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Hypoxia and Hormone-Mediated Pathways Converge at the Histone Demethylase KDM4B in Cancer
International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review Hypoxia and Hormone-Mediated Pathways Converge at the Histone Demethylase KDM4B in Cancer Jun Yang 1,* ID , Adrian L. Harris 2 and Andrew M. Davidoff 1 1 Department of Surgery, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; [email protected] 2 Molecular Oncology Laboratories, Department of Oncology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 19 December 2017; Accepted: 9 January 2018; Published: 13 January 2018 Abstract: Hormones play an important role in pathophysiology. The hormone receptors, such as estrogen receptor alpha and androgen receptor in breast cancer and prostate cancer, are critical to cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth. In this review we focused on the cross-talk between hormone and hypoxia pathways, particularly in breast cancer. We delineated a novel signaling pathway from estrogen receptor to hypoxia-inducible factor 1, and discussed the role of this pathway in endocrine therapy resistance. Further, we discussed the estrogen and hypoxia pathways converging at histone demethylase KDM4B, an important epigenetic modifier in cancer. Keywords: estrogen receptor alpha; hypoxia-inducible factor 1; KDM4B; endocrine therapy resistance 1. Introduction A solid tumor is a heterogeneous mass that is comprised of not only genetically and epigenetically distinct clones, but also of areas with varying degree of hypoxia that result from rapid cancer cell proliferation that outgrows its blood supply. To survive in hostile hypoxic environments, cancer cells decelerate their proliferation rate, alter metabolism and cellular pH, and induce angiogenesis [1]. -
Tumor Mutation Burden and JARID2 Gene Alteration Are Associated with Short Disease-Free Survival in Locally Advanced Triple-Negative Breast Cancer
1052 Original Article Page 1 of 13 Tumor mutation burden and JARID2 gene alteration are associated with short disease-free survival in locally advanced triple-negative breast cancer Xiangmei Zhang1#^, Jingping Li2#, Qing Yang1, Yanfang Wang3, Xinhui Li1, Yunjiang Liu2, Baoen Shan1 1Research Center, 2Breast Cancer Center, 3Medical Center, Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China Contributions: (I) Conception and design: Y Liu, B Shan; (II) Administrative support: X Zhang, J Li; (III) Provision of study materials: X Zhang, J Li; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: Y Wang, Q Yang, X Li; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: X Zhang, J Li, Y Liu, B Shan; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final approval of manuscript: All authors. #These authors have contributed equally to this work. Correspondence to: Yunjiang Liu. Breast Cancer Center, Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China. Email: [email protected]; Baoen Shan. Research Center, Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China. Email: [email protected]. Background: In locally advanced triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), patients who did not achieve pathologic complete response (non-pCR) after neoadjuvant chemotherapy develop rapid tumor metastasis. Tumor mutation burden (TMB) is a potential biomarker of cancer therapy, though whether it is applicable to TNBC is still unclear. Methods: A total of 14 non-pCR TNBC patients were enrolled, and tissue samples from radical operation were collected. Of these, 7 cases developed disease progression within 12 months after operation [short disease-free survival (short DFS)], while others showed longer DFS over 1 year (long DFS). Next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis targeting 422 cancer-related genes and in vitro studies were performed. -
KDM5B Promotes Drug Resistance by Regulating Melanoma-Propagating Cell Subpopulations Xiaoni Liu1,2, Shang-Min Zhang1, Meaghan K
