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Induced Epilepsy in California Sea Lions (Zalophus Californianus)

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Induced Epilepsy in California Sea Lions (Zalophus Californianus) RESEARCH ARTICLE Hippocampal Neuropathology of Domoic Acid– Induced Epilepsy in California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Paul S. Buckmaster,1,2* Xiling Wen,1 Izumi Toyoda,1 Frances M.D. Gulland,3 and William Van Bonn3 1Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305 2Department of Neurology & Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305 3The Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, California 94965 ABSTRACT ing was measured stereologically. Chronic DA sea lions California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are abun- displayed hippocampal neuron loss in patterns and dant human-sized carnivores with large gyrencephalic extents similar but not identical to those reported previ- brains. They develop epilepsy after experiencing status ously for human patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. epilepticus when naturally exposed to domoic acid. We Similar to human patients, hippocampal sclerosis in sea tested whether sea lions previously exposed to DA lions was unilateral in 79% of cases, mossy fiber sprout- (chronic DA sea lions) display hippocampal neuropathol- ing was a common neuropathological abnormality, and ogy similar to that of human patients with temporal somatostatin-immunoreactive axons were exuberant in lobe epilepsy. Hippocampi were obtained from control the dentate gyrus despite loss of immunopositive hilar and chronic DA sea lions. Stereology was used to esti- neurons. Thus, hippocampal neuropathology of chronic mate numbers of Nissl-stained neurons per hippocam- DA sea lions is similar to that of human patients with pus in the granule cell layer, hilus, and pyramidal cell temporal lobe epilepsy. J. Comp. Neurol. 522:1691– layer of CA3, CA2, and CA1 subfields. Adjacent sec- 1706, 2014. tions were processed for somatostatin immunoreactivity or Timm-stained, and the extent of mossy fiber sprout- VC 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. INDEXING TERMS: hippocampal sclerosis; mossy fiber sprouting; somatostatin; stereology; dentate gyrus Temporal lobe epilepsy is common in adult humans lepsy is common (Potschka et al., 2013), but temporal (Engel et al., 1997). Typically, patients have a history of lobe epilepsy is rare (Buckmaster et al., 2002b; Kuwa- a precipitating brain insult (French et al., 1993). Anti- bara et al., 2010). Non-human primate models of tem- convulsant drugs fail to control seizures in many cases poral lobe epilepsy have been developed (Ribak et al., (Kwan et al., 2011). With the exception of surgical 1998; Gunderson et al., 1999) or attempted (Perez- resection of temporal lobe tissue, current therapies Mendes, 2005), but they involve ethical questions and only suppress seizures and do not cure the epileptic practical limitations. California sea lions (Zalophus cali- condition. Ideally, temporal lobe epilepsy would be pre- fornianus) offer a possible alternative. vented by administering treatments following a brain insult. No such anti-epileptogenic treatment exists cur- rently. A variety of rodent models of temporal lobe epi- Dr. Van Bonn’s current address: John G. Shedd Aquarium, 1200 S. Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605. lepsy are available to investigate mechanisms of Grant sponsor: National Science Foundation (OCE-131821); Grant temporal lobe epilepsy and develop new treatments sponsor: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National (Buckmaster, 2004), but differences in the brains of Institutes of Health (ES021960); Grant sponsor: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health rodents versus humans may contribute to the poor suc- (NS039110, NS040276). cess rate of translating treatments for neurological dis- *CORRESPONDENCE TO: Paul Buckmaster, 300 Pasteur Drive, R321 Edwards Building, Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford Univer- orders to human patients (Kola and Landis, 2004). sity, Stanford, CA 94305. E-mail: [email protected] There is a paucity of large animal models of temporal Received October 2, 2013; Revised November 21, 2013; lobe epilepsy. In dogs, for example, spontaneous epi- Accepted November 21, 2013. DOI 10.1002/cne.23509 Published online November 25, 2013 in Wiley Online Library VC 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (wileyonlinelibrary.com) The Journal of Comparative Neurology | Research in Systems Neuroscience 522:1691–1706 (2014) 1691 P.S. Buckmaster et al. Sea lions are abundant along the west coast of the sea lions naturally exposed to DA display patterns and United States. They are large carnivores with gyrence- extents of hippocampal neuron loss and synaptic reor- phalic brains approximately one-fourth the size of ganization similar to that reported previously for human human brains (Bininda-Emonds, 2000; Montie et al., patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. 