Policy Brief

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING

POLICY BRIEF

May 2007 Policy Brief # 20

Muslims in France: French or Muslim,

What Is the Choice? Moushumi Khan ISPU Research Associate

The world watched O n October 27, 2005, two French Muslim their frustrations with not being able to find as cars burned in boys, Zyed Benna and Bouna Traore, were adequate employment or receive other rights rushing to make it home before sunset in order to associated with equal citizenship. the Paris suburbs, break their Ramadan fast in the Paris suburb of puzzled as to how Clichy-sous-Bois. They raised the suspicion of The numbers behind the images are as such spontaneous some French policemen, who began to chase follows: Durin g the twent y days of rioting in them. Although it is not quite clear what they had the French banlieues , the suburbs where bursts of violence done wrong, they knew that getting caught by the most French Muslims live, some 10,000 cars could continue police could only mean trouble. Unfortunately, were torched, 233 public buildings were burned, and 3,200 people (mostly teenagers) night after night they tried to avoid the police by running into an electrical shed, where they were both were arrested. These statistics reflect a while the French electrocuted. Their deaths unleashed the situation that French societ y is only just now government simmering resentment of French immigrants and confronting. The riots had little to do with exposed France’s inability to deal with its Islam or even with acting out against French appeared unable to changing demographics. society; the youths only burned cars in their own neighborhoods, while cars are often control them. The world watched as cars burned in the Paris burned during the country’s New Year’s suburbs, puzzled as to how such spontaneous celebrations or sometimes as a cheap bursts of violence could continue night after night method of disposal. It was also clear that while the French government appeared unable to French law enforcement had only a limited abilit y to control the escalating crisis, as it control them. There were the media’s usual cries of “angry, young Muslim men” and questions of has few contacts with the Muslim community, Islam’s compatibility with the West along with the and that it had even less understanding of government’s call for order. Was there something the causes or of possible solutions. This peculiar about French Muslim youth that would latter statement is proven by their request to lead them to burn cars without any seemingly Muslim leaders to calm the youths down. organized demand for redress? It was as if the Each of these points illustrates the problem’s deaths of these two boys had ignited a sudden combustion of anger. complexity. Muslims have been in France for g enerations, but it is not their religion that In fact, the riots were a symptom of the French alienates them from mainstream French society. “Equality” and not “integration” is the 43151 Dalcoma Road, Suite 6 Muslims’ limited integration into the country’s political and economic mainstream. They main issue for them. The degree of Clinton Township Michigan 48038 misinformation and pre judice about Muslims 586-416-1150 www.ispu.us symbolized the French government’s perception of Muslims as a “law and order” problem and as in Europe clouds any examination of the underlying reasons for social unrest. While immigrants who did not wish to integrate. For French Muslims, the riots were the result of the French viewed the initial car burning as

