done nothing wrong against the law of the Jews or against the temple or against Caesar.” Fes- tus, anxious to please the Jews, tried to get the trial moved to Jerusalem, which was under Jewish jurisdiction. Such a move would certainly end in Paul’s death. So Paul pulled out his trump card. “I am now standing before Cae- sar’s court, where I ought to be tried,” he said. “If the charges brought against me by these Jews are not true, no one has the right to hand me over to them. I appeal to Caesar!” With that, Festus’s hands were tied. As a Roman citizen on trial for a capital offense, Paul had the right to a hearing before the Emperor. “You have appealed to Caesar,” said Festus. “To Caesar you will go.” The appeal helped Paul accomplish one of his long-term goals: a visit to Rome.

Fighting the good fight As with most incidents in Paul’s life, even the journey to Rome could not be uneventful. The Alexandrian RECONCILIATION IN ROME? Though they parted ways in ministry grain ship that carried Paul encoun- (Paul to Gentiles, Peter to Jews), and even had an awkward confrontation tered a hurricane that wrecked the in Antioch (cf. Gal. 2), tradition suggests that Paul and Peter reconciled vessel. Passengers, clinging to planks their differences before their deaths in Rome. Here Paul is pictured visit- or pieces of the ship, swam to the near- ing Peter in a Roman prison. est island, . After a delay of three months, in the spring of A.D. 60, Paul In this case, his final confinement Still, Paul had carried his message to and his guard finally reached Italy. would have been harsh. This may people of many and cultures. In Rome, Paul was put under house well be when he wrote his letters P. T. Forsyth once said, “You arrest, but he invited Jews to come to to Titus and Timothy: in them, he must live with people to know their his rented home, and he debated with referred to being deserted by for- problems and live with God in order to them. As usual, when they stopped mer companions and wrote, “I am solve them.” Paul networked an entire giving him an ear, Paul turned his mes- already being poured out like a drink empire in life and letter, sharing his sage to the Romans. For two years, he , and the time has come for and Christ’s message with Jew and continued teaching any who visited. my departure. I have fought the good Greek, bond and free, male and female. We do not know the results of fight, I have finished the race, I have He once said, “I have become all things Paul’s legal hearing, which probably kept the faith.” to all men, that I might win some.” It’s took place in A.D. 62. Early tradi- To keep the faith is to put it mildly. clear that nobody’s done it better. CH tion says he was martyred by sword Paul had done so in the face of jail- during ’s persecution in July 64. ings, floggings, death threats, murder It is highly possible, however, that attempts, and the constant anxiety JAMES D. SMITH III, of Clairemont he was released, and after further for the churches he founded—not to Emmanuel Baptist Church and adjunct profes- missionary work (perhaps in ), mention what Paul called his “thorn sor of church history at Bethel Seminary-West, was imprisoned again in Rome before in the ”—a chronic and debilitat- both in San Diego, California, is an adviser for

—Filippino Lippi (1457–1504); Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia / Lippi (1457–1504); Marie-Lan Nguyen in Prison —Filippino visiting St Peter St Paul being executed. ing weakness. CHRISTIAN HISTORY.

Issue 47 15 The ease—and dangers— of travel in the ancient world.

EDWIN M YAMALCHI

SAILING WITHOUT LIFE BOATS. On his voyage to Rome, Paul was shipwrecked while sailing on an Alexandrian grain ship. Such ships carried but one small boat, and it had been cut loose days earlier, before the ship ran aground.

Nonetheless, all 276 passengers and crew made it safely ashore. l (Longmans, Green, and Co., 1880) of St. Pau and Shipwreck Voyage Smith, The James 16 Christian History he first two centuries of the an even and beautiful appearance. went south to Berea, but he must have Christian era were great Besides all this, he measured off all the taken it later when he evangelized days for a traveler, writes roads by miles . . . and planted stone Illyricum (Yugoslavia; see Rom. 15:19). historian Lionel Casson: “He could pillars as distance markers.” After landing at Puteoli, Italy, Paul make his way from the shores of the The Roman mile (a word derived traveled the most famous Roman road, Euphrates to the border between from mille passus, “thousand paces”) the Via Appia, the road from Rome to England and Scotland without cross- was one thousand five-foot paces, points south, which had been built in ing a foreign frontier. . . . He could or about 95 yards shorter than our the third century b.c. sail through any waters without fear mile. Mile markers-inscribed stone On such sturdy roads, soldiers of pirates, thanks to the emperor’s columns five to six feet tall-marked could march four miles per hour, and patrol squadrons. A planned network distances. on forced marches, five miles per hour. of good roads gave him access to all During his first missionary journey, The average traveler walked three major centers, and the through routes after he crossed inland from the south- miles per hour for about seven hours were policed well enough for him to ern coast of Turkey, Paul used the Via a day—or about 20 miles per day. For ride them with relatively little fear of Sebaste, a road built under Augustus example, Peter’s trip from Joppa to bandits.” in 6 b.c., which connected six mili- Caesarea, a distance of 40 miles, took Because of the Romana tary colonies, including Antioch in two days (:23–24). Paul trav- (Roman Peace) of Emperor Augustus eled from Troas to on foot, a dis- (27 b.c.–a.d. 14), such conditions pre- tance of about 20 miles (:13–14), vailed when Paul traveled the Roman so it probably took him a day. world. The Stoic philosopher Epic- Even with sound roads, travelers tetus (d. about 135) declared, “There did well to wear heavy shoes or san- are neither wars nor battles, nor great dals, to have capes and broadbrimmed robberies nor piracies, but we may hats, and to carry bedding, tents, and travel at all hours, and sail from east provisions. Though traveling during to west.” the winter was possible, snows some- New Testament archaeologist W. times blocked high passes, and rains M. Ramsay concludes, “The Roman in October and May flooded the riv- roads were probably at their best ers and made them difficult to cross. during the first century after Augus- In some isolated areas, travelers faced tus had put an end to war and disor- dangers from robbers, as well as from der. . . . Thus St. Paul travelled in the wild animals such as bears, wolves, best and safest period.” and boars. What would it have been like to Paul no doubt had some of these travel with Paul during this unique problems in mind when he wrote era of ancient history? to the Corinthians, “I have been in danger from rivers, in danger from LIFESAVER. A centurion named Roads built to last bandits . . . in danger in the country” Julius led Paul on board a ship By the time of Emperor (2 Cor. 11:26). headed for Rome. When the ship (c. a.d. 300), the Romans had built a ran aground, soldiers wanted to kill marvelous network of over 53,000 Highway speeds all prisoners. But Julius ordered the miles of roads throughout the Empire, Some extraordinary records were prisoners to abandon ship. primarily for military purposes. accomplished by determined travelers They were generally 10 to 12 feet on horseback. covered wide and models of road construction. . Much of his other travels in 800 miles from the Rhone River in writes about one official’s and , however, were to Rome in eight days. work: on unpaved tracks. raced 500 miles in three days to reach “The roads were carried through During his second missionary jour- his mortally wounded Drusus. the country in a perfectly straight ney, after landing at Neapolis, Paul The official messenger system, the line, and were paved with hewn stone took the from Philippi to Cursus Publicus, used couriers who and reinforced with banks of tight- Thessalonica. This major highway was changed horses at stationes every 10 rammed sand. Depressions were filled built by the Romans after they had miles, or at mansiones every 20 to 30 up, all intersecting torrents or ravines taken over Macedonia in 148 b.c. It miles. They were expected to cover were bridged, and both sides were of spanned Greece and was eventually 50 miles per day. The same messen- equal and corresponding height, so extended east beyond Philippi to Byz- ger (rather than a relay of messen-

, illus Paolo Priolo. (The Religious Tract Society, 1866). Society, Tract Religious Priolo. (The and their Religious Lessons , illus Paolo Scenes from the Life of St.Paul J. S. Howson. that the work presented everywhere antium. Paul left this road when he gers) carried such important tidings

Issue 47 17 as the death or accession of an what you are doing for the brothers which could be made directly from emperor. A courier could travel from even though they are strangers to Rome to in from 10 to 20 Rome to Palestine in 46 days, from you. . . . You will do well to send them days. By the same token, these same Rome to Egypt in 64 days. on their way in a manner worthy of winds would hinder the westward Those who traveled by carriage God” (3 John 5, 6). journey, which could take from 40 to could cover between 25 and 50 miles An early Christian document, the 65 days or even more. This had to be per day. Roman vehicles had no , indicates, though, that this accomplished by sailing from Egypt springs, so the passengers felt every hospitality could be abused: northward along the coast of Pales- bump on the road. The Romans had “Let every apostle who comes to tine and then west along the southern such vehicles as the carpentum, a two- you be welcomed as if he were the coast of Turkey. Ancient ships gener- wheeled deluxe carriage, the redda, Lord. But he is not to stay for more ally had but one main square sail, so a four-wheeled wagon, and the car- than one day, unless there is need, their ability to tack against the wind ruca, a covered wagon. Wealthy indi- in which case he may stay another. was limited. viduals, like the Ethiopian treasurer of Queen Candace of Meroe, could HOW FAR DID PAUL TRAVEL? afford a chauffeur-driven chariot (see :28, 38). For the most part, only military More than Half Way personnel and government Around the World. This is traveled by horse. The one time that a conservative estimate of the Paul used a horse was when he was miles Paul traveled in his life. It is escorted by soldiers from Jerusalem to the equivalent of going from Jeru- Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24). salem to San Francisco and then back to . During his Inns of ill-repute three missionary journeys alone, After a long-day’s journey, where Paul covered some 8,000 miles by did travelers lodge? Well-to-do land and sea. Romans avoided inns if possible, and either set up their own tents or stayed with friends. Roman (such as Horace and Apuleius) uniformly crit- But if he stays three days, he is a There were no passenger ships as icized inns for their adulterated wine, false . And when the apostle such. Passengers sailed on cargo ships filthy sleeping quarters, extortionate leaves, he is to take nothing except as space was available. The ships left innkeepers, gamblers, thieves, and bread until he finds his next night’s when the winds and omens were prostitutes. The apocryphal Acts of lodging. But if he asks for money, he favorable. The expense for passage John relates the amusing story of the is a .” was not high; it cost a family but two apostle who, coming to a bed infested On his journeys, Paul enjoyed the drachma (about two-days’ wages) to with bugs, ordered the insects to hospitality of Lydia in Philippi (Acts sail from Alexandria to Athens. The depart for the night. 16:15), of Jason in Thessalonica (Acts fare included the provision of water In literary texts we learn of rather 17:5), and of in Corinth (Rom. but not of food and of cabins. comfortable inns in Asia Minor, and 16:23)-to name three of his hosts. Alexandrian grain ships, upon one less reputable ones in Greece, though of which Paul traveled to Rome, played the New Testament never mentions Dangers on the seas a key role in the ancient world. The Paul’s staying in one. Christians from By far the fastest form of long-dis- wheat of Egypt supplied at least a third Rome traveled 40 miles south to meet tance travel was to go by ship-at least of the grain necessary to feed the popu- Paul and his party coming from Pute- in one direction. It is significant that lation of Rome. Rome needed to import oli at a place known as the Forum of Paul sailed from the Aegean to Pales- annually between 200,000 and 400,000 Appius and the Three Taverns (Acts tine but always went overland from tons to feed its population of about a 28:15), but it is not likely the party Palestine to the Aegean. The one million. (second century a.d.) stayed in any of these tavern—inns. time he sailed west was as a Roman gave a vivid description of an Alexan- That’s because Christians were prisoner. drian grain ship, the , which was urged to practice hospitality for The reason for eastward sailing is blown off its course into Piraeus, the traveling believers. The elder John, simple: the prevailing winds during harbor of Athens: the ship was huge, for example, commended his friend the summer, the sailing season, gen- 180 feet long, with a beam about 45 feet, Gaius for opening his home to trav- erally blew from the northwest. This and a depth also about 45 feet. Such eling : “You are faithful in greatly eased an eastward voyage, ships could carry 1,200 tons of grain.