2010). Sea lions develop epilepsy after consuming domoic acid (DA), the amnesic shellfish poisoning toxin identified in a Montreal area incident when over 100 MATERIALS AND METHODS humans became ill after eating tainted mussels (Perl Subjects were sea lions (Zalophus californianus) that et al., 1990). Natural DA exposure also affects other stranded along the central California coast in 2010 and species including birds (Work et al., 1993), otters were admitted to The Marine Mammal Center in Sausa- (Kreuder et al., 2003), dolphins (Torres de la Riva et al., lito, California for rehabilitation but did not respond to 2009), and whales (Doucette et al., 2012). During sea- treatment and were euthanized due to poor clinical prog- sonal blooms, DA-producing Pseudo-nitzschia algae are nosis. Stranded sea lions were collected under a Letter consumed and concentrated by grazing planktivorous of Authorization from the National Marine Fisheries Serv- fish, such as anchovies, which then are eaten by sea ice to The Marine Mammal Center. Sex and age determi- lions that absorb the toxin through the gut, develop nation was based on published criteria (Greig et al., neurological signs including status epilepticus, and 2005): pup (0–1 years), yearling (1–2 years), juvenile become stranded on beaches where they may be male (2–4 years), subadult male (4–8 years), juvenile or observed and reported to The Marine Mammal Center subadult female (2–5 years), adult male (81 years), and in Sausalito, California, which rescues stranded animals adult female (51 years). Control subjects (44% female) for rehabilitation and eventual release (Scholin et al., were pups (n 5 3), yearlings (n 5 1), juveniles (n 5 1), 2000). Some sea lions that survive initial DA toxicosis subadults (n 5 2), or adults (n 5 2) that were euthanized appear to recover following treatment, but many because of pneumonia, malnutrition, cancer, or severe develop spontaneous recurrent seizures, fail to thrive shark bite wounds. Subjects known or suspected of pre- upon release, and restrand in poor condition requiring vious exposure to DA were identified by previously euthanasia (Goldstein et al., 2008). described criteria (Goldstein et al., 2008; Thomas et al., It seems likely that DA-exposed sea lions develop 2010), which included intermittent seizures (at least 2 temporal lobe epilepsy. DA is a potent ligand of weeks apart and/or at least 2 weeks following admission kainate-type glutamate receptors (Debonnel et al., to The Marine Mammal Center), unusual behaviors, 1989a,b; Stewart et al., 1990; Tasker et al., 1991) and stranding individually (not in clusters during blooms of to a lesser degree AMPA receptors (Larm et al., 1997). Pseudo-nitzschia algae, like acute DA-exposed animals), DA generates unusually long-lasting (non-desensitizing) and/or hippocampal atrophy evident by MRI. channel activation (Zhang et al., 2008) and strongly These “chronic DA” animals were yearling (n 5 1), excites hippocampal neurons (Zaczek and Coyle, 1982; juvenile (n 5 2), and subadult (n 5 3), but mostly adults Sari and Kerr, 2011), some of which express high levels (n 5 7) and mostly females (71%). DA toxicosis is com- of kainate receptors (Kunig€ et al., 1995). At high doses, mon in adult females, probably because their normal DA was found to cause hippocampal damage in labora- migration patterns increase the likelihood of exposure tory animals (Sutherland et al., 1990; Tryphonas and (Gulland et al., 2002; Goldstein et al., 2008). Five Iverson, 1990; Strain and Tasker, 1991). Human chronic DA sea lions were admitted in status epilepti- patients who died during the Montreal DA incident (Tei- cus, three of which had DA in their feces or urine. telbaum et al., 1990) and a survivor who later devel- Detection of DA in bodily fluids is not always possible oped temporal lobe epilepsy displayed hippocampal because plasma half-time is short (Truelove and Iver- neuron loss (Cendes et al., 1995). Sea lions that died son, 1994). Four of the five sea lions that were admit- after DA exposure displayed histological evidence of ted in status epilepticus were observed to have later excitotoxicity in the hippocampus (Silvagni et al., spontaneous seizures. Another sea lion was included in 2005). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reveals hip- the chronic DA group because of intermittent seizures. pocampal atrophy in sea lions that recover from DA tox- Six others were included because of hippocampal atro- icosis (Goldstein et al., 2008). However, hippocampal phy, two of which also were observed to have sponta- neuron loss in DA-exposed sea lions has not been neous seizures. Two sea lions were not initially quantified and compared with data from human suspected of being chronic DA animals, were not tested patients.
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