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

simple hooliganism, in the absence of any commemorate the Algerians’ support during France. Even such companies as the organized statements by the rioters or even World War I, or the fact that the majorit y of international bank HSBC, which offers groups representing their interests, the world France’s twenty-one public holida ys have a Islamic banking services in other countries, watched the violent uprising of angry young basis in Catholicism. It has, however, does not offer this service in France. There Muslim men with horror. The French state resulted in a political culture in which any is some religious accommodation in the and its various agents appeared to have reli gious identit y, particularl y Islam, can be non-governmental sector, such as non- been taken by surprise and were ill-prepared suspected as being communitarian and, profits organizing iftars rather than soup to deal with these acts. Nicolas Sarkoz y, the therefore, a threat to the state. kitchens in communities with large poor former interior minister and presidential Muslim populations. candidate, had recentl y dismantled The mere term French Muslim is anathema neighborhood policin g, one of the few links to French political identity. The concept of a The French government has also found between the police and local communities. In community organized along ethnic or ways to work around the restriction on addition, there is little scope to check abusive religious lines, as exists in the United States, state involvement in religious enterprises policing when the state sees law enforcement is in itself abhorrent due to the French belief in certain areas, if not in theory at least in as an extension of itself to enforce its that everyone is equally and foremost practice, such as burials, helping to train policies. French . Not only is there no French imams, and repairing or subsiding (but not counterpart to the National Italian-American building) mosques. In some cases, it has In February 2007, the French courts finally Foundation, there is also no equivalent to the attempted to fund the renovation of charged the policemen who had chased the Council on American-Islamic Relations. In mosques by setting up a foundation to two boys and were originall y only fact, any attempt to or ganize alon g such lines circumvent the law restricting the direct interrogated as witnesses for not assisting a for either professional affiliations (e.g., a financing of religious institutions. French person in danger. Some people feel that Muslim law yers’ organization ) or to pursue a cemeteries, all of which are owned by the things are just as bad, if not worse, than they specific issue (e.g., getting halal food served municipality, allow Muslims and other were before the riots. Sarkozy remarked that in the public schools) would be prohibited as religious groups to be buried close the banlieues are less integrated one year being communitarian. together or to put a religious symbol on after the riots than at the time of the rioters’ their tombs. Fundin g religious schools that grandparents. A few ethnic organizations formed by first- employ government-accredited teachers is g eneration immigrants do exist at the local also allowed, as long as they have been in While the situation for Muslims in the United level; however, they are extremely existence for at least five years. No such States is vastly different from that of their co- fragmented. Even when the French are Muslim schools currently exist, although religionists in France, it is instructive to study aware of ethnic differences, they seem to be there is growing demand for them. the French experience so that American unaware of religious affiliations. This point is policymakers and the public can better underscored by the fact that they did not French Political Identity analyze what works in our own sy stem and know that the star player on their World Cup the implications of failed policies. The Soccer team, Zinedine Zidane, was in fact Despite the stress on a unifying French situation of French Muslims is shaped by not only a beur (Arab) but also a Muslim. identity, not all French are considered France’s political identity and history, which Zidane himself has never raised this, equally French . Being French is not an informs the government’s polic y on although the French Muslim community ethnic or cultural identity, but a political immigrants in general and on Muslims in considers him a special hero. The far Right identit y based on the French Republican particular. The history of this communit y, its politician Jean Marie Le Pen did remark that political values of secularism, equality, and strengths and weaknesses, and how the he was not supportin g the team because, law. In reality, it is a cultural identity that French public and private sector relate to its due to its racial diversity, it did not truly has failed to integrate both Islamic culture members help to complete the picture. represent France. It appears that man y and practices. In spite of this, France’s French Muslims have also internalized the elite and Muslim populations are pleased French Political History idea that French identity has no room for to note that “The Great Divide: How religion or ethnicity, for even when there are Westerners and Muslims View Each France is a nation predicated on the concept no direct barriers to formally organizing along Other,” a Pew Research Global Attitudes of laïcité, the absolute separation of church religious lines, they avoid doing so out of the Project survey released in June 2006, and state. Its 1905 secularism law mandated fear of being perceived as communitarian. revealed that large numbers of French that the French government not fund or Muslims and the general French public felt explicitly support any religious institution or Religious Accommodation of Islamic that there was no conflict between being a enterprise. This did not mean that the state Practices in France devout Muslim and living in a modern must be “anti-religious,” as demonstrated by society. These numbers were the higher the French government’s building of the Not surprisingly, there is very little direct than those for other European countries Grand Mosque in Paris in 1926 to accommodation of Islamic practices in with Muslim minority populations.

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

Yet many Muslims in France complain that government and public’s conscious and The French began bringing immigrants although the majority of French Muslims subconscious attitudes and policies toward from its former colonies shortly after World consider themselves French, most French people from the former colonies. War II to close its increasing unskilled people still think of them as foreigners, labor gap. The United States, besides Muslim, or at best immigrants, no matter Marseille, France’s most populous Muslim being founded by immigrants, had long how long they have lived in France or how city, was not affected by the recent riots. sought out educated elites from around the French they perceive themselves to be. Although it is soccer star Zidane’s world to drive its economy and blended One of the few positive outcomes of the hometown and considered a multicultural these new immigrants into its melting pot 2005 riots was that it brought out the fact success story, it is also quite segregated identity. Although today America’s melting that the youths identified themselves as by race and class. One of its emerging pot has started to become a boiling pot, French and were protesting that the Muslim activists, Youcef Mammeri, a spilling over with the challenges of a French republican principle of equalit y was member of the National Islamic changing society, France apparently had not being applied to them. Many of them Committee, pointed out that while 9/11 no plans for its immigrants beyond the use followed the advice of the few existing marked a shift in the lives of American of their labor. The fact that many of them French-Arab role models, who encouraged Muslims, the lives of French Muslims were stayed on or had families and have lived them to participate in the French political similarly affected by the Algerian uprisings there for three generations did not change system, by registering to vote for the first of 1994. This was the first time the idea of their unstable reality. Some still live in the time. good Islam/bad Islam appeared in the outer suburbs in “temporary housing” French media. It also became constructed by the French government to Beyond this political identity, France’s commonplace for the media to say that “a house the emerging French working class. colonial history has had a profound effect Muslim man has done X criminal act” on its relationship with Islam and Muslims. without presenting any convincing Although many have made it out of the In some of its former colonies, Islam had evidence or actual convictions. At the cycle of dead-end jobs and a growing played a particular role. Unlike other same time, the interior minister arrested number of second- and third-generation Algerians, Algerian Muslims were not one hundred leaders of Muslim Muslims are entering the middle class, given the option of becoming French organizations looking for Algerian existing barriers to labor market entry citizens and thus had special Islamic legal terrorists. Finding none, he released all of remains the key issue. Most French codes applied to them in civil matters. them, except those who lacked legal Muslims maintain an Islamic cultural Therefore, it is no surprise that Islam itself immigration status; they were identity while their children feel French, became a tool of resistance to French subsequently deported. even without admission into mainstream colonial rule. When the French French society. Add to this a mixture of a government selected a group of Algerian The arrests of Arabs and Muslims in the tightening economy with higher overall Muslim women to bring to France for United States shortly after 9/11 paralleled unemployment and global tensions with higher education in the 1950s, its this tactic. Mammeri remarked on the irony Islam, and it is not difficult to see why members were shocked to find that these of the French going to Algeria, thinking that French Muslims are in a precarious women showed up for the graduation they would make it a Christian nation, and situation. In an article in Le Monde, a ceremony on July 14, the French National yet leaving it with a more politicized Islam leading French newspaper, French Day, wearing the traditional Islamic and making its own country more Muslim. economist Daniel Cohen argued that if headscarf. He also pointed out Marseille’ beautiful discrimination against Muslims was not and large (but empty) churches as well as opposed, they would have no choice but to Algeria’s harsher colonial experience still its storefront mosques, where worshippers rely more on their own communities, which influences the actions of French Algerians spill out into the streets during Friday others may misperceive as being today. At a soccer match between France prayers. Despite lamenting some of the communitarian. and Algeria, many French people were humiliations faced by French Muslims, he angry that the French Algerians rooted for remains optimistic. the Algerians and whistled during the The French Government’s Relations with Islam French national anthem. While this Muslims in France and in the United reaction occurred within the context of a States period of difficult relations between France The French government has had two and Algeria, it strengthened the already One key difference between France and major public interactions with Islam in negative perception of French Algerians. the United States is the type of immigrant recent years: President Jacques Chirac’s However, perhaps the reverse causal who settled there. Not only is each 2003 decision to convene a commission to country’s view of multiculturalism and relationship is more important to note: look at, among other things, the issue of French colonial practices are still very history different, but they also had an wearing headscarves in public schools, relevant when explaining the French almost opposing rationale for immigration. and the government’s (particularly the