18 Christian History board a ship from ; at Myra, in southern Turkey, he was transferred to an Alexandrian grain ship headed to Rome. (One ancient manuscript of Acts says the trip to Myra took 15 days.) Luke’s reference to the Day of Atonement (about Octo- ber 5) indicates that this ship was sail- ing late in the season. After reaching the southern coast of Crete, the captain wished to get to the larger harbor at Phoenix to win- ter, but a ferocious northeasterner, the Euroclydon, cast the ship helplessly adrift westward for many days with- out sight of sun or stars. The ship took such a battering it had to be aban- doned. Ancient ships carried small boats for the transfer of passengers to the shore but no life rafts or life vests. It was miraculous that all 276 passen- gers and crew survived. Paul and the others found them- selves shipwrecked at Malta, where they were forced to stay for three months. Underwater archaeologi- cal surveys have plotted 538 Roman shipwrecks in the Mediterranean, 142 from a.d. 1 to 150—eight of these are known from the island of Malta. After spending the winter there, Paul was transferred to another Alexandrian grain ship, which, Luke notes, had the figureheads of the twin , , whom pagans believed provided protection in storms! After short stops in Syracuse and Rhegium, Paul and his guard arrived safely at Puteoli, Italy. THE LONG AND NOT-SO-WINDING ROAD. The , one of All in all, especially compared the many Paul walked. As one ancient author put it, the better to previous centuries, Paul’s travel roads were constructed with “an eye to beauty and grace as well as utility.” conditions were ideal. As , the second century bishop of Lyons, The safe sailing season was from before winter” (2 Tim. 4:21). put it, “The Romans have given the May 27 to 14. Risky sea- The greatest danger of winter world peace, and we travel without sons were from March 10 to May 26 sailing, of course, was shipwrecks. fear along the roads and across the and from September 15 to November In his second letter to Corinth, Paul sea wherever we will.” And Paul the 11. The winter season, from November mentions being shipwrecked three missionary eagerly took advantage of 12 to March 9, was avoided except for times, and on one of these occasions, such conditions. CH emergencies or military campaigns. spending a night and a day floating in Even travel on land was avoided the open sea. Yet we know of another EDWIN M. YAMAUCHI is professor of during winter-hence Paul’s plan to shipwreck still, and Luke’s descrip- history at Miami (Ohio) University. He spend one winter at Corinth (1 Cor. tion of it (in ) is one of the is coauthor (with Richard Pierard and 16:5-6) and another at most vivid narratives in all of ancient Robert Clouse) of The Two Kingdoms: (:12), as well as his urgent plea literature. The Church and Culture Throughout the to Timothy, “Do your best to come At Caesarea Paul was placed on Ages (Moody, 1993). Appian Way—Livioandronico2013 / Wikimedia [CC BY-SA 4.0] [CC BY-SA Wikimedia / Way—Livioandronico2013 Appian

Issue 47 19 Why did Paul, the traveling missionary, set down roots in Corinth and Ephesus?

DAN P. COLE

n his first two journeys, Paul and western halves of the Roman and his traveling compan- Empire. The narrow isthmus separat- ions—first Barnabas and ing the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic then Silas-set fairly rigorous itinerar- Gulf had been spanned as early as the ies. They headed for the capital cities sixth century b.c. by a stone-paved of districts or provinces, preached roadway (the diolkos), making it rel- in the local synagogues, gathered atively easy to pull most ships across those who responded both Jews and the low, three-mile land strip without Gentiles-into new church units, and even unloading them. then moved on. Their purpose was The diolkos saved some 200 miles to remain only long enough to help a of extra sea travel, and the sheltered new church get established. waters of the Saronic and Corinthian When Paul reached Corinth, how- Gulfs were far safer for sea-going ships ever, he broke this pattern dramati- than the treacherous winds around cally. Despite the sense of urgency he Cape Malea at the Peloponnese’s felt about the imminence of a judgment southeastern tip. day, he decided to “take up residence” Corinth, therefore, was a natural at Corinth (and later, as we shall see, at funnel for traffic, receiving a steady Ephesus). Why? and lively flow of travelers to and from Is it simply that these were large, all the Roman provinces along the tradition-rich cities? Paul had passed northern shore of the Mediterranean. through other cities impressive in size, At Corinth Paul continued to such as Thessalonica, or rich in tradi- spread the gospel to many new areas tion, such as Troas. Athens had both by preaching to sailors, traveling mer- impressive buildings and a rich clas- chants, and others who passed through sical heritage. Yet Paul did little more the city. In Corinth Paul literally could than pause there. spread his gospel more efficiently In fact, Corinth and Ephesus had A MANY-SPLENDORED . by staying in one place. Initially, he special features that help explain Paul’s The many protrusions on the chest of probably intended to move westward decision to abandon his frenetic travel Diana () have been interpreted from Corinth as soon as a church was schedule and establish residency. as breasts, eggs, and even dates. In firmly established there, but after he any event, they probably represent arrived at Corinth, he seems to have The world at his doorstep fertility. Pilgrims to the of Diana decided that he could send the gospel Corinth’s strategic location was in Ephesus sought her aid in becom- on through others. He later claimed perhaps of prime importance. It was a ing pregnant and her protection over that he preached the gospel “from

hub city for travel between the eastern mothers and children. Jerusalem as far round as Illyricum” Diana—Pvasiliadis / Wikimedia

20 Christian History FERTILE SOIL During his stay in Corinth, Paul walked a long a road near this ruin: a road with shops, , a forum, and a mix of sailors, salesmen, pilgrims, sports fans, shoppers—a metropolitan mix to whom Paul was anxious to preach.

(western Yugoslavia; :19), would stay in Corinth, often with fam- health spa at Corinth may also have perhaps reflecting that through his ily members for weeks or months, in provided Paul, who was a tentmaker preaching at Corinth he already had the of receiving a cure. by trade, with a special opportunity extended it this far. The second type of pilgrim came to to support himself. We know from Corinth to attend the Isthmian Games, Paul’s own statements that he was Pagan pilgrims which were held every two years, anxious to be independent of support Corinth was also a destination for including the summer of a.d. 51, from the churches he founded, lest two types of pilgrims. The first in- while Paul was there. The games were he be mistaken for one of the profes- eluded people suffering from all kinds held about 10 miles from Corinth at a sional itinerant philosophers of his day of maladies who came to Corinth’s ask- shrine of Poseidon, the sea god. Like (1 Thess. 2:9). We also learn from Acts lepieion, a healing shrine dedicated to the better known games at Olympia, that when Paul came to Corinth he the deified Greek physician Asclepius. the Isthmian Games were “panhel- sought out a Jewish couple, and By the fourth century b.c., Asclepius lenic,” attracting athletes and specta- Priscilla, “and because he was of the had several other healing shrines; tors from Greek settlements through- same trade he stayed with them, and the one at Corinth remained popular out the Mediterranean. they worked, for by trade they were

Ancient Corinth Ruins—Erik Drost / Wikimedia [CC BY-SA 2.0] [CC BY-SA Wikimedia Ruins—Erik Drost / well into the Roman Age. Supplicants The Isthmian Games and the tentmakers” (:2-3).

Issue 47 21 Most of the people who flocked located prominently on the main the Gentile world could offer. to the Corinthian asklepieion and street leading from the forum to Paul’s letters, later sent back to the the Isthmian Games stayed in tent Corinth’s western port. Altars and Corinthian Christians, reflect his spe- encampments. Paul thus found a temples to other traditional Greek cial zeal that their behavior be mor- ready means of supporting himself gods—Athena, Hera, Hermes—lined ally elevated. The church at Corinth among the very people who pro- the edges of the forum. One temple was a “showcase” congregation for vided promising audiences for his was even dedicated to “all the gods.” Paul; with it he hoped at last to con- preaching. On the road leading up to Aero- vince the most skeptical among the Jewish Christian leaders in Jerusalem Paul’s attraction to immorality that Torah was not necessary for sal- Paradoxically, Corinth offered vation. another attractive feature for Paul: its long-standing reputation for World wonder immorality and licentiousness. Paul also found himself drawn The Greeks—who had a name for to Ephesus because it had the same everything—coined the term corin- “attractions” that had detained him thiazesthai to mean “immorality;” in Corinth—but to an even greater literally, the word means “to live extent, so that he stayed in Ephesus a Corinthian life.” To call a girl a two-and-a-half years. “Corinthian lass” was to cast asper- The modern visitor to Ephesus sions on her virtue. is immediately struck by the extent Corinth’s reputation was as noto- and opulence of the archaeological rious in Paul’s day as it had been remains, and only the center of the in the Classical Age five centuries city has been exposed (although Aus- before. The account by the Roman trian excavators have been working at geographer that a thousand the site since 1895). Ephesus was one cult prostitutes once served the tem- of the three or four largest cities in the ple to Aphrodite on the Acrocorinth, Roman world. Population estimates overlooking the city, may have been for Ephesus in Paul’s time range up exaggerated. But the steady stream to a quarter of a million people. More- of sailors, traveling salesmen, and over, the city’s wealth was reflected the ancient equivalent of soccer fans everywhere, from its marble-paved doubtless kept a good number of the main street to recently excavated cult prostitutes’ secular counterparts mosaic floors in aristocratic homes. busy. corinth was a shrine to the Like Corinth, Ephesus was stra- This is the reality that lay behind gods Isis and Serapis. A shrine to tegically located, and this surely Paul’s reference, in his second letter Octavia, the deified sister of Emperor accounts at least in part for its enor- to the Corinthians, to the “impurity, Augustus, was located at the west mous size and wealth in Paul’s day. immorality, and licentiousness” that end of the forum. Some of the new- As the stretched characterized the behavior of some est “mystery” religions also flour- eastward across the Mediterranean, church members before their con- ished in Corinth; these offered their Ephesus’s large and sheltered harbor versions (2 Cor. 12:21). Paul knew special kinds of personal salvation became a major communication hub. what he was talking about when he and communion with savior gods. Sea traffic from the Aegean Sea to the referred to the “immoral,” the “idol- For Paul all this represented a west, from the Bosporus and Darda- aters,” the “adulterers,” the “homo- special challenge—and a special nelles to the north and from Palestine sexuals,” the “thieves,” the “greedy,” opportunity. Paul had been preach- to the east, stopped at Ephesus. Ephe- the “drunkards,” the “revilers” and ing throughout his missionary jour- sus also served as a convenient collec- the “robbers” of Corinth. “Such,” he neys that Gentile converts to Chris- tion point on the coast for agricultural writes to the church at Corinth, “were tianity did not need to undertake products brought down the Maean- some of you “(1 Cor. 6). circumcision and all the obligations der River Valley from the interior of Corinth also had strong associ- of Jewish law. Now, in Corinth of Asia Minor. It’s not surprising that ations with “pagan” religions. We all places, if Paul could establish a Ephesus was designated the capital have already referred to the wor- church of Gentile converts who were of the rich Roman province of Asia. ship of Asclepius, Poseidon, and morally upright without relying on Ephesus also boasted one of the Aphrodite. The city also had a ven- the constraints of Torah, then the most popular shrines in antiquity: erable connection with Apollo. A Christian gospel could take root any- the nature/ fertility I mother goddess Roman-period shrine to Apollo was where even in the most hostile soil Artemis, who was worshiped by the

