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Water Tracks and Permafrost in Taylor Valley, Antarctica: Extensive and Shallow Groundwater Connectivity in a Cold Desert Ecosystem

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Water Tracks and Permafrost in Taylor Valley, Antarctica: Extensive and Shallow Groundwater Connectivity in a Cold Desert Ecosystem Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 11, 2011 Water tracks and permafrost in Taylor Valley, Antarctica: Extensive and shallow groundwater connectivity in a cold desert ecosystem Joseph S. Levy1,†, Andrew G. Fountain1, Michael N. Gooseff2, Kathy A. Welch3, and W. Berry Lyons4 1Department of Geology, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon 97210, USA 2Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA 3Byrd Polar Research Center and the School of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA 4The School of Earth Sciences and Byrd Polar Research Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA ABSTRACT sent a new geological pathway that distrib- 1999). The goal of this paper is to integrate utes water, energy, and nutrients in Antarctic permafrost processes that route water through Water tracks are zones of high soil mois- Dry Valley, cold desert, soil ecosystems, pro- active-layer soils into the Antarctic cold desert ture that route water downslope over the viding hydrological and geochemical connec- hydrogeological paradigm. ice table in polar environments. We present tivity at the hillslope scale. Do Antarctic water tracks represent isolated physical, hydrological, and geochemical evi- hydrological features, or are they part of the dence collected in Taylor Valley, McMurdo INTRODUCTION larger hydrological system in Taylor Valley? Dry Valleys, Antarctica, which suggests that How does water track discharge compare to previously unexplored water tracks are a sig- The polar desert of the McMurdo Dry Val- Dry Valleys stream discharge, and what roles do nifi cant component of this cold desert land leys, the largest ice-free region in Antarctica, water tracks play in the Dry Valleys salt budget? system and constitute the major fl ow path is a matrix of deep permafrost, soils, glaciers, What infl uence do water tracks have on Antarc- in a cryptic hydrological system. Geologi- streams, and lakes that together form the geo- tic ice-covered lakes? cal, geochemical, and hydrological analyses logical context for the southernmost functioning In this paper, we present the case that, dur- show that the water tracks are generated terrestrial ecosystem (Kennedy, 1993; Lyons et ing summer months, the shallow permafrost/ by a combination of infi ltration from melt- al., 2000). Recent observations in Taylor Valley soil environment of Taylor Valley supports a ing snowpacks, melting of pore ice at the ice (Fig. 1) of shallow groundwater discharge from spatially extensive system of interconnected table beneath the water tracks, and melting the active layer (the seasonally thawed portion water tracks that result in the appearance of of buried segregation ice formed during win- of the permafrost) as seeps during peak sum- linear and sublinear dark soil patches at the ter freezing. The water tracks are enriched mer warming have generated new interest in ground surface. We test the hypotheses that in solutes derived from chemical weathering examining permafrost-related groundwater pro- (1) these water tracks are part of a morphologi- of sediments as well as from dissolution of cesses (Harris et al., 2007; Lyons et al., 2005). cal and hydrological continuum that includes soil salts. The water tracks empty into ice- These new observations revive early reports of previously described seeps and streams; covered lakes, such as Lake Hoare, resulting groundwater activity in nearby Wright Valley (2) water tracks contribute an ecologically sig- in the interfi ngering of shallow groundwater (Cartwright and Harris, 1981; Wilson, 1981). nifi cant volume of water to Taylor Valley soils solutions and glacier-derived stream water, These seeps appear to be supplied by melting that originates from snow and ground-ice melt, adding complexity to the geochemical pro- snow and ground ice, suggesting that they may rather than from glacier melt; and (3) water fi le. Approximately four orders of magnitude be similar to “slope streaks” and gully landforms tracks are a major pathway for solute transport less water is delivered to Lake Hoare by any observed in neighboring Wright Valley (Head et through Dry Valleys soils and are an important given water track than is delivered by surface al., 2007; Levy et al., 2008), and may be mor- component of the Lake Hoare (a closed-basin runoff from stream fl ow; however, the sol- phologically or genetically similar to slope lake) salt budget. ute delivery to Lake Hoare by water tracks streaks or transient slope lineae on Mars (Mush- equals or may exceed the mass of solutes kin et al., 2010; McEwen et al., 2011). Linear SITE DESCRIPTION delivered from stream fl ow, making water or downslope-branching zones of enhanced soil tracks signifi cant geochemical pathways. moisture and