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

Ministry of the Interior) decision to to the ban such as addressing the boys’ headscarf. One young French Muslim establish Muslim institutions similar to pressure by communicating with their college student commented that a high those of the country’s Jewish and Christian parents that this was unacceptable, he school classmate had told her that “a girl communities. Both of these cases illustrate rejected this argument. wearing the headscarf took away her right the difficulties of balancing France’s as a woman.” This is mixed with the idea political identity with its changing society French structures seem unable to evolve that in France, religion and liberty are and expose a lack of understanding when faced with changing social realities. incompatible, and so the headscarf, as an between the French establishment and the This resistance expresses a deeper outward sign of religion, cannot be country’s Muslims. feeling: French Muslims and their behavior accepted. somehow have to be controlled, rather The questions of national security than dealt with or accommodated. One Initially, members of the Catholic hierarchy (including terrorism and the control of procedural criticism of the commission was strongly opposed the ban because they felt mosques) and of the Muslims’ integration that it did not consult Muslim women until that their religious freedom might be are really seen as one issue, as almost the very end of its proceedings, and threatened. But when the government demonstrated b y the fact that the Ministry amidst heavy criticism for not having done assured its members that the ban would of the Interior, which is responsible for the so earlier. Muslim students are allowed to not affect them specifically, they came out nation’s security, is also in charge of wear the headscarf in Islamic schools, in favor of it. Some Catholics supported integrating the country’s immigrants. The which the state does not currently the ban because they did not want to be real issue for the French government is recognize, and in private schools and in seen as a threat to laïcité. Jacques Chirac

security, not civil rights; the real issue for the universities. But in practice, even in himself has said that the French are French Muslims is equality, not integration. those places it is not welcome. offended by the headscarf. Thus it is not strange to hear French Muslims complain that the French The ban has had a spillover effect on The headscarf issue even caused rifts in government’s tactics for dealing with them Muslim women who choose to wear the the anti-racism groups. SOS Racisme, the consist of “provocation, repression, and headscarf in public places and in the labor main French anti-racism organization, control.” market. As a result of the ban, over fifty supported the ban, whereas the MRAP Muslim public school students were (the Movement Against Racism and for The Headscarf Ban: The Stasi expelled. Once public order had been Friendship among Peoples), a French Commission and French Perceptions restored, the French state did not seem to Muslim anti-racism group, opposed it, as be concerned with their integration or did the Institut Montaigne, a think tank. In the minds of many French Muslims, the schooling, thinking that they would just Sarkozy was the first political figure to