22 Christian History MAGIC ROAST. Interest in the occult flourished in Ephesus-until Paul preached against it, and then people began burning books on magic, , and astrology.

Romans as Diana. From all over the Near the end of Paul’s stay at Ephesus, ticularly out of Egypt and even from Mediterranean, pilgrims flocked to the a local silversmith named Demetrius, some esoteric circles within . great Artemisium on the shore of the who made votive shrines of the Ephe- In 13 b.c., the Emperor Augustus Kaystros River, adjacent to Ephesus. sian Artemis for the pilgrim trade, unsuccessfully attempted to suppress This great temple was four times the organized a near-riot against Paul and the use of magical books. The prac- size of the Athens Parthenon and was his associates, filling the 24,500-seat tice of the magical arts was so closely considered one of the seven wonders of theater of Ephesus with devotees of the associated with Ephesus that books of the world. goddess chanting repeatedly “Great is magic recipes and incantations were The shrine to Artemis would have Artemis of Ephesus!” (). often referred to as “Ephesian books.” been one of the special challenges that According to Acts, Paul was so suc- attracted Paul to Ephesus. Acts records Do you believe in magic? cessful in converting Ephesians from that the most hostile opposition to Local magicians and also a in magic that many of them Paul’s preaching came from adherents presented a challenge for Paul. Magic threw their magic books onto a public to this cult and from local entrepreneurs practitioners and their texts had pro- bonfire (Acts 19:13-19).

—Wellcome Collection gallery / Wikimedia Collection gallery / —Wellcome Arts Before St. Paul Books on the Magic Their Residents of Ephesus Burn whose livelihood depended upon it. liferated during the Roman Age, par- Paul was a pugnacious warrior,

Issue 47 CONTINUED ON PAGE 26

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 23

and we can be sure that he was went back to pre-Classical times. The place for ideas from both eastern and attracted rather then deterred by the founder of both philosophy and math- western cultural traditions. For Paul, presence at Ephesus of the Artemis ematics came from Ionia in the sixth who had labored hard to dissolve the devotees and magicians. They gave century b.c. Such giants as Thales, barriers between east and west in the him greater opportunities to do battle Anaximander, and Anaximenes all Christian fellowship and to unite Jew for the Christian gospel. As he wrote came from , only a few miles and Gentile, Greek and , to the Corinthians, explaining to them south of Ephesus. Herodotus, the first Ephesus provided a comfortably eclec- why he was staying so long in Ephe- historian, was born a few miles farther tic atmosphere and a symbolic middle sus, “I will stay at Ephesus until Pen- south, at Halicarnossos (present-day ground from which to preach both tecost, for a wide door for effective Eodrum). Hippocrates, the first phy- toward Rome and toward Jerusalem. work has opened to me, and there are sician, established his famous medical At Ephesus, then, Paul unpacked many adversaries” (1 Cor. 16:9). center on the nearby island of Cos. At his traveling rucksack for the second Ephesus also had a strong tradi- Ephesus Paul could work in an atmo- time. The features that had led him to tion of scholarship and intellectual sphere of genuine inquiry. There he remain so long in Corinth were even inquiry. This is most dramatically could find learned scholars who were more insistent at Ephesus. The city’s suggested by the recently re-erected proud of a centuries-old tradition strategic location, the flow of pilgrims, facade of the magnificent three-story of open-minded exploration of new a famous pagan cult, infamous magi- Library of Celsus, an important schol- ideas. cians—all provided rich opportuni- arly archive and meeting place for Moreover, the intellectual climate ties and worthy challenges for Paul’s intellectuals in Ephesus. Although this of Ephesus reflected its geographical preaching. CH library was not built until a.d. 110, a location on the threshold between East half-century after Paul’s time, the tra- and West. More so than Corinth, which DAN COLE is professor of at Lake dition of scholarly inquiry and activ- had been on thoroughly Greco-Ro- Forest College in Illinois and an editor with

, Courtesy: Biblical Archaeology Society. Society. Archaeology , Courtesy: Biblical Two Volume Best of BAR The and : Archaeology From Box 7026, Red Oak, LA 51591 or call toll-free 1-800-678-5555. ARCHAEOlOGY REVIEW subscription, write to: P.O. BIBLICAL For ity in the region surrounding Ephesus man soil, Ephesus provided a meeting Biblical Archeology Review.

26 Christian History From Child-Killing to Mysticism Four examples of the pluralistic challenge that Paul faced

Magic From a papyrus containing magical incantations: For those possessed by demons, an approved charm by Pibechis: Take oil made from unripe olives, together with the plant mastigia and lotus pith, and boil it with marjoram (very colorless), saying, “joel, Ossarthio- mi, Emori, Theochipsoith, Sithemeoch, Sothe, joe, Mimipsothiooph, Phersothi, Aeeioyo, joe, Eochariph- tha: Come out of such a one”—and the other usual formulae. But write this phylactery upon a little sheet of tin: “jaeo, Abraothioch, Phtha, Mesentiniao, Pheoch, jaeo, Charsoc,” and hang it round the sufferer. It is of every demon a thing to be trembled at which he fears. CONFUSING QUEST. Through superstition, sacred ceremonies, and philosophical speculation, the Ethics ancient world sought to make sense of life. In A letter from husband to wife: Athens, about 120 days each year were devoted to to his sister [=wife] Alis, very many greet- religious festivals. One ancient prayer that sums up ings; likewise to my lady Berous, and Apollonarion: the religious confusion of the day began, “Hear, Know that we are still in Alexandria. Do not be Lord, whoever you are.” anxious; if they really go home, I will remain in Alexandria. I beg and entreat you, take care of the If you have ever come on a dense wood of ancient little one, and as soon as we receive our pay, I will trees that have risen to an exceptional height, shut- send it up to you. If by chance you bear a child, if it is ting out all sight of the sky with one thick screen of a boy, let it be, if it is a girl, cast it out. branches upon another-the loftiness of the forest, You have said to Aphrodisias, “Do not forget me.” the seclusion of the spot, your sense of wonderment How can I forget you? I beg you, then, not to be at finding so deep and unbroken a gloom out of anxious. doors, will persuade you of the presence of a deity. Any cave in which the rocks have been eroded Greek mysticism deep into the mountain resting on it its hollowing A notable man of letters (Aelius Aristides) de- out into a cavern of impressive extent not produced scribes his encounter with the god Asclepius: by the labors of men but the result of processes of For there was a feeling as if taking hold of him nature,will strike into your soul some inkling of the [the god] and of clearly perceiving that he himself divine. had come, of being midway between sleeping and We venerate the sources of important streams. waking, of wanting to look, of struggling against Places where a mighty river bursts suddenly from his departure too soon, of having applied one’s hiding are provided with altars. Hot springs are ob- ears and of hearing some things as in a dream . . . jects of worship. The darkness or unfathomable hair stood straight; tears flowed in joy; the burden depth of pools has made their waters sacred. of understanding seemed light. And if you come across a man who is never What man is able to put these things into alarmed by dangers, never affected by cravings, happy words? Yet if he is one of those who have under- in adversity, calm in the midst of storm, viewing gone initiation [into a Greek religion], he knows mankind from a higher level and the gods from their and is familiar with them. own—is it not likely that a feeling will find its way into you, [a feeling] of veneration for him? . . . Into Nature religion that body there has descended a divine power. From a letter by the stoic philosopher Seneca (died A.D. 41 ): —The Editors

Issue 47 27 What happened to the people who worked most closely with him?

MARY ANN JEFFREYS

the sixth century claims that the Ro- man church “Prisca” on the Aventine Hill stands over their original house- church.

SILAS (died c. 75?) Co-author of three New Testament books? ilas is first mentioned at the SCouncil of Jerusalem (49). As “one of the leading men among the brethren,” he was chosen as diplo- matic envoy to the Antioch church to announce the council’s decisions (specifically, the requirements for non-Jews to join The Way). For some reason, he remained Hospitable exiles. In Ephesus, Paul resided at the home of Priscilla and in Antioch, so that when Paul was Aquila,exiles from Rome, who, like him, were tent makers. looking for replacements for Barna- bas and Mark, who had broken with cilla and Aquila opened their home him, Silas was available. On their (died c. 80?) to him and invited him to work with three-year journey, he preached, Tri-city tentmakers them. The trio later worked and min- was stoned, and was jailed with hat the Clau- istered together in Ephesus, which Paul. Wdius meant for evil turned may be where Priscilla and Aquila They made their way, with Timothy out for good for Priscilla and Aq- “risked their necks” for Paul, possi- and Luke, through Philippi, Thes- uila. They were living in Rome in bly when he “fought with beasts at salonica, Berea, and Corinth. Silas 49 when expelled all the Ephesus.” Priscilla is sometimes pic- found his niche in Corinth and re- Jews because of a riot over a certain tured with two lions who refuse to mained there, preaching and teach- “Chrestus,” probably an allusion to attack her, lending credence to this ing, after Paul departed for Ephesus. Jewish arguments over Christ. Jew- tradition. He may have helped compose Paul’s ish Christians like Priscilla and Aq- When Claudius died in 55, Priscil- letters to the Thessalonians (1 Thess. uila were also forced to leave. la and Aquila returned to Rome and 1:1, 2 Thess. 2:1). So the couple moved to Corinth, again hosted a church in their home, Also called Silvanus, Silas later where they set up their to whom Paul sent greetings in his joined Peter in Rome and may have

business. When Paul arrived, Pris- letter to the Romans. A tradition of served as Peter’s secretary and co- [CC-BY-SA-4.0] Wikimedia / Trust Wellcome Winghe. J. Sadeler after Jodocus by Priscilla . Engraving Wife Aquila and His in the House of St Paul

28 Christian History authored 1 Peter (:12). Leg- end has him returning to Corinth, where he became the city’s first bish- op. He reportedly died in northern Greece.

