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C:\Drive D\Wdclass3\2Humus6.Cdr Defining Agriculture Aliphatic fatty acids and alkanes 10 - 20% 20% 10 - 20% N materials - amino acids, Carbohydrates amino sugars 40 - 60% Aromatic SOIL ORGANIC CARBON COMPOSITION Soil organic matter composition is remarkably similar from soil to soil over a broad range of climatic, topographic, and vegetative variations. Soil Quality Important Soil Characteristics Structure Texture Bulk density Soil organic matter Water holding capacity Water infiltration rate pH Electrical conductivity Nutrient availability and release Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen Balanced biotic diversity ClassicalFractionation ofSoil OrganicMatter by Alkali, Acid,and Alcohol SOIL ORGANICMATTER TREAT WITH ALKALI SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE (HUMIN) TREAT WITH ACID (pH1-2)( pH 1 - 2 ) SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE (FULVIC ACID) ( HUMIC ACID ) ( - HUMUS ) NaOH ( pH 4.8 ) EXTRACT WITH ALCOHOL SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE (B - HUMUS) ( HYMATOMELOANIC ACID ) ( HUMIC ACID ) FULVIC ACID Most highlyoxidized O.M. Lowest molecular weight O.M. Seriesof aromaticrings with largenumber of side chains Usually polysaccharides andlow molecular weight fatty acidsare associated withF.A. Flexible,open structurewith void spaces High O2 , low H2 incomparison to H.A. (from Schnitzer) Partial chemical structure for FA HUMIC ACID Higher molecular weight O.M. Has abilityto form hydrogen bonds... thus precipitating atlow pH Few carbohydrate residues Highly condensed and aromatic High C, low O2 incomparison to F.A. aldehyde group phenol group methoxyl group hydroxyl group ether linkage carbonyl group phenylphenyl group group Lignin Structure FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CHEMICAL STABILITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDSIN SOIL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 1. Waterlogging 4. High salt content 2. Desiccation 5. Unfavorable pH 3. Low temperatures 6. Absence of microbial growth factors and of decomposers 4. Presence of toxic factors CHEMICAL FACTORS 1. Large molecular size of humic material 2. Disorderly condensation 3. Copolymerization with extensive cross-linkages 4. Smooth globular shape of humic material 5. Readily inactivates enzymes 6. The fact it is nondiffusable Radiocarbon Age of Organic Fractions of Two Canadian Soils. Radiocarbon Age (yr) Organic Fractions Melfort Soil Waitville Soil Unfractionated soil 870+50 250+60 Fulvic acid +acid extract 470+60 50 Humic acids I ("mobile") 785+50 85+45 Humin 1135+50 335+50 Humic acids II ("total") 1235+60 195+50 Nonhydrolyzable 1400+60 ~1230 Hydrolyzable 25+50 ~465 Source: Adapted from Campbell et al. (1967) Radiocarbon Age of someCanadian Soils andOrganic Matter Fractions % Organic Year Radiocarbon Organic Soil Vegetation Matter Sampled Age(yr) Fraction Grey wooded Original boreal forest, 3.4 1970 250 now cultivated Blackchernozemic Melfort Original grassland, 00-15cm- 15 cm now cultivated 9.6 1970 870 15-25cm15 - 25 cm ----- ------ 960 Oxbow 7.8 1970 940 0-8cm0 - 8 cm 6.0 1974 20 18-32cm18 - 32 cm 0.7 ------ 1340 Darkbrown Virgingrassland 5.0 1970 420 chernozemic Cropped 2.0 1970 1960 Cropped + legume 2.5 1970 1500 Brown chernozemic Sceptre Virgingrassland 4.1 1970 525 <20 Light fraction 2.6 1974 540 <20 HCl Hydrolysate 2.6 1970 350 Cropped 1765 HCl Residue 2.1 1974 430 1910 Humic acid 1330 Humin Source: Adapted