Stasi Commission’s conclusions complete their studies through speak publicly about the headscarf when legitimized discrimination against Muslims correspondence courses. In stark contrast, he remarked on a televised meeting of in other arenas. Among its twenty-one a young sixteen-year-old girl in the United Muslims, to which he had been invited to findings, including the ban on the wearing States who decided to wear the full burqa speak, that “I am warning you as your of any religious symbol (e.g., a large and withdraw from her high school in favor friend, that you cannot wear your Christian cross, a Jewish yarmulke, or a of home-schooling, was initially headscarf in your identity cards.” He was Sikh turban), the major focus was on investigated for possible truancy violations booed by the audience, including by many banning the headscarf in public schools. At when her computer use raised suspicions women who were wearing the headscarf. the very least, it showed that the French of alleged terrorist activities. While a Sikh Although the organizer tried to defuse the seem unable to think outside the box when student unsuccessfully sued the French tension, France’s Muslim community saw it comes to reconciling a French identity state for the right to wear a turban, not one this incident as a public provocation. with Islamic reli gious practice. Although single case in the French administrative the official rationale was to preserve courts or the European Court of Human The issue of the headscarf has different laïcité, there was a strong emphasis on Rights in Strasbourg was initiated before meanings in France and the United States. protecting the public order. the ruling in order to protest the headscarf For those who oppose it in France, the ban. headscarf is seen as a woman’s rights The commission expressed the dual issue; in the United States, it is feared as a concern of protectin g young Muslim girls French women are the most opposed to political statement of militancy. For French from Muslim boys who would demand that wearing the headscarf, as they see it as a Muslims, the headscarf symbolizes other they wear the headscarf, and of giving fight for liberty. However, both the Right rights related to practicing their religion; French school teachers a way to enforce and Left are united in their opposition to it. American Muslims see it as a freedom of the ruling. When Patrick Weill, a French The average French citizen cannot choice issue. immigration expert, was asked why the comprehend that a rational, emancipated commission did not consider alternatives woman could freely choose to wear the

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

The Islamic Council in France purpose is to meet the Muslims’ needs; out publicly in support of the newspaper, unofficially, however, its purpose is to stating in a letter that was Although Islam is the second largest “encourage a homegrown and liberal form submitted by the defense during the trial religion in France, there were no official - of Islam free from foreign influences.” The that he preferred “an excess of and very few unofficial - interlocutors Muslims often perceived that the state caricatures to an absence of caricatures.” between the French Muslim community manipulates them for its own interests. For While French Muslims, like the French and the state for a long time. There is a example, when the mayor of Marseille population as a whole, generally do not prevalent concern that the French state offered local Muslims a piece of land on favor using the courts to bring about social feels obliged to protect its Muslims from which to build a mosque, he blamed them change, there does appear to be an the Islamists, that it has to “restrict them in for not being unified enough to finance its increase in litigation re garding religious order to free them.” At first, the community construction. Yet the Muslims felt that this accommodation in civil and administrative considered Sarkozy as its supporter and was a political stunt and that he himself courts. However, even when discrimination invited him to community meetings in order was exacerbating existing ethnic divisions cases are filed successfully, they are not to build better relations. However, some within the community through his attempts taken seriously and the resulting now consider him to be someone out to to divide and rule them. enforcement and penalties are inadequate. “control” them. Those who might be most qualified to raise The Capacity of the French Muslim complaints, such as French civil servants, Unfortunately, there does not appear to be Community are restricted from criticizing government a political alternative in the Socialist party, policy. which, in the minds of French Muslims, just Among the community’s problems is a lack talks, whereas at least Sarkozy appeared of organization and the capacity to deal There is also a lack of organization on the to be doing something for them. For with social change effectively. In France, issue of social promotion. In general, example, he proposed that the government the absence of Muslim political leaders or French lawyers are organized at the local modify the secularism law so that it could even other role models results in a limited level and play no role in shaping public fund new mosques in order to combat the religious accommodation of Islamic policy, unlike in the United States, where current foreign funding of building new practices and an overall climate of national bar associations play a powerful mosques in some French Muslim areas “Islamophobia.” During the Danish cartoon role in commenting on laws and policies. that could not afford to do so on their own. controversy, some French Muslims wanted Many French Muslims want to be involved In addition, he was the first politician to to sue the magazine to protest the in French politics, and some are active on raise affirmative-action type methods to publication of the cartoons caricaturing the the local level in almost every region and address some of the society’s economic prophet Muhammad. The lawyer they hired party, but they are generally ignored at the inequities. proved incompetent and unable to file their national level. In addition, they appear complaint timely, furthering fueling their frustrated by the fact that there are no But Sarkozy has also been a loud critic of sense of impotence. “Earlier this year the French Muslim Members of Parliament, the community. During the 2005 riots, he Union of Islamic Organizations in France even though Muslims account for around retorted that crime-ridden neighborhoods (UOIF) and the Paris Mosque sued the 10 percent of the French population. should be “cleaned with a power hose” and French satirical newspaper described the rioters as “gangrene and Charlie-Hebdo and its director, Philippe French Muslim Identity rabble.” When he proposed establishing Val, for publishing caricatures of the Islamic Council in France in December the Prophet Muhammad accusing them of The issue of identity starts very early for 2005 and appointed the director of the “publicly abusing a group of people French Muslims. Abdel Hak, a suburban Paris Mosque, Dalil Boubaker, as its head, because of their religion.” The trial had high school vocational teacher of he further alienated the average French been presented as an issue of Moroccan descent, explained the absence Muslim from the government, who felt that “freedom of speech” against of organization among French Muslims as they are being “held hostage” by having “fundamentalist Islam.” This past March being due to their lack of consciousness Boubaker represent their interests. the French court ruled that the newspaper that they are being threatened as a group. and its director showed no intention He stated that when something goes The Islamic Council in France was formed of insulting the Muslim community with the wrong, the young react while the older with the three major Muslim bodies, caricatures, several of which had generation remains silent, because they namely, the Union of Islamic Organizations appeared first in a Danish paper. Ironically have so little power in French society. He in France (UOIF), the National Federation the presidential candidate did say that he was hopeful, because he of Muslims in France (FNMF), and the Nicolas Sarkozy who as the former Interior sees his students asserting their French Paris Mosque, to serve as a counterpart to Minister was instrumental in identity more, rather than being defensive similar councils set up for the Jewish and establishing and supporting these two about their Arab identity. Hak has advised Christian communities. Its express French Muslim organizations had come his students to “meet the French half way”