LUKE (died c. 90?) Paul’s biographer

nly Luke is with me.” O So wrote Paul late in life from a Roman prison, just one evidence of their close relationship. Early tradition suggests that Luke was born a Greek in Antioch and be- came a physician before being con- verted and joining Paul, Silas, and Timothy in Troas on Paul’s second missionary journey (early 50s). Luke was later shipwrecked with Paul on Malta and jailed with Paul in Rome. He went to Greece around the time of Paul’s death and from there wrote his two-volume history of Jesus and the early church. The second volume, The , is mostly about Paul’s missionary journeys, Doctor author and artist? Luke, the doctor who wrote both Luke and in four passages, Luke includes and Acts, is often depicted as an artist (here shown painting jesus’ himself in the story, using the pro- mother, Mary). He may have interviewed Mary as he prepared his Gospel. noun “we” to narrate various events. One second-century prologue to preached in Lystra during their first present at the death of the the claims: missionary journey. When Paul re- Mary, whose tomb is said to be near “Having neither wife nor child, turned a year or so later, he invited Ephesus. [Luke] served the Lord without dis- Timothy to join him and Silas. This tradition also says that be- traction. He fell asleep in Boeotia, at Somehow, he managed to stay out cause he protested festivities honor- the age of 84, full of the .” of harm’s way—he was not jailed ing Artemis, he was stoned to death transport- with Paul and Silas in Philippi, and in 97. His relics were brought to ed Luke’s remains to Constantino- he avoided the riot in Thessalonica. Constantinople in 356. ple in 356, where they are said to But when Paul needed an envoy to be preserved in the Church of the return to Thessalonica to encour- BARNABAS Apostles. age the new believers there, he sent (died61) young Timothy. Later, Paul sent Tim- Advocate for the despised TIMOTHY othy as emissary to Corinth, where (died 97) he preached for some time. arnabas” was actually his nick- Trusted confidant Paul called Timothy his “beloved Bname, given him by the apostles. and faithful child in the Lord.” When It meant “Son of Encouragement,” espite his youth, Timothy quick- Paul was imprisoned in Rome, it’s and it was most appropriate. Dly gained Paul’s confidence and Timothy he asked to “come before He was actually born Joseph, a served as his trusted companion and winter” to comfort him. Levite from Cyprus. He was proba- emissary for 17 years. , the fourth century his- bly one of many Jews who migrated Timothy was born in Lystra in Asia torian, says that after Paul’s death, back to Jerusalem, where he became Minor to a Greek father and a Jew- Timothy became the first bishop of one of the earliest converts to Chris- ish mother, . He, his mother, Ephesus, probably at around age 40. tianity. He sold a field shortly after- and grandmother probably became He outlived Paul by 30 years, and wards and gave the money to the by Dieric Bouts the Elder, Bowes Museum Bowes Dieric Bouts the Elder, and Child by Virgin the Saint Luke Drawing Christians when Paul and Barnabas according to one tradition, was Jerusalem church.

Issue 47 29 Unlike most Christians, Barnabas believed Paul’s conversion story, and he smoothed the way for the former persecutor to be accepted by the Je- rusalem church. Mark in Egypt? Barnabas then went to pastor the The Egyptian growing church in Antioch, and Paul church claims returned to Tarsus. Barnabas later in- Mark sailed to vited Paul to come and co-pastor the Alexandria and Antioch church. became its first In 48, Barnabas set off with his cous- bishop, but in Mark and Paul to evangelize cities neither Clem- in Asia Minor. Though Mark desert- ent nor , ed the party early on, Barnabas and who lived there, Paul preached, performed , mention it. and endured persecution together. One early tradition, recorded by , says Barna- bas worked briefly with Jesus, being When plans were laid for the next Titus was born a Gentile, and one of the 70 sent out to evangelize missionary journey, Paul argued when he became a Christian he did Palestine. Another tradition says he vehemently with Barnabas against not get circumcised. When Titus ac- preached in Alexandria and Rome af- taking Mark again. The disagree- companied Paul on a visit to Jerusa- ter leaving Paul, founded the church ment was so sharp, the group split lem, some Jewish Christians insist- on Cyprus, and was finally stoned up, and Mark went with Barnabas ed Paul’s companion be circumcised and then burned to death in about 61 to Cyprus. according to Jewish law. As Paul put in Syria. Though three early church Later, Mark and Paul must have it, he “did not yield submission even works claim his name The of resolved their rift, for Paul calls for a moment,” and Titus remained Barnabas, the , and Mark his “fellow-worker” and tells uncircumcised. Titus thus served as the none are consid- the Colossians: “If [Mark] comes to a powerful symbol of justification ered to be written by him. you, welcome him.” by grace, not by law. Mark eventually made his way Titus served with Paul during his JOHN MARK to Rome, where he became a com- extended stay in Ephesus as a “part- (died c. 80) panion to Peter-indeed, Peter calls ner and fellow-worker,” and from First Gospel writer him “my son Mark.” Early Chris- there Titus tackled his toughest as- tian writers Papias and Irenaeus signment: to combat grave immoral- as Mark one of the first peo- say Mark “handed down to us in ity in the Corinthian church and me- Wple in history to be raised in a writing the things that Peter had diate their reconciliation with Paul. Christian home? His mother’s home proclaimed” about Jesus. This Gos- Titus put his pastoral skills to in Jerusalem, where Mark was like- pel of Mark was the first published work and reported back to a ly born and raised, was a gathering account of the life of Jesus. nervously-waiting Paul that Paul’s place for early Christians; it was the Church historian Eusebius says severe third Corinthian letter (lost or house to which Peter fled after he Mark eventually went to Alexandria possibly contained in 2 Corinthians miraculously escaped from prison. to become its first bishop. Tradition 10-13) had led to their . A Byzantine tradition says the house claims Mark was martyred there; Titus was later appointed the first was also used for the , in the ninth century, his relics were bishop of the troubled church at and the Church of John Mark in Jeru- carried off as war booty to Venice, Crete, where Paul wrote him about salem is said to mark the site. where they are said to rest in the Ca- the qualities of a good bishop. Eu- Sometime after , Mark thedral of St. Mark. sebiusreports that Titus died there moved to Antioch, and when the in 96 and was buried in the ancient church there commissioned Paul TITUS capital, Gortyna. His head was sup- and Barnabas to carry the gospel to (died 96) posedly removed in 823 by Saracens Asia Minor, Mark was invited to as- Paul’s troubleshooter and later enshrined at St. Mark’s Ca-

sist them. For some reason, at , thedral, Venice. CH Alexandria--Wikimedia Mosaic of St.Mark in Mark left the mission and returned to itus probably gets the Pauline Jerusalem-a move that eroded Paul’s Tservice award with 20 years as MARY ANN JEFFREYS is editorial coordina- confidence in Mark. Paul’s co-worker. tor for CHRISTIAN HISTORY.

30 Christian History The Real Writer of Romans The important but little-known figure behind the apostle

quick look at the closing verses of Paul’s letter to Rome makes it clear that Paul did A not pen the epistle: “Timothy, my coworker, greets you; so do Lucius and Jason and , my relatives. I Tertius, the writer of this letter, greet you in the Lord” (NRSV). Of course, :1 indicates that Paul was the author. So who was this “Tertius,” and what was his role in the producing this letter?

Wordprocessors In Paul’s day most letters were written by a professional scribe called an amanuensis. Some- times the sender was illiterate, but generally an amanuensis was used to guarantee letters would be grammatically sound and legible. Tertius was Paul’s scribe, and he inserted his own greeting at the close of the letter. As a professional, Tertius collected the neces- sary materials for writing. This was not always easy since bulk paper production was unknown. Although vellum or parchment (processed polished animal skins) were available, they were expensive. Papyrus from Egypt, however, worked best. The “See what large letters I make when I am cut plant was pressed in layers and became as writing in my own hand,” wrote Paul in one tough as today’s paper. It was produced in scrolls letter. Maybe it was his ungainly handwriting by gluing together sheets and rolling them end-to- that convinced him to use a scribe. end on a stick. One roll was called a volume (from the volumen, “something rolled up”) and was Who wrote that? generally 35 feet long. Trusted scribes were given great freedom to shape Ancient authors wrote to fit volumes, and like the form, style, and even the content of the author’s Luke, sometimes produced two-volume works (the letter. This broad role for an amanuensis must be Gospel and Acts). Obviously, length was a prob- kept in mind when scholars compare the vocabulary lem. Callimachus, a famous cataloguer at the great and stylistic differences among Paul’s letters to de- library of Alexandria, liked to say “A big book is a termine questions of authorship. Sometimes a minor big nuisance.” word choice belonged to Paul. Sometimes it When Tertius began working on Romans, he had may have belonged to someone like Tertius. in hand a fresh scroll and a pen with brown or In any event, occasionally Paul liked to take the black ink. Scribes wrote on the side of the papyrus pen and close the letter in his own handwriting. For where the fibers ran horizontally, the fiber lines example, at the end of 1 Corinthians, he writes, “I, serving as a guide. Tertius would then organize the Paul, write this greeting with my own hand.” He roll into three-inch wide columns for text. probably used his handwriting as a signature since As he worked, he likely wrote entirely in capi- forgeries of letters using Paul’s name were known. In tal letters, giving the text a splendid dignity. And, 2 Thessalonians, Paul concludes, “1, Paul, write this remarkably, he never left spaces between words, greeting with my own hand. This is the mark in every letting one word spill into the next. The final effect letter of mine; it is the way I write.” gave a block text with straight margins on both —Gary Burge, associate professor right and left sides. of New Testament, Wheaton College (IL) Roman grave relief of a scrivener—Johann Jaritz / Wikimedia / Jaritz relief of a scrivener—Johann Roman grave