from Campbell et al. (1967). ENZYMATIC OXIDATIVE COUPLING REACTIONS Oxidative coupling isdefined as a process by which phenolic oraromatic amines are linked together after oxidation by an enzyme ora suitablechemical reagent. Coupling produces C-CC - C ,C-O, C - O ,C-N, C - N ,orN-N, or N - N bonds. Important in the synthesis of humic substances and other biological materials ( Lignins, tannins, alkaloids, antibiotics ) Responsible for the incorporationof many agricultural andindustrial chemicals into soilorganic matter. Information is lacking on this subject because of the difficulty of obtaining enzymes of sufficient purity and the complexity of the products of oxidative coupling. -E, -H+ Enzyme Formation of aryloxy radicals from phenols DESCRIPTION OF ENZYMES INVOLVED Metal containing enzymes classified as either Monophenol Monooxygenases (EC 1.14.18.1) or Perioxidases (EC 1.11.1.7) Monophenol Monoxygenases (Laccases, Tyrosinases) Both enzymes contain copper, require molecular oxygen for activity, and do not require coenzymes. Laccases Produce free radical intermediates Are glycoproteins Have a relatively limited substrate range Tyrosinases Catalyze two types of reactions Cresolase activity Catecholase activity Do not produce free radical intermediates Perioxidases Contain iron, require H2 O2 for activity, often yield the same coupling products as laccases from phenolic substrates, and produce free radical intermediates. OH OH OH Cresolase CH3 CH3 OH O OH O Catecholase Characteristics that Differentiate Laccase, Tyrosinase, and Peroxidase Characteristic Laccase Tryosinase Peroxidase Presence of Cu + + - Presence of Fe - - + Inhibition by CO - + - Occurrence of hydroxylation reaction - + - (+) Absorption spectra peaks at 280 nm + + a at 615 nm + - a H2 O2 requirement - - + a For spectra of peroxidases see Saunders et al. (1964) TWO THEORIES OF HUMUS FORMATION MODIFIED LIGNINTHEORY Humus isbasically lignin material which hasbeen slightly modified to formlignin - proteincomplexes resistantto microbialattack. ( Waksman) microbes lignin - protein complex POLYPHENOL THEORY Decompositionof all plant componentsincluding lignin to simple monomers occurs. Polymerizationof active monomers intohigh molecular weightdark colored complexes follows. microbes polymerization SEQUENCE OF REACTIONSIN HUMUS FORMATION FROM CARBOHYDRATES Freeing ofcarbohycrates, breakdown tomonomers Opening of ring form ofsugar Additionof an amino group tothe carbonyl C of the sugar ++++++ + + + + Rearrangementof themolecule to form formaN-a N - substituted keto derivative N Dehydration and fragmentation toyield unsaturated intermediates - Polymerizationof intermediatesto form brown-colored complexes SEQUENCE OF REACTIONSIN HUMUS FORMATION FROM LIGNIN Lignin isfreed fromplant residuesduring decomposition Freed Lignin isbroken down intoprimary structural units The primary units are oxidized anddemethylated and the polyphenols are again oxidized toquinones Quinones polymerize withN compounds to form darkcolored complexes N N Principal steps in the formation of humic substances from lignin and products of microbial synthesis formed by the condensation of amino acids with polyphenols (upper and middle) and sugars, through Maillard reaction (lower). MICROBIAL METABOLISM OF PHENOLICS ( vol. 1, chapter 12, Soil Biochemistry ) OXYDASES Transfer electrons toO 2 toform H 2 Oor H2O 2 without intervention ofelectron transport chain. "Monooxygenases" - one oxygen atom introduced to the ring "Dioxygenase" - two