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

and “show them that you accept them and sanctioned ones. Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences their culture.” in Paris and author of Globalized Islam Islamophobia (Columbia University Press: 2004), points Hak also explained that Islam, for most of out that there is growing misconception his students, was more of a group identity The term Islamophobia is used to describe regarding Islam in Europe and that there is than any spiritual sentiment. Many of the the general French antipathy toward Islam. a large gap between what people, boys were involved with drugs or had older Initially, mainstream intellectuals refused to including those on the Left, think about brothers who were in prison; thus, they recognize the existence of specific Muslims and the actual reality. At the time had few positive role models. When they Islamophobic acts. Many Muslims of the Danish cartoon protests, the did try somethin g different, like one young complained of the media’s equating Islam average French person assumed that man who had gone to an elite French with terrorism, of discussing Islam and many Muslims were protesting against the school and expressed an interest in Muslims as a “national security” issue. freedom of speech on the streets of politics, they were often discouraged. (His Others wondered why violence directed Europe and could not be persuaded parents told him that “politics is not for against Muslim women is seen as a otherwise, despite the lack of evidence for someone like you.”) There did seem to be problem with Islam, whereas violence such an assertion. His solution, shared by differences between the boys and the girls, against non-Muslim women is seen as a French Muslims themselves, is that they because the girls managed to avoid some social problem. One French intellectual unite, speak up, and wait. Roy is optimistic of the boy’s troubles and performed better observed that although things are that there is a greater gentrification of academically. Most took their studies more changing and that there is now a growing French Muslims outside Paris, along with a seriously as a way to escape from their Muslim middle class, the French greater political and professional daily lives. On another positive note, there perception and media are fifteen years representation of their overall integration are increasing numbers of French Muslim behind current reality. through social promotion. He believes that teachers in the suburbs. the real tension is not about religion but An emerging trend is for French Muslims about class, and that this is currently The community’s lack of a collective to de-emphasize their ethnic differences manifesting itself vis-à-vis Islam because consciousness is mirrored by the lack of and focus on their dual French-Muslim Islam is tied to most of the current any public discourse about what it means identity. Older French Muslims wonder geopolitical conflicts. to have a “hyphenated identity.” There is what this will mean for their children whom no Muslim dail y or weekly publication, they had hoped would marry Muslims from The research of Vincent Geisser, a French although two on-line journals their own ethnic background. While first expert on Islamophobia and a researcher (www.oummah.com and and second generation French Muslims at the government think tank Centre www.saphirnews.com) seek to provide a focused on public assimilation, in private National de Recherche Scientifique space in which to nurture civic they expressed their ethnic background. (CNRS), seems to support the idea that engagement b y facilitating discussion The third generation wants to be able to the French elite is behind Islamophobia as among French Muslims. Existing French make its religious practice public. This puts a racist ideology, that its members in fact Muslim institutions sometimes consciously its members in conflict with both a French deny that Islamophobia exists, and that ignore the communit y’s present reality and political secular identity and the current this “phenomenon” is “a mystification made deal with issues like the headscarf only as geopolitical fear of Islam. Some French by the mullahs of Iraq.” Ironically, Claude they relate to such topics as French suspect that no matter how “moderate or Imbert, former head of the Haut Conseil a political identity. While this might have progressive” French Muslims may seem, l’Integration, established to combat been an adaptive mechanism, it is an they are all secret fundamentalists and will Islamophobia, had declared that he himself intellectual luxury in the absence of a vital impose their practices on everyone else. is an “Islamophobe.” French politicians discourse and action designed to protect The increased visibility of Islam and often cite “immigrant” concerns to speak the rights of French Muslims. Muslims in the French public space about or against Muslims in order to appears to have led to a greater contempt constantly reinforce the perception of Dialogue among second- and third- for Islam. The extent of this ideology Muslims as aliens to French society, generation French Muslims is energizing involves resisting Islamic political culture despite the fact that the majority of them discussions about identity and the need for as well as engaging in such deliberate are French citizens. There is very little political action. French Muslims sometimes anti-Muslim practices as serving pork in public information about Muslims in complain that the Muslims working in the the public school cafeteria, where students France, including the fact that the rate of government to oversee the community’s have no alternative choices, or serving conversion to Islam is almost as high as it needs do not always engage effectively pork soup in soup kitchens that feed the is in the United States. Islamophobia is with them. Regional Muslim organizations poor. one area around which the French Muslim are more representative and more population appears to be organizing. For effective than the national government- Olivier Roy, a professor at the School for example, a Muslim lawyers group, Collectif