Published OnlineFirst December 6, 2018; DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-18-0395 Cancer Biology and Translational Studies Molecular Cancer Therapeutics KDM5B Promotes Drug Resistance by Regulating Melanoma-Propagating Cell Subpopulations Xiaoni Liu1,2, Shang-Min Zhang1, Meaghan K. McGeary1,2, Irina Krykbaeva1,2, Ling Lai3, Daniel J. Jansen4, Stephen C. Kales4, Anton Simeonov4, Matthew D. Hall4, Daniel P. Kelly3, Marcus W. Bosenberg1,2,5, and Qin Yan1 Abstract Tumor heterogeneity is a major challenge for cancer elevated KDM5B expression, melanoma cells shift toward a À treatment, especially due to the presence of various sub- more drug-tolerant, CD34 state upon exposure to BRAF populations with stem cell or progenitor cell properties. inhibitor or combined BRAF inhibitor and MEK inhibitor þ À þ In mouse melanomas, both CD34 p75 (CD34 )and treatment. KDM5B loss or inhibition shifts melanoma cells À À À þ CD34 p75 (CD34 ) tumor subpopulations were charac- to the more BRAF inhibitor–sensitive CD34 state. These terized as melanoma-propagating cells (MPC) that exhibit results support that KDM5B is a critical epigenetic regulator some of those key features. However, these two subpopula- that governs the transition of key MPC subpopulations tions differ from each other in tumorigenic potential, with distinct drug sensitivity. This study also emphasizes ability to recapitulate heterogeneity, and chemoresistance. the importance of continuing to advance our understand- þ À In this study, we demonstrate that CD34 and CD34 ing of intratumor heterogeneity and ultimately develop V600E subpopulations carrying the BRAF mutation confer novel therapeutics by altering the heterogeneous character- differential sensitivity to targeted BRAF inhibition. -
Imidazopyridines As Potent KDM5 Demethylase Inhibitors Promoting Reprogramming Efficiency of Human Ipscs
Article Imidazopyridines as Potent KDM5 Demethylase Inhibitors Promoting Reprogramming Efficiency of Human iPSCs Yasamin Dabiri, Rodrigo A. Gama- Brambila, Katerina Taskova, ..., Jichang Wang, Miguel A. Andrade-Navarro, Xinlai Cheng [email protected] HIGHLIGHTS O4I3 supports the maintenance and generation of human iPSCs O4I3 is a potent H3K4 demethylase KDM5 inhibitor in vitro and in cells KDM5A, but not KDM5B, serves as an epigenetic barrier of reprogramming Chemical or genetic inhibition of KDM5A tends to promote the reprogramming efficiency Dabiri et al., iScience 12,168– 181 February 22, 2019 ª 2019 The Author(s). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.isci.2019.01.012 Article Imidazopyridines as Potent KDM5 Demethylase Inhibitors Promoting Reprogramming Efficiency of Human iPSCs Yasamin Dabiri,1 Rodrigo A. Gama-Brambila,1 Katerina Taskova,2,3 Kristina Herold,4 Stefanie Reuter,4 James Adjaye,5 Jochen Utikal,6 Ralf Mrowka,4 Jichang Wang,7 Miguel A. Andrade-Navarro,2,3 and Xinlai Cheng1,8,* SUMMARY Pioneering human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-based pre-clinical studies have raised safety concerns and pinpointed the need for safer and more efficient approaches to generate and maintain patient-specific iPSCs. One approach is searching for compounds that influence pluripotent stem cell reprogramming using functional screens of known drugs. Our high-throughput screening of drug-like hits showed that imidazopyridines—analogs of zolpidem, a sedative-hypnotic drug—are able to improve reprogramming efficiency and facilitate reprogramming of resistant human primary fibro- blasts. The lead compound (O4I3) showed a remarkable OCT4 induction, which at least in part is 1Institute of Pharmacy and due to the inhibition of H3K4 demethylase (KDM5, also known as JARID1). -
Investigation of the Underlying Hub Genes and Molexular Pathogensis in Gastric Cancer by Integrated Bioinformatic Analyses
bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.20.423656; this version posted December 22, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. Investigation of the underlying hub genes and molexular pathogensis in gastric cancer by integrated bioinformatic analyses Basavaraj Vastrad1, Chanabasayya Vastrad*2 1. Department of Biochemistry, Basaveshwar College of Pharmacy, Gadag, Karnataka 582103, India. 2. Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Chanabasava Nilaya, Bharthinagar, Dharwad 580001, Karanataka, India. * Chanabasayya Vastrad [email protected] Ph: +919480073398 Chanabasava Nilaya, Bharthinagar, Dharwad 580001 , Karanataka, India bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.20.423656; this version posted December 22, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. No reuse allowed without permission. Abstract The high mortality rate of gastric cancer (GC) is in part due to the absence of initial disclosure of its biomarkers. The recognition of important genes associated in GC is therefore recommended to advance clinical prognosis, diagnosis and and treatment outcomes. The current investigation used the microarray dataset GSE113255 RNA seq data from the Gene Expression Omnibus database to diagnose differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Pathway and gene ontology enrichment analyses were performed, and a proteinprotein interaction network, modules, target genes - miRNA regulatory network and target genes - TF regulatory network were constructed and analyzed. Finally, validation of hub genes was performed. The 1008 DEGs identified consisted of 505 up regulated genes and 503 down regulated genes. -