Issue 47 31 Answers to some of the most puzzling questions about Paul

MARVIN R. WILSON Paul—Masaccio, Muzeo Nazionale di S. Matteo, Pisa / Wikimedia Muzeo Nazionale di S. Matteo, Pisa / Paul—Masaccio,

32 Christian History STEPHEN M MILLER

1. What did Paul widower who had at least occasionally gles—hysteria, migraines, epilepsy, and look like? traveled with his wife. Others see Paul obnoxious Christians, to name a few. He was a bald-headed, bowlegged using this question to emphasize that A view from the Middle Ages said short man with a big nose, and an he and Barnabas, as single men, were Paul couldn’t get sex off his mind. But unbroken eyebrow that lay across his not burdening the church with the that doesn’t fit with his words in 1 forehead like a dead caterpillar. added, though legitimate, expenses of Corinthians: “I wish that all men were That’s a paraphrase. caring for their wives. as I am. . . . But if they cannot control It’s from the only physical descrip- themselves, they should marry, for it tion of Paul, in an early Christian doc- 3. What was his “thorn is better to marry than to burn with ument, the . (Its author, in the flesh”? passion” (7:7, 9). a second-century church leader, We can only guess, but Paul gives Some scholars today suggest Paul’s was fired over the book because he two clues. He believed the purpose thorn was his audience, the trouble- attributed to Paul some unorthodox of the thorn was (1) “to keep me from some Corinthian church itself. In a teachings such as in becoming conceited” and (2) “to tor- word study of Paul’s statement, schol- .) ment me” (2 Cor. 12:7). Whatever the ars point out that every time the New A more literal translation of the thorn was, it humbled him persistently. Testament uses /messenger, tor- description of Paul in Greek reads, Scholars have diagnosed a full ment, and take it away, the words refer “A man of middling size, and his hair chart of physical diseases, psycho- to people. was scanty, and his legs were a little logical problems, and spiritual strug- Thorn doesn’t show up anywhere crooked, and his knees were far apart; else in the New Testament, but aversion he had large eyes, and his eyebrows of it appears in the Greek translation of met, and his nose was somewhat Numbers 33:55 and describes what the long.” Canaanites are to the Jews: “thorns in This may be little more than imag- your sides.” inative writing from a century after Most scholars today take literally Paul died, but it does not clash with Paul’s reference to the “flesh.” They see the way Paul’s critics described him: the thorn as a physical problem. “His letters are weighty and forceful, Some of them point out that Paul but in person he is unimpressive” (2 used the same Greek word when writ- Cor. 10:10). ing about the unspecified illness that kept him in Galatia. They speculate 2. Was he married? that in both cases Paul was talking Probably not. But because Paul about an eye disease—bad enough, said almost nothing about this, there’s perhaps, to make him today legally plenty of room to debate the matter. blind. For after mentioning the illness, When counseling singles and wid- Paul added, “If you could have done ows at Corinth, he wrote, “It is good so, you would have torn out your eyes for them to stay unmarried, as I am” and given them to me” (Gal. 4:15). (1 Cor. 7:8). And at the end of the letter, Paul But when listing the rights of an took the work from his scribe and apostle and arguing on behalf of him- added a personal postscript: “See what self and Barnabas, he said, “Don’t we large letters I use as I write to you with have the right to take a believing wife my own hand” (Gal. 6:11). along with us, as do the other apostles Malaria is another possibility, and the Lord’s brothers and Cephas?” suggested in the 1800s by archaeol- (1 Cor. 9:5). ogist William Ramsay. What hap- In interpreting this statement, PAUL, THE LOVING HUSBAND? pened, Ramsay guessed, is that some scholars say Paul’s question, Though it’s difficult to say for sure, some Paul caught malaria while traveling taken with his statement that he scholars say it’s possible that Paul may through the coastal plains of Pam-

Etruscan cinerary urn with a kissing couple. Beneath it is depicted their wedding ceremony. — G. Dallorto / Wikimedia — G. Dallorto / urn with a kissing couple. Beneath it is depicted their wedding ceremony. Etruscan cinerary was unmarried, suggests he was a have been married early in life. phylia (western Turkey) during his

Issue 47 33 the writer didn’t say. Perhaps he fig- ured his readers knew. Christians, in fact, did know. Early Christian writers agree that Paul was martyred in Rome. The first per- son we know of who said this was a Roman bishop, Clement, writing to the Corinthians in 96, roughly 30 years after Paul’s execution. Gaius, a second-century church leader in Rome, said he could point out the grave monuments of Paul and Peter on Vatican Hill (later leveled to build St. Peter’s ). Paul was probably beheaded with a sword. That was the quick method of execution granted to Roman citi- found guilty of a capital offense. Non-citizens often faced the lingering death of . The most vexing question about Paul’s death is when it took place. Many scholars argue it happened in WHEN PAUL WAS DECAPITATED, says one tradition, his head about 62, at the end of Paul’s two-year bounced three times, and at each spot it hit, a fountain sprang up! house arrest in Rome. Luke’s abrupt ending in Acts could imply this. first missionary journey. This coast’s Barnabas in the early 40s in vited him Other scholars say the Romans marshes bred malaria-carrying mosqui- to help lead the church in Antioch, released Paul, who briefly visited toes. The tendency for malaria to recur Syria. some churches he had planted and with alternating bouts of sweating and What Paul did during these miss- then turned west to evangelize Spain, a shivering seems to fit well with Paul’s ing years is uncertain. Raised to sup- long-standing dream of his. Paul’s let- choice of the word torment, which port himself as a tentmaker, he prob- ter to Philemon, written when he was refers to something that continually or ably made a few tents. His years in under house arrest, shows he expected often battered him. the Arabian desert kingdom of the acquittal: “Prepare a guest room for Given the growing list of theories Nabateans, south of Damascus in me because I hope to be restored to about Paul’s , the one what is today Jordan, were perhaps you in answer to your ” (Phi- thing we can be sure about is that we given to private reflection and min- lem. 22). And in Clement’s letter to the can’t be sure about any of them. istry to Gentiles. And in Tarsus he Corinthians, he said that Paul “went to probably remained true to his ten- the limit of the West.” This points to 4. What happened to him dency to speak his mind. Perhaps his Spain. If this is what happened, Paul during the unreported gaps success there is why Barnabas called was probably arrested a second time in his life? on him. and executed at Rome in about 66. Twice Paul dropped out of New Paul’s account of these mysterious More certain than the time of Testament history. He went to the years is succinct but suggests he told Paul’s death is the manner in which Arabian desert for about three years, others what he knew about Jesus, for he faced it. In his last recorded words, almost immed iately after his conver- the report circulated that “The man he told Timothy, “I am already being sion. Then following a two-week visit who formerly persecuted us is now poured out like a drink offering, and to Jerusalem, he was escorted out of preaching the faith he once tried to the time has come for my departure. I town by some Christians who appar- destroy” (Gal. 1:23). have fought the good fight, I have fin- ently feared for his life. They took him ished the race, I have kept the faith” to the port city of Caesarea, put him 5. How and when did he die? (2 Tim. 4:6-7). CH on a ship, and “sent him off to Tar- The New Testament doesn’t tell us. sus” (:30), his boyhood home in Acts ends with the cliffhanger: Paul STEPHEN MILLER is a free-lance writer and western Turkey. There Paul stayed for under house arrest in Rome while former editor of Illustrated Bible Life. He is a

the next half-dozen years or so, until awaiting trial. What happened next, consulting editor for CHRISTIAN HISTORY. Apostles —Google Art Martyrdom of the Project / Wikimedia Stephen Lochner,

34 Christian History How could Paul communicate his radical message to those threatened by it?

CRAIG KEENER

aul had a seemingly insur- in Jesus constituted the right form of mountable task: to make Judaism (:16-49, Rom. 4, 9-11). intelligible to a conserva- tive, establishment Roman Empire Paganism at its best the good news of a Palestinian Jewish But many Romans and Greeks con- end-time figure who had inaugurat- fused Judaism with the cults of Dio- ed a secret, alternative kingdom. nysus and Isis, which they accused of So Paul had to be both a conserva- being immoral. Other Greeks and Ro- tive and radical. He was conservative mans detested circumcision as a form for strategic reasons; to reach his cul- of mutilation, ridiculed the Sabbath ture, he learned how to communicate as an excuse for laziness, and mocked Christ’s message in the most intelligi- Jewish food laws as utter foolishness. ble forms (without compromising its So another strategy of Jewish apol- content). ogists was to appeal to the highest At the same time, Paul was radical: standards of pagan philosophers he inherited from Jesus a radical gos- (who, they often claimed, must pel and took the implications of that have plagiarized Moses to get their gospel to its radical conclusions. ideas!). Jewish thinkers appealed to the popular Stoic notion of a su- Judaism at its best preme and universal God; other Much of the aristocracy of the gods could be disposed of as merely first-century Empire, especially in guardian . Rome, was threatened by changes in Most of what Paul says in Acts the status of women, former slaves, 17:24-29 and Romans 1:18-23 corre- and foreigners. Leaders were dis- sponds perfectly not only with the turbed that “Eastern cults,” like Juda- Bible but with Stoic thought: “The ism and the cult of Isis, were making God who made the world and every- converts among Roman aristocrats, thing in it ... does not live in temples The sayings of Chairman Paul? In especially among women. So they felt their social context, Paul’s writings built by human hands” would have it was essential to preserve traditional and teachings were perhaps the most been heartily affirmed by a follow- religion and other elements of society radical of his day. er of . In this, Paul simply if social order was to be preserved. followed the lead of earlier Jewish What was an early Christian mis- Gentiles who already appreciated thinkers, first establishing common sionary to do in such a setting? Since Judaism. Sometimes Paul, therefore, ground by appealing to the best in Christianity was born out of Juda- explained that Jesus was the hope of Greek philosophy.