downslope water transport, often The McMurdo Dry Valleys span an ice- Additionally, solute transport is two orders occurring in the absence of well-defi ned chan- sheet–free region between the Trans-Antarctic of magnitude faster in water tracks than in nels, are hallmarks of “hillslope water tracks”— Mountains of southern Victoria Land and the adjacent dry or damp soil, making water features that route much of the water and nutri- Ross Sea. Taylor Valley, one of the McMurdo tracks “salt superhighways” in the Antarctic ent fl ux through Arctic, permafrost-dominated Dry Valleys, is an ~50-km-long valley cen- cold desert. Accordingly, water tracks repre- soils (Hastings et al., 1989; McNamara et al., tered on 77.7°S, 162.6°E (Fig. 1). Taylor Valley †E-mail: [email protected] GSA Bulletin; November/December 2011; v. 123; no. 11/12; p. 2295–2311; doi: 10.1130/B30436.1; 13 fi gures; 3 tables. For permission to copy, contact [email protected] 2295 © 2011 Geological Society of America Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 11, 2011 Levy et al. has been the focus of the McMurdo Dry Val- Taylor Valley Hydrological Setting to east, Lakes Bonney, Hoare, and Fryxell) leys Long-Term Ecological Research project (Fig. 1) that are fed principally from glacier (MCM-LTER) since 1993. The valley is fi lled The dominant hydrological pathway in the melt (Lyons et al., 1998a). Thirty named to the west by the Taylor glacier, a polythermal McMurdo Dry Valleys connects glaciers to streams route glacier meltwater to the lakes outlet glacier of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, perennially ice-covered lakes via a network of (Alger et al., 1997), although more than 60 and it opens to the east into McMurdo Sound in stream channels in which hyporheic exchange channels wider than ~6 m across (and thus, the Ross Sea. moves water, salts, and nutrients into and out of clearly resolvable in IKONOS satellite and air- An extremely simple, nematode-dominated the stream- and lake-proximal soils (Barrett et photo data) are present along the valley walls soil ecosystem (Priscu, 1998) persists in Taylor al., 2009; Cartwright and Harris, 1981; Doran (Mc Knight et al., 1999). Valley, despite mean annual temperatures of et al., 2008; Gooseff et al., 2002, 2007; Green et ~–18 °C (Doran et al., 2002a), 3–50 mm water- al., 1988; Lyons and Mayewski, 1993; Matsub- Taylor Valley Soils and Permafrost equivalent annual precipitation (Fountain et al., aya et al., 1979; McKnight et al., 1999; Nezat 2009), and extreme aridity produced by desic- et al., 2001). Neither infi ltration of snowmelt The portions of the surface of Taylor Valley cating winds (Clow et al., 1988). Liquid water nor groundwater movement (shallow or deep) that are not characterized by lakes, glaciers, or availability is thought to be the primary limit- has been considered to be a major hydrological bedrock are covered by a heterogeneous soil ing factor in Antarctic soil ecosystems (Foun- process (Cartwright and Harris, 1981; Chinn, composed of glacial drift, valley-wall collu- tain et al., 1999; Kennedy, 1993). Accordingly, 1993; Hunt et al., 2010). This limited hydrologi- vium, marine sediments, and paleo–lake beds the simplicity of the ecological processes in cal activity results from the extreme aridity of (Bockheim et al., 2008). With a mean annual Dry Valleys soils has been shown to refl ect the the McMurdo Dry Valleys and the persistence temperature of ~–18 °C (Doran et al., 2002a), limited geohydrological pathways that distrib- of continuous, ice-cemented permafrost that Taylor Valley soils are perennially frozen, form- ute liquid water to organisms during the brief extends from the surface to depths of hundreds ing continuous permafrost to a depth of ~200– summer season when surface temperatures of meters (Bockheim et al., 2007; Campbell et 600 m (Decker and Bucher, 1980; McGinnis exceed 0 °C (Conovitz et al., 1998; Courtright al., 1997; Clow et al., 1988; Decker and Bucher, and Jensen, 1971). Much of this permafrost is et al., 2001; Gooseff et al., 2003a, 2007; McK- 1980). The paucity of shallow groundwater in ice-cemented; however, the low atmospheric night et al., 1999; Virginia and Wall, 1999). Dry Valleys permafrost has been inferred to water vapor pressure in Taylor Valley (Clow Liquid water in Dry Valleys soils is largely result in minimal transport of salts and nutrients et al., 1988) results in the removal of shal- limited to the upper ~1 m—the active layer of through soils (Claridge et al., 1997). low ground ice by vapor diffusion (Hagedorn the permafrost column that thaws during warm Three large, ice-covered, closed-basin et al., 2007). Accordingly, based on observa- summer conditions. lakes are located in Taylor Valley (from west tions of the upper ~1 m of Taylor Valley soils, approximately half have been mapped as dry frozen, while half are shallowly ice-cemented (Bockheim et al., 2007). Summer warming of the soil surface results in thawing of the upper ~10–60 cm of the permafrost, resulting in the formation of an active layer (Bockheim et al., 2007).
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