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

Contre l’Islamophobie en France, has similar questions were also asked about their honor or group identity. Suburban been established to fight instances of their religious practices, including prayers high schools teachers complain that some Islamophobia. and mosque attendance. French of their male students harass those Muslim authorities have claimed that they were classmates who do not fast during One day, there will have to be a national under intense pressure from the United Ramadan. French social institutions will debate in France on whether the French States and Britain to fire these employees, have to become more elastic in dealing are willing to accept Muslims having real despite positive reviews by their bosses. with such perennial issues as peer power in decision making and politics. pressure in the face of its changing society Mohamed Mestiri, one of France’s leading Different French Muslim Ethnicities so that freedom of religion is preserved for Muslim intellectuals and director of the everyone. International Institute for Islamic Thought’s Differences among the various ethnic French office, suggested that the only groups within the French Muslim and Post-9/11 Issues for French Muslims solution to the dual identity crisis of France immigrant communities exist, making it and its Muslims is for more French harder for French Muslims to organize in Some post-9/11 issues facing Muslims in Muslims from various fields to write and some cases. Many South Asian France include the greater scrutiny and speak on, as well as become engaged immigrants claim that they have not faced monitoring of their actions. There is more with, the meanin g of citizenship and their the same discrimination as other groups. security in front of public buildings, and claims to equal citizenship. Many French Their different background and limited more identity checks of those who look like Muslims feel that the government is trying numbers might be a factor, but even they Muslims. Many complain about the to enforce a form of “French government complained about the glass ceiling for increased surveillance of their mosques. Islam” that, in fact, penalizes actual Islamic workplace advancement. Others remarked Others state that overt signs of an Islamic practice. They argue that the country’s that black West Africans, including those identity, such as having the name Muslims are already practicing a “French from Senegal and Mali, faced less religious “Muhammad” or growing a beard, have Islam,” but that the government seems to discrimination but more racial caused some discrimination. One French want an Islam that is on its own terms and discrimination than North Africans from Tunisian cab driver recalled that shortly without some of the more “conservative” or Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria, that is to after 9/11 he shaved his beard off because orthodox religious rituals. say, the Maghrebis or Arabs. Among this he was losing so much business. A few group and of all the immigrant groups, individuals with obvious Muslim names This perception is borne out by the recent Algerians face the greatest discrimination have had problems with international expulsion of seasonal Muslim workers at every level of society. Some Muslims money transfers. Interestingly, even those from the Charles de Gaulle airport for feel that the police go after the blacks or South Asian immigrants who did not “security concerns.” They lost their security West Africans for immigration checks and complain of any integration problems clearance when France’s Anti-Terrorist after the Arabs or Maghrebis for cautioned against mentioning Islam Coordination Unit alleged that they posed vandalism. Although there is some directly while enquiring about the issues a “risk to the airport’s security” or were disagreement on the causes, there seems facing immigrants in a mixed Muslim and simply deemed “dangerous.” Lila Charef, to be a consensus by Muslims and non- non-Muslim group. Mestiri pointed out one an attorney with the Collectif Contre Muslims alike that the Algerians are the positive effect: 9/11 brought Islam and l’Islamophobie en France representing the most harassed by the French police. While Muslims into the public arena and workers explained that they were this has a lot to do with Algeria’s particular increased non-formal networks among questioned about their religious practices, colonial history and subsequent terrorist Muslims. including whether they were comfortable acts in France following unrest in Algeria, shaking hands with the opposite sex, the French government’s racist practices The French Education System having a beard, and other matters that had toward the Algerians also carried over no relevance to their actual jobs. She toward French Algerians. While the country’s free universal access argued that these questions were proxies to a basic level of education has been to determine whether they were Salafis or This different treatment might also be lauded, vast inequities remain in the type one of the more orthodox or (in the French explained by the demographic differences of education that one may receive. Some government’s mind) more militant forms of between the more recent sub-Saharan asylum seekers praise France’s education Islam. African immigrants, who are fewer in system, particularly the language courses number and less visible than the North offered to them, even when they cannot During the 2002-03 United States’ National African immigrants, who have been there take advantage of it because of their need Security Entry/Exit Registration System for generations. For some Muslim to work. Entry into the elite universities (the call-in “Special Registration” process, immigrants, Islam is almost a badge of grandes ecoles), which leads to the top where Muslim men had to register with the identity with its required practices, and any jobs, is determined by how well one does United States Immigration authorities, deviation from it is seen as a betrayal of on the two-year preparatory concours