Apostle Paul (Catalan, Spain, c. 1150-1170)—Nelson Atkins Museum of Art / Wikimedia Art / Atkins Museum of (Catalan, Spain, c. 1150-1170)—Nelson Apostle Paul ism, one approach was to appeal to Jewish history and ; faith Over the years, Paul grew in-

Issue 47 35 keep the gospel message central. Paul held the line on some social issues as well, for to him they rep- Alarming Letter. The resented the center of Jesus’ radical oldest known manu- message. In Judaism, for example, script fragment (c. A.D. Gentile seekers were welcome, and 200) of Paul’s letters, most Jewish people expected these which shows the end righteous Gentiles to share in the of . That letter world to come, but they did not reck- contains two radical on them as part of God’s people since statements for the day- they weren’t circumcised. Many Jew- that people are justified ish Christians simply adopted this by faith alone (2:16), attitude, but Paul’s thinking on this and that for Christians, matter was much more radical. social distinctions were He started with the key implication no longer of primary of the message Christ had commis- importance (3:28). sioned him to preach: faith in Jesus is the decisive issue in one’s relation- ship with God. Therefore, faith rath- er than ethnic allegiance (or other is- sues) should determine membership in the . This was not an issue Paul thought peripheral. In Antioch, he publicly confronted Peter and other Christians creasingly adept at interpreting his derstood how outsiders would see who separated themselves at meal message in pagan categories yet clar- the Lord’s Supper in Corinth. Busi- time from Gentile Christians (Gal. ifying and sticking to the essentials ness guilds, like many religious as- 2:11-14). Paul so strongly felt the gos- of the faith. The Greeks who read his sociations, would meet once a month pel was at stake, he called Peter on first letter to Thessalonica probably (often in homes) to eat a meal whose the carpet in front of everyone. This misinterpreted his teaching on the meat had been offered to their patron public confrontation showed the mat- end-time and death because it con- deity. To outsiders, there was little dif- ter was urgent: both Jesus and Jewish trasted so starkly with their world- ference between the meal of cult asso- tradition normally insisted on private view. In his later letters, Paul shows ciations and the meal of - reproof first. If Jew and Gentile come more sensitivity to the way his Greek es, except that the Christians’ patron to God on the same terms-through audience thought. god claimed to be the only true God. Christ -then racial or cultural separat- Paul even adapts the language of Paul readily adapted the language of ism violates the very gospel of Christ. Plato to describe the soul’s state af- the outsiders: instead of the “table of Paul develops this same thought in ter death: “So we fix our eyes not on Serapis,” the Christians celebrated at his letter to Roman Christians, who what is seen, but on what is unseen. the “table of the Lord” (1 Cor. 11:20). appear to have become divided along For what is seen is temporary, but Jewish-Gentile lines. Paul arguesthat what is unseen is eternal. We know Drawing the line Jew and Gentile are equally damned that if the earthly tent we live in is Then again, accommodating one- (Rom. 1-3), that both must approach destroyed, we have a building from self to one’s audience could go too God on the same terms (Rom. 4-8), God, an eternal house in ” (2 far. How could Christian evangelists and that history reveals God’s desire Cor. 4:18-5:1). But neither Paul nor avoid compromising the message in to save both (Rom. 9-11). Judaism found the soul’s order to gain a hearing? Therefore Jewish Christians should incompatible with the doctrine of the For Paul, it was important to draw not despise Gentile Christians whose future resurrection of the body (e.g., 1 the line at key places. In regard to background did not include the law Cor. 15; Phil. 3:20-21). Christians and “the table of the or designation as the “chosen peo- Also notice Paul’s cultural sensitiv- Lord,” for example, the tables of oth- ple” (Rom. 4, 7, 9); Gentile Christians ity regarding his teaching about the er gods were clearly off-limits. And should not despise Jewish Christians Lord’s Supper. Paul had not forgotten like many other Jews, Paul regarded for observing special food laws and the significance of the the gods behind pagan idols as de- holy days (Rom. 14), always remem- Passover for understanding Jesus’ (1 Cor. 10:20). On other moral bering that the gospel sprang out of

mission (1 Cor. 5:7), but he also un- and theological issues, Paul fought to Judaism (Rom. 11, 15). Wikimedia / of Michigan University Manuscript 2638, 158r.

36 Christian History Stoic Paul. To win over philosophically-minded Greeks and Romans, Paul employed popular Stoic philosophy when possible, as he did in Romans 1: “For since the creation of the world, God’s invisible qualities-his eternal power and divine nature-have been clearly seen.”

Social leveler sider how to commend this message to serve their masters “wholeheart- Paul also challenged class divisions to the broadest cross-section of Ro- edly,” and then to masters he said, of the ancient world. man society. “Treat your slaves in the same way” Some well-to-do Christians in Therefore, he adapted the philos- (6:9)-suggesting mutual submission Corinth, who owned the homes in ophers’ traditional household codes between masters and slaves! Paul’s which the churches met, were embar- (which had also been adopted by few words to masters in Ephesians rassed by Paul’s weak rhetoric and Jews and other groups) to prove undercut Aristotle’s whole basis for his work as an artisan. Their social that Christians were not social sub- slavery (that Nature approves of it) class preferred teachers of a “higher” versives. Paul sought to prove that and placed Paul among the most caliber, and they despised common Christians were good citizens and progressive ancient writers on the labor. upheld traditional Roman family val- subject. Well-to-do patrons often invited ues: namely, the submission of wives, Paul’s radical thinking and tacti- those of lower social status to eat children, and slaves. cal conservatism stand side by side, in their homes, but they segregated While employing the codes, Paul testifying to the tightrope the early them in a poorer dining area, pro- nevertheless went beyond them. Christians were forced to walk-and viding them inferior food and wine. Wives were to submit to husbands the strategic brilliance of one of their Paul confronted this problem, which (5:22) but only in the same way that most outstanding missionary think- was typical of broader Corinthian all Christians submit to one another ers. CH society, on a solid theological basis: (5:21). Rather than exhorting hus- Christ’s body cannot have class di- how to rule, as was custom- visions any more than racial ones (1 ary, he exhorted them on how to love Craig Keener is professor of New Cor. 10:17; 11:23, 29). (5:25). Testament at Hood Theological Seminary When viewed in the context of the in Salisbury, . He is author Subversive conservative times, most of Paul’s words concern- of Paul, Women, and Wives (Hendrickson, The message Paul inherited from ing women’s roles advanced rather 1992), and The IVP Bible Background Jesus radically challenged the social than inhibited their social position. Commentary: New Testament (lnterVarsity,

. Rogers Fund, 1962 / Wikimeda Athens . Rogers Fund, 1962 / in Preaching St. Paul Bellanger, structures of the day. Paul had to con- Likewise, household slaves were 1993).

Issue 47 37 Paul’s teachings on grace and freedom have shaken the church in every age.

F. F. BRUCE

ime and again, when the gos- that lay at his friend’s side-a copy of “find a gracious God.” He was struck pel has been in danger of being Paul’s letters, as it happened—he let by the prayer of Psalm 31:1, “In thy fettered and disabled in the his eye fall on what we know as the deliver me.” But how bonds of legalism or outworn closing words of : “. . . not could God’s righteousness deliver tradition,” wrote the late F. F. Bruce, “it in reveling and drunkenness, not in him? The righteousness of God was has been the words of Paul that have bro- debauchery and licentiousness, not surely calculated rather to condemn ken the bonds and set the gospel free to in quarreling and jealousy; but put the sinner than to save him. exert its emancipating power once more on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make As he thought about the mean- in the life of mankind.” At the end of his no provision for the flesh, to gratify ing of the words, his attention was Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free, its desires.” more and more directed to Paul’s Bruce discusses Paul’s influence on four “No further would I read,” he says, statement in Romans 1:17 that in the key individuals, and therefore his con- “nor had I any need; instantly, at the gospel “the righteousness of God is tinuing impact on the church age after end of this sentence, a clear light revealed through faith for faith; as age. flooded my heart, and all the dark- it is written, ‘He who through faith ness of doubt vanished away.” is righteous shall live.’ “The result Augustine The colossal influence which Au- of his study is best told in his own and the Middle Ages gustine, “the greatest Christian since words: Augustine is the author of Confessions New Testament times” (as one pa- “I had greatly longed to understand and City of God, two of the most read tristic scholar has called him) has Paul’s , and works in Christian history. He was the exercised on the thought of succeed- nothing stood in the way but that church’s most influential theologian ing ages can be traced directly to the one expression, ‘the righteousness of through the thirteenth century, and some light which flooded into his mind as God,’ because I took it to mean that say beyond. he read the words of Paul. righteousness whereby God is righ- In the summer of A.D. 386, 32-year- teous and acts righteously in pun- old Augustine sat weeping in the ishing the unrighteous. . . . Night and garden of his friend Alypius at Milan. day I pondered until . . . I grasped the He had been for two years professor and the truth that the righteousness of God is of rhetoric in that city and had every Luther began the sixteenth-centu- that righteousness whereby, through reason to be satisfied with his profes- ry Protestant Reformation, which grace and sheer , he justifies us sional career thus far, yet he was con- reasserted the primacy of faith and by faith. scious of a deep inner dissatisfaction. Scripture. “Thereupon I felt myself to be re- He was almost persuaded to begin a In 1513 Martin Luther, Augustin- born and to have gone through open new life, but lacked the resolution to ian and professor of sacred doors into paradise. The whole of break with the old. theology in the University of Wit- Scripture took on a new meaning, As he sat, he heard a child singing tenberg in Saxony, endeavored to and whereas before ‘the righteous- in a neighboring house, Tolle, lege! prepare a course of lectures on the ness of God’ had filled me with hate, Tolle, lege! (“Take up and read! Take while his mind was preoccu- now it became to me inexpressibly up and read!”) Taking up the scroll pied with the agonizing endeavor to sweet in greater love. This passage of Bruce (Eerdmans, 1977). Used with permission. F. F. by Apostle of the Heart Set Free Paul: From

38 Christian History rienced by others around the same time, and it is remarkable in how many of them Paul had a determi- nant part to play. A week before John’s awakening, his brother Charles came for the first time upon Luther’s commentary on Galatians, and “found him nobly full of faith.” Later in the same day, he records, “I spent some hours this evening in private with Martin Lu- ther, who was greatly blessed to me, especially his conclusion of the sec- ond chapter. I labored, waited, and prayed to feel ‘who loved me and gave himself for me.’ “ Four days later, his prayer was answered.