oxygen atoms are introduced and the ring is broken MONOOXYGENASE REACTION R R +O+HX+ O + H X +HO+X+ H O + X 2 2 2 OH H X is a reduced cofactor 2 DIOXYGENASE REACTION OH COOH +O+ O 2 OH COOH GENERAL SCHEME FOR THE DEGRADATIONOF CATECHOL BY META FISSION 2 1 OH " catechol " OH 1 Thering isopened by a meta cleavage along the purple line 2 Second cleavage occurs along thegreen line OH CHO rearrangement CHO O of electrons 2 COOH COOH Cl OH C= Cl OH Cl O O 22HH O O = 2 O= = CH CH CH CCOOH + HCOOH C CH=CH-CH CCOOH ) 3 2 2 H Cl ( formic acid ) Cl O = CH CH Cl + CH CCOOH 3 2 3 " pyruvate " METABOLISM OF RING FUSION PRODUCTS ( ortho cleavage ) COOH COOH COOH OCOO OCOO COOH C C O O b - ketoadipate muconate muconolactone lactone +H+ H2 O O succinic acid COOH COOH acetyl CoA O b - ketoadipic ( HOOC CH C CH CH COOH ) acid 2 2 2 "b - oxidation" RING FUSION OF DIHYDROXYPHENOLS OH (O2 ) 1 pyrocatochelase COOH ( ortho cleavage ) OH COOH R ( catechol 11,, 2 - oxygenase ) R "catechol" CHO OH 2 (O ) COOH 2 ( meta cleavage ) OH ( catechol 22,, 3 - oxygenase ) R R OH OH COOH COOH 3 (O2 ) COCOOH OH OH "gentisic acid" "maleylpyruvate" OH COOH 4 COOH COCH COOH (O2 ) 2 OH OH "homogentisic acid" "maleyl acetoacetate" DEGRADATION OF NAPHTHALENE OH monooxygenase OH +2O+ 2 O2 ring fission "napththalene" O COOHOH 1 6 2 5 3 rearrangement 4 of electrons OH OH 6 O COOH 6 O COOH 1 water 1 pyruvate 2 2 3 addition 3 5 5 4 4 OH O CH CH C COOH 2 OH OH OH OH CHO COOH OH "catechol" I Cultivation starts I Virgin grassland I I I Organic Matter (%C) I 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8 Time after cultivation I I I I I 0 50 100 150 200 250 Time (Years) Voroney et al. CHANGES IN SOIL ORGANIC CARBON Decrease in organic C physically protected in soil. Decreases in organic C range from 20-50% of initial amount. Steady state is not reached even after long time periods. Biological decomposition is the major factor for organic C loss. Erosion may also be important. When soil erodes, much more organic matter is lost (percent-wise) than mineral soil. Erosion % % Mineral soil Organic Matter δ13C Values for Soil Carbon under Plants with a C-3 Metabolism and for the Same Soil after the Growth of a C-4 Plant. 13 Depth (cm) % C δ C 0\00 C-3 Vegetation Plant - - -30.8 Topsoil 0-5 9.1 -27.3 Subsoil 55-60 1.1 -27.4 C-4 Vegetation Plant - - -12.5 Topsoil 0-10 4.8 -26.1 Subsoil 49-55 1.5 -25.3 Source: Adapted from Stout et al. (1975) 0.3 Glutamic Acid PN PS 0.2 D/L 0.1 III 0 Soil E RI R AII AI 0.3 Alanine PN PS 0.2 D/L 0.1 III 0 Soil E RI R AII AI Fertility and Environmental Benefits (Hoytville Site) Fertility and Environmental Benefits (Wooster Site) Organic Carbon Concentrations (%) Soil Depth (cm) Soil OrganicOrganic CarbonCarbon (Mg/ha)(Mg/ha) No-till Continuous CornCorn Plow till (cm) Depth (cm) Corn -- SoybeanSoybean Corn -- OatsOats - Meadow- Meadow The SOCSOC profileprofile underunder conventionalconventional andand no-tillno-till systemssystems for differentdifferent cropcrop rotrotationsations inin NWNW Ohio.Ohio. -1 Soil Organic C (Mg ha ) 51015202530 II IIII IIIII 0 40 80 120 160 200 Fertilizer N rate (kg ha-1 ) Soil Depth Tillage Black 0-5 cm NT Red 5 -15 cm CT Blue 15-30 cm Carbon Sequestration Summary The use of cover crops, adequate N fertilization, crop residues left in the field, and erosion control clearly can lead to sequestering of C in the soil, especially where it has been depleted due to intensive cultivation or previous erosion.
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