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

entrance exams. Many French Muslims, French citizens equally. In contrast, the individuals or as a community. Ben Dhiam especially those who live in the suburbs, American private sector has more hopes that American businesses, in are unprepared for or even unaware of consistently recognized merit, despite particular those owned by Muslims, will these exams. other differences. invest with European Muslim-owned companies for “synergy.” Sciences Po, one of France’s most Entrepreneurship does not appear to be prestigious grandes ecoles, has initiated a encouraged or facilitated in France, as it is While there is a growing awareness of the plan to work with the French government in the United States. For a French need to address the private sector’s lack of to create programs that address the employee, it is considered a step down to diversity, there is little concerted effort to system’s inequities. For example, it will start his/her own business; for a French remedy it. Affirmative action, as waive the entrance exam requirement in Muslim, it is often a step up on the understood in the United States, would be order to admit some of the top economic ladder. While business volatility illegal in France and difficult to implement disadvantaged suburban high school is a universal concern, risk is generally not due to the current lack of relevant ethnic students and will offer mentoring and other as well rewarded as it is in the United data. The Institut Montaigne, a business programs to disadvantaged suburban high States. Some French Muslim men have think tank, has taken a leading role in schools students to help place under- gone into business for themselves addressing workplace discrimination. The represented students in the grandes because they could not move up the institute’s strongest supporters include ecoles. Many second-generation French French corporate structure. While they Yazid Sabeg, one of the country’s few top Muslims who do well in school find it hard have faced many obstacles, including CEOs of Algerian descent and among the to secure appropriate jobs upon limited access to capital and difficulties most important advocates of affirmative graduation. attracting business, they prefer having action in France. Sabeg, who consistently their own business. reiterates the demand for economic The Economic Integration of equality (not integration) for French Immigrants Saber Ben Dhiam, the owner of a small Muslims, stresses that to achieve equality, telecommunications company, said that he a form of affirmative action needs to be France has made plans to provide social started his own business to serve as a role established in order to address barriers to services to its immigrants, but not to ease model for his children as someone who entering the job market. He has or encourage their social integration. was his own boss and had standing in the spearheaded the concept of using “blind Social inequalit y, unemployment, failure at larger community. He spoke about the lack CVs” in job applications as a remedy to the school, and delinquency are the major of diversity in the French business sector first point of discrimination: applicants with issues facing French Muslims, not the lack and saw this as an impediment to non-traditional French names are not of cultural integration. competing in the global marketplace. In invited in for interviews. Although this addition, he pointed out that unlike French suggestion was recently codified into One impediment to fighting workplace companies, some British companies had French law, the business sector’s strong discrimination is the lack of ethnic partnered with British Arab or Muslim opposition to it has prevented its statistics. This ban was implemented after businessmen in order to attract business in implementation. Sabeg speaks of his World War II, during which French Jews the Middle East. As a result, their contract desire to create a French equivalent to the had been sent to their deaths, to prevent bids had been accepted, while those of Small Business Administration in the further discrimination based on ethnic or France had not. United States that would help Muslim religious statistics. However, their current entrepreneurs gain access to the needed absence makes it more difficult to assess In the United States, many companies that start-up capital. the diversity of French society. One bid for government work maintain a 51 argument against having such statistics is percent minority ownership in order to win Many middle-class French university that it “ethnicizes” a problem that is not contracts that give preference to minority- students have protested against the new based on ethnicity. However, all of the owned businesses. In contrast, Ben Dhiam labor law initiative known as CPE (the evidence shows that ethnicity is one of the stated that he had to keep white French contrat premiere embauche, loosely clearest barriers to entering the French employees as the public face of his translated as “first contract hiring”), which workplace. While knowing the language is company when he submitted a tender offer seeks to facilitate the hiring of young enough for some immigrants, like Asians, if he hoped to get any business. In his employees by allowing companies to fire to gain entry into the private sector, opinion, not only were French businesses new employees during the first two years. mobility within a company is restricted if making bad business decisions by not Although this measure was meant to you are not white French. Certain French partnering with French Muslim encourage companies to institutions, among them the army and the businessmen like himself, it seems that hire more employees, they fear that this civil service, have been more successful they do not want to give French Muslims will actually lead to greater job than the private sector in treating all this type of stature or recognition as insecurity as it will be easier to be let go.”