Karl Barth and the revival of By rediscovering the Bible and the theology of Calvin and Luther, Barth did more than anyone else to topple the moralistic Christianity that dominated the late nineteenth century. One of the most epoch-making theological publications of the twen- tieth century was ’s expo- sition of the Epistle to the Romans, first issued in August 1918 when he Give Us Liberty. Tearing down the Berlin Wall. Some historians believe Paul’s teaching about spiritual liberty has had political consequences, “In was pastor of Safenwil in Canton those parts of the world where the democratic process has been special- Aargau, . “The reader,” he said in his pref- ly indebted to the Reformation and the evangelical revival,” wrote F. F. ace, “will detect for himself that it Bruce, “Paul has exercised an indirect influence . . . . Paul looked forward has been written with a joyful sense to the day when the racial, religious, sexual and social prejudices or dis- of discovery. The mighty voice of crimination . . . would be banished from the whole new creation.” Paul was new to me, and if to me, no doubt to many others also. And Paul became to me a gateway into 24, 1738, he “went very unwilling- yet, now that my work is finished, I heaven.” ly to a society in Aldersgate Street perceive that much remains which I The consequences of Luther’s grasp [], where one was reading have not yet heard.” of the liberating gospel according to Luther’s to the Epistle to the But what he had heard he wrote Paul are writ large in history. Romans.” down, and others heard it too. He “About a quarter before nine,” he compared himself to a man who, goes on, “while he was describing clutching in the dark at a rope for and the Evangelical Revival the change which God works in the guidance, finds that he has pulled Wesley was the founder of heart through faith in Christ, I felt on a bell rope, making a sound fit and an early leader of in my heart strangely warmed. I felt I to wake the dead. The the eighteenth century, a movement that did trust in Christ, Christ alone for theologian Karl said that the spanned the Atlantic. salvation: And an was first edition of Barth’s Romerbrief In John Wesley’s well-known ac- given me, that he had taken away fell “like a bombshell on the theolo- count of the event that is usually my sins, even mine, and saved me gians’ playground.” The repercus- called his conversion—but which he from the law of and death.” sions of that explosion are with us himself later described (in Pauline If there is one event more than still. CH language) as the occasion when he another that marked the birth of exchanged “the faith of a servant” the evangelical revival of the eigh- F. F. Bruce was professor of biblical criti- for “the faith of a son”—he tells how, teenth century, it was that. But sim- cism and at the University of Man-

Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989 / © SZ Photo / Jose Giribas / Bridgeman Images 1989 / © SZ Photo Jose Wall, of the Berlin Fall in the evening of Wednesday, May ilar awakenings were being expe- chester, England, until his death in 1990.

Issue 47 39 ould Paul be a leader in the current signs-and-wonders movement? In some ways, yes, says Gordon Fee, professor of New Testament at Regent College in Van- couver, British Columbia. In his recent book, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Hendrickson, 1994), he argues that the Holy Spirit is the key to Paul’s life and thought. CHRISTIAN HISTORY talk- ed with Fee about the role spiritual expe- rience played in the church of Paul’s day.

CHRISTIAN HISTORY: Many Flight to the . In one letter, Paul revealed that he had experienced Christians don’t naturally think of “visions and revelations from the Lord,” including being “caught up to paradise” (2 Cor. 12:1-6). Paul as someone who had a regu- lar and active “Spirit-life.” Why is seriously, doesn’t understand Paul. considered that a resurrection ap- that? If you had asked Paul to define pearance of the same quality others GORDON FEE: By and large, Prot- what a Christian is, he would not had. That experience determined ev- estants think theologically, and then have said, “A Christian is a person erything for Paul. almost completely in terms of soteri- who believes X and Y doctrines If we turn to Paul’s letters, it’s clear ology-what does it mean to be saved? about Christ,” but “A Christian is a that the Spirit, whom he considered We’ve read Paul through the lens of his person who walks in the Spirit, who the Spirit of Christ, was an ongoing, letters to Galatia and Rome, where the knows Christ.” He wouldn’t have dynamic reality in his life. In addition issue was justification by faith. We’ve denied the importance of doctrine, to receiving visions, he performed read these texts so often we tend to un- but it would not have been the first healings and spoke in tongues. derstand Paul only as a theologian. thing he would have mentioned. But Paul was a person of prayer Was Paul’s experience of the Spir- before he was a theologian. His de- What religious experiences it unusual? sire was not to be a precise theolo- were most important to Paul? Not at all. In the first century, it gian but to know Christ personally. For Paul, everything began on the was assumed Christians would ex- That was the passion of his life. Any Damascus Road. About that experi- perience these things. For example,

reading of Paul that doesn’t take that ence, he said, “I saw the Lord.” He when Paul scolded the Galatians, he Wikimedia) Project / Yorke (The Ecstasy of St. Paul ,The Nicolas Poussin

40 Christian History ergy between the Spirit and the speak- er; the Spirit prompted the speaker to say things. Prophecy wasn’t a ; it wasn’t a matter of an individual’s wanting to speak his or her mind. Something supernatural was going on that pushed a person to speak. To Paul and the early church, religious experiences were commonplace. What type of miracles did the early church experience? How common were they? An interview with GORDON FEE Miracles included everything from answers to prayer to dreams and visions. But it certainly includ- ed healings. In many instances, we don’t know exactly what happened, began a sentence, “He who richly sup- transported out of the body, and he but we do know there was a kind of plies you with the Spirit and performs couldn’t report what exactly hap- commonness about them. miracles in your midst.... “ Paul spoke pened-some validation! The point These people were not gullible. in the present tense-the Spirit was dy- is that he downplayed this incredi- They understood the difference be- namically active, doing extraordinary ble experience in a playful way. This tween ordinary experiences, which things in Galatia, and the Galatians type of experience was unusual, but could be explained in human terms, were well aware of it. He assumed the it was private for Paul. and miracles, which required a su- same common experience when he But this wasn’t the case with the pernatural agent. They lived in an wrote the church at Corinth. usual supernatural experiences of age that respected things of the Spir- Now, Paul did have some unusual early Christians-prophecy, miracles, it-versus our materialistic age that experiences of the Spirit, but he nev- and tongues. trusts only empirical proof. When er made an issue of them. In 2 Corin- things happened by the power of the thians 12, for instance, he mentions What did Paul mean by “proph- Holy Spirit, early Christians didn’t having been “caught up to the third ecy’’? try to explain them away. heaven,” and he seems to be validat- This experience is mentioned It’s equally clear that these sorts ing his ministry by mentioning this throughout early ; of things didn’t happen every time experience. it was a common denominator in all they prayed. Then again, they hap- But he was really playing the role churches. Prophecy was understood pened enough that Paul could write of the fool in a Greek play. ln the end, by Paul as the spontaneous Spirit ut- about them as if every Christian had he didn’t even know whether he was terance of the faithful. There was a syn- experienced .

Issue 47 41 In Paul’s day was speaking in we don’t have a full experience of On the other hand, he allowed more tongues similar to that of today? God’s Spirit. We’re afraid to experi- freedom of expression when it came Probably. Tongues was like proph- ence the Spirit. to private prayer, especially tongues. ecy: the Spirit prayed through the That’s partly because of what Many of us in the Western church, person’s spirit. The speech, however, we’ve read about the Corinthian however, have neglected the emo- usually was not in an intelligible hu- church! When they experienced tional part of faith and the role the man tongue-not a foreign language God, there were excesses. Some peo- Spirit plays in that. In Paul’s world, but a supernatural one. ple lost control, and it’s important it wasn’t a matter of either spirit or Again, it was a common experi- for post-Enlightenment Christians mind, but both. ence of the early church. For exam- ple, Paul wrote to the Corinthians, What would Paul make of devout “I speak in tongues more than all congregations today in which few of you.” In Romans he talked about people, if any, experience prophe- groanings that were inarticulate-I cies, tongues, or miracles? think he meant . He would probably sit in amaze- The way he wrote these churches, ment. He would wonder where and he assumed they knew what he was how this one-sided Christianity had talking about, that it was a common developed: “Who bewitched you? experience of the church. When did you leave the Spirit?” It’s Were such religious experiences not that he wouldn’t recognize the known in other ancient religions? truth of the preaching. He would Yes. We have to remember that the just wonder what had happened. ancient world believed in spiritual realities. At the shrines at Delphi, for What would Paul and the early example, pagans experienced mira- church, then, think of the “holy cles and prophecy and extraordinary laughter” in some churches bodily manifestations. Some of it may today? have been due to psychedelic drugs, That sort of thing was not common and we can’t rule out demonic activi- in the first century, and I’m cautious ty. But to first-century people, the su- about speaking of phenomena I’ve pernatural was not all that unusual. not experienced or witnessed. But Today, Emerging World peoples, my guess is that the early church who still believe in the spiritual would see it as a work of the Spir- world, have been attracted to Pen- it whether it’s a human response to tecostalism because the Spirit’s triggering, or the Spirit is comfortable with this spiritual himself who produces the laughter. world. Emerging World Christians Laughter is certainly something the know that what they experience in to be in control. So we shy away Spirit could produce! As far as oth- the Spirit is similar to their earlier from spiritual experiences. er signs and wonders, like animal experiences of the demonic-though sounds, I have my doubts. their Christian experience is redemp- Some would say there’s a dan- tive, not destructive. That’s the type ger to Christianity that empha- What has most impressed you of environment in which Paul lived sizes emotion at the expense of in your studies of Paul and the and ministered. the mind. Spirit? That’s a false dichotomy to Paul. That Paul was a passionate lover Why are some modern Chris- For Paul the rational and the emo- of Christ, and that passion meant tians reluctant to embrace this tional go hand in hand: “I will pray that he prayed before he did theolo- aspect of Paul’s life and teaching? with my mind, and I will pray with gy; he experienced the reality before As products of the Reformation, my spirit. I will sing with my mind; he taught it. The longer I’m in the we are also products of the Enlight- I will sing with my spirit.” church, the more I’m convinced that enment. Many of my fellow evan- He did both. When it was a matter a Christianity that doesn’t have a gelicals are rationalistic in their ap- of public edification, he insisted that passion for praise and worship just proach to Christian faith-we love people under the Spirit’s influence re- isn’t Pauline. Paul couldn’t imagine God with our minds, and we often tain some control, remembering to do theology that didn’t begin and end neglect loving God with our hearts; everything “decently and in order.” with the Spirit. CH