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

Others, however, have a different reaction. they are against the French state. taken anti-Muslim stances. Despite the Those grandes ecoles students who are increasing numbers of Muslims in France, positioned to join the top of the economic While the establishment wants to control their disadvantaged background and lack ladder and would have little difficulty in something that it does not understand or of political organization prevent them from getting jobs were ambivalent, whereas accept, French Muslims favor the original enjoying a status commensurate with their those at the bottom, including French conception of laïcité and see no size. France missed an opportunity after Muslims who faced great difficulties in contradiction between this and their the 2005 riots to acknowledge and begin to getting a job, welcome it as a positive step practice of Islam. The French government remedy this inequity. There is still hope to help them enter the job market. wants to sanction mosques, train and that the Republic can live up to its ideals if place imams, or use an extreme concept its leaders have the courage to face its Conclusion of laïcité to ban headscarves. In a society future. where French Muslims do not have their People have speculated that France will own independent capable institutions, this need another generation to integrate its could be a recipe for further alienating Muslims successfully. But neither the them. Unfortunately, this seems to be the Moushumi Khan is a Research Associate country nor the community can afford to pattern rather than the exception at the Institute for Social Policy and wait so long. While the French greatly throughout Europe, where countries are Understanding (ISPU) and an attorney in value citizenship and are protective of their attempting to “integrate” Muslims by New York City. She is also a Term social welfare state, and therefore cautious enforcing their own view of an acceptable Member of the Council on Foreign about whom they allow in, they must figure Islam. While the United States might also Relations. Ms. Khan has had extensive out what to do with the diverse population wish to limit Islam in this manner, existing experience with cross-cultural issues that already lives among them. France will and increasing indigenous Islamic affecting companies dealing with Muslims have to negotiate how to maintain its non- institutions serve as a check on such and continues to be active in the non- communitarian identity without taking attempts. Certain uniquely French profit, economic development and legal measures that can be perceived as, or in characteristics have a specific negative sectors. effect are, anti-Muslim. effect on French Muslims. An anti- entrepreneurial culture limits economic Ms. Khan has served on Advisory Despite the irony of a secular state being mobility, while a weak civil society inhibits Committees at the Council on Foreign involved in creating a state religion, France coalitions around shared interests among Relations on immigration, national security is eager to play a leading role in creating a different groups. and public diplomacy, and participated in French-adapted version of Islam, an Islam drafting the Council Special Report “A New des Lumieres (an “enlightened Islam”). Its France must find a way to adapt its Beginning: Strategies for a More Fruitful Muslims, however, wonder if such an Islam political identity with its social reality. While Dialogue with the Muslim World.” She has can tolerate Islamic practices and Muslim it may not “celebrate” diversity as the published many articles on subjects free will. Right now, the most organized United States purports to do, it must at relating to the Muslim American Islamic organizations in France are often least accommodate it. Allowing Muslims in community. the most conservative and perceived as France to be French Muslims is the first the most fundamentalist, such as the step. The upcoming presidential election Ms. Khan earned her J.D. degree from the Union of Islamic Organizations, which is a may show whether France is ready to take University of Michigan Law School in 1996 member of the Islamic Council in France. this step. Sadly, the campaign so far has and received an A.B. degree in Critical Thus, public figures like Bernard Henri not been promising. Each of the major Social Thought, cum laude, from Mount Levy in France and others throughout candidates, Nicolas Sarkozy of the right Holyoke College in 1993. She was recently Europe can generalize that Islam is a wing Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) selected as a Zuckerman Fellow at threat to the state. Vincent Geisser, a party and Ségolène Royal of the French Harvard University researcher on Islam in France, warns that Socialist party, as well as the new comer where she will pursue a Master's degree in these elites do not understand that Francois Bayrou of the centrist Union for Public Administration at the John although the majority of French Muslims French Democracy (UDF) party, appear to F. Kennedy School of Government. are orthodox or conservative in their have either taken the French Muslim religious practice, this does not mean that community for granted or ignored them or

This policy brief was supported by a generous grant from an ISPU donor in St. Louis Missouri.

ISPU normally does not take institutional positions on public policy issues; the views presented here do not necessarily reflect the views of ISPU, its officers, staff or trustees.

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND UNDERSTANDING POLICY BRIEF

The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) is an independent and nonprofit organization committed to solving critical social problems in the United States through education, research, training, and policy analysis. ISPU provides cutting-edge analysis and policy solutions through publications, public events, media commentary, and community outreach. Major areas of focus include domestic politics, social policy, the economy, health, education, the environment, and foreign policy. Since our inception in 2002, ISPU’s research has worked to increase understanding of key public policy issues and how they impact various communities in the United States.

US society is far from being monolithic, whether culturally, socially or politically. It is therefore imperative that the thoughts and insights of each aspect of this heterogeneity play a contributory role in the discourse and debate of issues that affect all Americans. ISPU was established and premised on this idea – that each community must address, debate, and contribute to the pressing issues facing our nation. It is our hope that this effort will give voice to creative new ideas and provide an alternative perspective to the current policy-making echelons of the political, All ISPU Policy Briefs are academic and public-relations arenas of the United States. available on our website www.ispu.org ISPU firmly believes that optimal analysis and treatment of social issues mandates a comprehensive study from several different and diverse backgrounds. As social challenges become more complex and interwoven, ISPU is unique in its ability to bring this new approach to the human and social problems facing our country. Through this unique approach, ISPU will produce scholarly publications, incorporating new voices and adding diversity to the realm of ideas. Our multidisciplinary work in partnership with universities and other research institutes serves to build understanding and create programs that effect lasting social change.

Further information about ISPU can be obtained from our website at www.ispu.org