42 Christian History Recommended Resources Paul and his times Editor’s Choice

an 8-volume Library of Early early two thousand years Christianity (Wayne Meeks, general after Paul’s death, books editor) that explores various aspects Nabout the apostle contin- of first-century Christianity. For ue to proliferate at an astonish- example, Robert M. Grant examines ing rate. Where does one begin the religious and philosophical exploring the life of the most im- world in Gods and the One God, portant person (aside from Jesus) and Joseph E. Stambaugh and David in the history of the church? L. Balch look at everyday life in The New Testament in Its Social Envi- Reference points ronment. Aside from the New Testament F. F. Bruce’s, New Testament itself, the place to begin is F. F. History (Anchor, 1972) is a painless Bruce’s now classic Apostle of way to get introduced to the politi- the Heart Set Free (Eerdmans, cal history of the times. 1977)the most readable and Paul spent most of his time in engaging biography of Paul. A cities, and Wayne Meeks’s already classic from a previous era that classic, The First Urban Christians: still gives insights is William The Social World of the Apostle An unimpressive, wandering Ramsay’s St. Paul, the Traveler Paul (Yale 1983) explores that missionary of a minor Jewish and the Roman Citizen (18th setting. ed., 1935). cult from a distant corner of the Roman empire remains the Two atlases that help one get Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. some geographical bearings are Martin, and Daniel G. Reid have subject of more books than anyone except Jesus of Nazareth. Yohanan Aharoni’s and edited the definitive reference Avi-Yonah’s, The Macmillan Bible on Paul’s writings in Dictionary Atlas (Macmillan, 1977) and Tim Cornell’s and John of Paul and His Letters (lnterVarsity, 1993). Though Matthews’s, Atlas of the Roman World (Facts on File, mostly about Paul’s thought, it contains enough 1982). history to justify a recommendation! In addition, any one of the many Bible dictionar- In the original ies on the market is a gold mine of information on Paul is an unusual historical figure because all Paul and his times. his writings and the earliest accounts of his life are readily available in modern English! Luke’s Acts of Exploring the era the Apostles and Paul’s New Testament letters are far We live in the best of times in terms of books and away the principle sources of the thousands of about Paul’s times. Specialized studies on nearly books on Paul’s life and thought. Reading especially every aspect of first-century life are now available. A Romans, Galatians, and 1 & 2 Corinthians with a few I like are these: commentary in hand will reward the diligent reader. Everett Ferguson’s Backgrounds of Early Christian- Check with your pastor, local bookstore, or librarian ity, second edition (Eerdmans, 1993) is perhaps the to sort through the dizzying array of commentaries most accessible and thorough overview of the era, available. covering history, religion, and culture. Finally, C. K. Barrett’s The New Testament Back- Joachim Jeremias’s detailed Jerusalem in the Time ground: Selected Documents, revised and expanded of Jesus: An Investigation into Economic and Social edition (Harper & Row, 1987) is my favorite resource Conditions during the New Testament Period (For- to scan writings that give a feel for the first-century tress, 1969) rewards the patient reader with numer- Mediterranean world. ous insights into the city and culture in which Paul —Mark Galli was raised. Westminster Press has recently (1986) published of the apostle Paul—Unknown Russian painter (early 19th century) / Wikimedia Russian painter (early 19th century) / Icon of the apostle Paul—Unknown

Issue 47 43 H i s t o r y i n t h e M a k i n g

Billy Graham Had a Dream Enthusiasm for racial reconciliation has never been so high among American evangelicals. Why?

EDWARD GILBREATH

leven o’clock Sunday morning is the most segregated hour in EAmerica,” declared civil-rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., in a well-known line he used a number of times. What is not so well known is that the remark was first made by someone else in a 1950s Reader’s Di- gest article on racism. The article was written by King’s friend, evangelist Billy Graham. Racism has strained American so- ciety since our nation’s birth. And, sadly, the American church carries its share of blame. But today, a surge of racial reconciliation among blacks, whites, and other ethnic groups is sweeping the American church like never before. Last year black and white Pente- costals came together in a dramatic demonstration of repentance for the sins of racism during what is now called the “Memphis .” In that historic meeting, black and white leaders shed tears of confession, washed each other’s feet, and most significantly, agreed to dissolve their separate organizations to form a new one, free of color barriers. Since 1990, the Promise Keepers men’s movement has brought togeth- Like Mike. Billy Graham and Martin Luther King, jr., shared a common er thousands of Christian men with a passion for racial reconciliation. In 1957 Graham asked King to address call for racial unity as one of its prime his New York City crusade team on the topic of integration, and Graham tenets. became one of the few whites to call King by his nickname, Mike. And recently, African-American leaders such as John Perkins, Anthony “There is no biblical basis for a stand up and be willing to accept the Evans, and Raleigh have black, white, , or Asian persecution that goes with preach- been stirring evangelical audiences, church,” declared Perkins recent- ing [the message of reconciliation].” white and black, to a new awareness ly to a predominantly white crowd. This relatively new concern has

of the race issue in the church. “We need some living examples to not come out of nowhere. It started of Congress Albertin / Library of Congress; Martin Luther King—Walter K. Leffler / Library Billy Graham—Warren

44 Christian History in the 1950s most publicly in the min- He believed the Kingdom of God but soon whites began complaining istry of America’s foremost evange- was to be ushered in by a reformation that too many blacks were filling the list, Billy Graham. of society at all levels. best seats. So those sponsoring the rally divided the seating according Mixed heritage: Public caution: to race. Whitefield and Finney Moody and Sunday Moody opposed this decision, but To better appreciate the uniqueness Thanks to Christians like Finney, the soon he bowed to pressure from of Graham’s concern for racial rec- nineteenth century saw increased con- his white audiences. From then on, onciliation, we need to set him in his- cern over social issues. But not every whenever Moody preached in the torical context. He comes from a long Christian was convinced about the South, he either addressed audienc- line of nationally known American need to abolish slavery. The controver- es that were segregated or held sep- evangelists who as public figures had sy divided America’s largest denomi- arate services for blacks and whites. to confront the problem of racism. nations—Baptist, Methodist, and Pres- Moody was troubled by racial injus- As might be expected, their record of byterian. Some historians believe that tice, but his reputation as a leading dealing with it is mixed. when these churches split, civil war Christian figure among whites made Consider George Whitefield, the fa- ther of America’s . In the 1740s, Whitefield won count- less to Christ-both black and white. Early in his ministry, he ques- tioned the morality of slaveholding. Yet later he approved buying slaves to help work in the fields of his Geor- gia orphanage. Whitefield justified the move in part because enslaving blacks, he reasoned, had exposed them to Christianity and so made possible their conversion. Whitefield’s logic was followed by subsequent church leaders, most of whom did not see a connection be- tween believing in Christ and in prac- ticing racial justice. Many Christians were opposed to the oppression of blacks, but they believed the church’s main function was to win souls, and secondarily, to perform acts of mer- cy-but certainly not to change social A first. Graham’s integrated 1964 crusade in Birmingham, Alabama, shocked structures like slavery. many southerners. It was considered the first publicly integrated meeting in the history of the state. An exception to the rule was re- nowned nineteenth-century revival- could hardly be avoided. So America’s it difficult for him to take a public ist Charles Grandison Finney. Finney bloodiest war pitted brother against stand. was both an influential evangelist and brother-not only among human fami- By the early 1900s, evangelist Bil- an outspoken abolitionist. In 1851 he lies, but also within the family of God. ly Sunday had taken his place as was elected president of Ohio’s Ober- After the war, southern Christians America’s preeminent preacher. Sun- lin College, a leading stronghold of still balked at integration, as evange- day, who began as a Bible teacher the anti-slavery movement. Eleven list Dwight L. Moody was to discover. with the YMCA, had been years later, through Finney’s efforts, Well-known for his ministry to urban sensitive to the plight of minorities Oberlin student Mary Jane Patterson America, Moody’s efforts in the South and the poor in urban America since became the first African-American forced him to confront head-on the the start of his ministry. In the fall woman to receive a bachelor’s degree race issue. of 1917, during his Atlanta crusade, in the -an astounding In 1876, during a series of revival Sunday held special meetings for Af- milestone of the era because of Pat- meetings in Augusta, Georgia, the rican Americans and visited several terson’s race and gender. popular evangelist attracted both black churches. Finney’s stands were due in large black and white audiences. The meet- When it came to holding inte-

Archives of the Billy Graham Center, Wheaton Il. Center, of the Billy Graham Archives part to his postmillennialist views. ings were originally unsegregated grated meetings, however, Sunday

Issue 47 45 drew the line. He knew that any na- its time, Graham was still tentative ropes separating the black and white tional Christian leader who wanted on the issue. When pressed by his sections at the crusade arena. to maintain his public image would critics, he softened his views. “We From then on the evangelist be- not want to upset the social mores of follow the existing social customs gan to take slow but decisive steps the day. in whatever part of the country in towards dismantling the barriers of which we ,” he said. “I came racism in the American church. The troubled young Graham to Jackson to preach only the Bible In 1957, Graham integrated his Four decades later, evangelist Billy and not to enter into local issues.” ministry internally by adding his Graham found himself in a similar But he soon discovered that solu- first black team member, Howard O. bind. During his early years of min- tion was not going to work. The Jones, a young pastor from Cleve- istry, Graham freely accepted the race issue was too volatile—and land. Soon Graham was working custom of segregated seating at his Graham’s ministry too popular—to regularly with African-American churches within the communities where his were held. That same year, at a in Brook- lyn, Graham said publicly for the first time that antisegregation legislation might be necessary to bring an end to discrimination. Graham’s change in public demeanor on the race issue stirred the wrath of many of his sup- porters. Indignant whites hurled at him derogatory names such as “inte- grationist” and “nigger lover.” Some southern cities overrode his demands, and they in turn demanded segregated seating; in a few instances, Graham felt forced into accepting the status quo. In spite of a few such tem- porary retreats, the evangelist held a steady course; he consistently spoke out against racial injustice and gradu- ally added more to his organization. Black Graham. When the Civil Rights struggle deepened in 1965, Graham In a recent article in Christianity To- decided to preach throughout the Deep South. In Montgomery, Alabama, day, Graham said, “Of all people, outraged segregationists threw paint on billboards that showed a black Christians should be the most active silhouetted Graham. in reaching out to those of other rac- es.” Graham has been the most public southern crusades. As his ministry downplay the reality of segregation. white evangelical to condemn racism grew, Graham was faced with either Graham had to decide where he was and to reach out to African Ameri- preaching to segregated audiences or going to stand publicly. cans. In 1986, the late Hines, demanding that the crusade crowds a nationally known black pastor from be given equal seating privileges. Decisive break Washington, DC, said about Graham, By 1952, the young preacher, now a In 1953—three years before Martin “His preaching of reconciliation and national figure, felt troubled by the ra- Luther King hit the national scene and his call to repentance have had a direct cial prejudice in the church. “There is no more than a decade before the 1964 impact on the alienation and polariza- scriptural basis for segregation,” Gra- Civil Rights Act—Graham stunned tion which have afflicted our land.” ham told a crusade audience in Jack- the sponsoring committee of his Graham’s example is certainly one son, Mississippi. “It may be there are Chattanooga, Tennessee, crusade. At reason that in the 1990s, groups like places where such is desirable to both a meeting of the committee, Graham the Pentecostals and Promise Keepers races, but certainly not in the church.” railed against the customary practice have put racial reconciliation high on

Graham’s words were greeted with en- of segregated seating. And then be- their agendas. CH Wheaton Il. Center, of the Billy Graham Archives thusiasm by blacks and a few whites fore one of the crusade meetings, the but provoked criticism from many. committee watched in astonishment Edward Gilbreath is assistant editor of Chris- Though the statement was ahead of as Graham personally took down the tian History magazine.

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