RBPJ/CBF1 Interacts with L3MBTL3/MBT1 to Promote Repression of Notch Signaling Via Histone Demethylase KDM1A/LSD1
Published online: October 13, 2017 Article RBPJ/CBF1 interacts with L3MBTL3/MBT1 to promote repression of Notch signaling via histone demethylase KDM1A/LSD1 Tao Xu1,§, Sung-Soo Park1,§, Benedetto Daniele Giaimo2,§, Daniel Hall3, Francesca Ferrante2, Diana M Ho4, Kazuya Hori4,†, Lucas Anhezini5,‡, Iris Ertl6,¶, Marek Bartkuhn7, Honglai Zhang1, Eléna Milon1, Kimberly Ha1, Kevin P Conlon1, Rork Kuick8, Brandon Govindarajoo9, Yang Zhang9, Yuqing Sun1, Yali Dou1, Venkatesha Basrur1, Kojo SJ Elenitoba-Johnson1, Alexey I Nesvizhskii1,9, Julian Ceron6, Cheng-Yu Lee5, Tilman Borggrefe2, Rhett A Kovall3 & Jean-François Rual1,* Abstract Introduction Notch signaling is an evolutionarily conserved signal transduction The Notch signal transduction pathway is a conserved signaling pathway that is essential for metazoan development. Upon ligand mechanism that is fundamental for morphogenesis in multicellular binding, the Notch intracellular domain (NOTCH ICD) translocates organisms (Bray, 2006; Kopan & Ilagan, 2009; Hori et al, 2013). The into the nucleus and forms a complex with the transcription factor biological action of Notch is highly pleiotropic, and impaired Notch RBPJ (also known as CBF1 or CSL) to activate expression of Notch signaling leads to a broad spectrum of developmental disorders target genes. In the absence of a Notch signal, RBPJ acts as a tran- (Louvi & Artavanis-Tsakonas, 2012) and many types of cancer scriptional repressor. Using a proteomic approach, we identified (Aster et al, 2017). The developmental outcome of Notch signaling L3MBTL3 (also known as MBT1) as a novel RBPJ interactor. L3MBTL3 is strictly dependent on the cell context and can influence cell fate competes with NOTCH ICD for binding to RBPJ. In the absence of in a remarkable number of different ways, for example, differentia- NOTCH ICD, RBPJ recruits L3MBTL3 and the histone demethylase tion, proliferation, and apoptosis (Bray, 2006; Kopan & Ilagan, 2009; KDM1A (also known as LSD1) to the enhancers of Notch target Hori et al, 2013). -
An RBPJ-Drosophila Model Reveals Dependence of RBPJ Protein Stability on the Formation of Transcription–Regulator Complexes
cells Article An RBPJ-Drosophila Model Reveals Dependence of RBPJ Protein Stability on the Formation of Transcription–Regulator Complexes Bernd M. Gahr 1,2, Franziska Brändle 1, Mirjam Zimmermann 1 and Anja C. Nagel 1,* 1 Institute of Genetics (240), University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 30, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; [email protected] (B.M.G.); [email protected] (F.B.); [email protected] (M.Z.) 2 Present address: Molecular Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-711-45922210 Received: 23 August 2019; Accepted: 10 October 2019; Published: 14 October 2019 Abstract: Notch signaling activity governs widespread cellular differentiation in higher animals, including humans, and is involved in several congenital diseases and different forms of cancer. Notch signals are mediated by the transcriptional regulator RBPJ in a complex with activated Notch (NICD). Analysis of Notch pathway regulation in humans is hampered by a partial redundancy of the four Notch receptor copies, yet RBPJ is solitary, allowing its study in model systems. In Drosophila melanogaster, the RBPJ orthologue is encoded by Suppressor of Hairless [Su(H)]. Using genome engineering, we replaced Su(H) by murine RBPJ in order to study its function in the fly. In fact, RBPJ largely substitutes for Su(H)’s function, yet subtle phenotypes reflect increased Notch signaling activity. Accordingly, the binding of RBPJ to Hairless (H) protein, the general Notch antagonist in Drosophila, was considerably reduced compared to that of Su(H). An H-binding defective RBPJLLL mutant matched the respective Su(H)LLL allele: homozygotes were lethal due to extensive Notch hyperactivity. -
Jarid2 and PRC2, Partners in Regulating Gene Expression
Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on September 28, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Jarid2 and PRC2, partners in regulating gene expression Gang Li,1,2,6 Raphael Margueron,2,6 Manching Ku,1,3,4 Pierre Chambon,5 Bradley E. Bernstein,1,3,4 and Danny Reinberg1,2,7 1Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University Medical School, New York, New York 10016, USA; 2Department of Biochemistry, New York University Medical School, New York, New York 10016, USA; 3Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA; 4Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA; 5Department of Functional Genomics, Institut de Ge´ne´tique et de Biologie Mole´culaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), Institut Clinique de la Souris (ICS), CNRS/INSERM/Universite´ de Strasbourg, BP10142, 67404 Illkirch, France The Polycomb group proteins foster gene repression profiles required for proper development and unimpaired adulthood, and comprise the components of the Polycomb-Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) including the histone H3 Lys 27 (H3K27) methyltransferase Ezh2. How mammalian PRC2 accesses chromatin is unclear. We found that Jarid2 associates with PRC2 and stimulates its enzymatic activity in vitro. Jarid2 contains a Jumonji C domain, but is devoid of detectable histone demethylase activity. Instead, its artificial recruitment to a promoter in vivo resulted in corecruitment of PRC2 with resultant increased levels of di- and trimethylation of H3K27 (H3K27me2/3). Jarid2 colocalizes with Ezh2 and MTF2, a homolog of Drosophila Pcl, at endogenous genes in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Jarid2 can bind DNA and its recruitment in ES cells is interdependent with that of PRC2, as Jarid2 knockdown reduced PRC2 at its target promoters, and ES cells devoid of the PRC2 component EED are deficient in Jarid2 promoter access. -
1714 Gene Comprehensive Cancer Panel Enriched for Clinically Actionable Genes with Additional Biologically Relevant Genes 400-500X Average Coverage on Tumor
xO GENE PANEL 1714 gene comprehensive cancer panel enriched for clinically actionable genes with additional biologically relevant genes 400-500x average coverage on tumor Genes A-C Genes D-F Genes G-I Genes J-L AATK ATAD2B BTG1 CDH7 CREM DACH1 EPHA1 FES G6PC3 HGF IL18RAP JADE1 LMO1 ABCA1 ATF1 BTG2 CDK1 CRHR1 DACH2 EPHA2 FEV G6PD HIF1A IL1R1 JAK1 LMO2 ABCB1 ATM BTG3 CDK10 CRK DAXX EPHA3 FGF1 GAB1 HIF1AN IL1R2 JAK2 LMO7 ABCB11 ATR BTK CDK11A CRKL DBH EPHA4 FGF10 GAB2 HIST1H1E IL1RAP JAK3 LMTK2 ABCB4 ATRX BTRC CDK11B CRLF2 DCC EPHA5 FGF11 GABPA HIST1H3B IL20RA JARID2 LMTK3 ABCC1 AURKA BUB1 CDK12 CRTC1 DCUN1D1 EPHA6 FGF12 GALNT12 HIST1H4E IL20RB JAZF1 LPHN2 ABCC2 AURKB BUB1B CDK13 CRTC2 DCUN1D2 EPHA7 FGF13 GATA1 HLA-A IL21R JMJD1C LPHN3 ABCG1 AURKC BUB3 CDK14 CRTC3 DDB2 EPHA8 FGF14 GATA2 HLA-B IL22RA1 JMJD4 LPP ABCG2 AXIN1 C11orf30 CDK15 CSF1 DDIT3 EPHB1 FGF16 GATA3 HLF IL22RA2 JMJD6 LRP1B ABI1 AXIN2 CACNA1C CDK16 CSF1R DDR1 EPHB2 FGF17 GATA5 HLTF IL23R JMJD7 LRP5 ABL1 AXL CACNA1S CDK17 CSF2RA DDR2 EPHB3 FGF18 GATA6 HMGA1 IL2RA JMJD8 LRP6 ABL2 B2M CACNB2 CDK18 CSF2RB DDX3X EPHB4 FGF19 GDNF HMGA2 IL2RB JUN LRRK2 ACE BABAM1 CADM2 CDK19 CSF3R DDX5 EPHB6 FGF2 GFI1 HMGCR IL2RG JUNB LSM1 ACSL6 BACH1 CALR CDK2 CSK DDX6 EPOR FGF20 GFI1B HNF1A IL3 JUND LTK ACTA2 BACH2 CAMTA1 CDK20 CSNK1D DEK ERBB2 FGF21 GFRA4 HNF1B IL3RA JUP LYL1 ACTC1 BAG4 CAPRIN2 CDK3 CSNK1E DHFR ERBB3 FGF22 GGCX HNRNPA3 IL4R KAT2A LYN ACVR1 BAI3 CARD10 CDK4 CTCF DHH ERBB4 FGF23 GHR HOXA10 IL5RA KAT2B LZTR1 ACVR1B BAP1 CARD11 CDK5 CTCFL DIAPH1 ERCC1 FGF3 GID4 HOXA11 IL6R KAT5 ACVR2A -
Histone Demethylases at the Center of Cellular Differentiation and Disease
Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on September 30, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press REVIEW Erasing the methyl mark: histone demethylases at the center of cellular differentiation and disease Paul A.C. Cloos,2 Jesper Christensen, Karl Agger, and Kristian Helin1 Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC) and Centre for Epigenetics, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark The enzymes catalyzing lysine and arginine methylation impacts on the transcriptional activity of the underlying of histones are essential for maintaining transcriptional DNA by acting as a recognition template for effector programs and determining cell fate and identity. Until proteins modifying the chromatin environment and lead- recently, histone methylation was regarded irreversible. ing to either repression or activation. Thus, histone However, within the last few years, several families of methylation can be associated with either activation or histone demethylases erasing methyl marks associated repression of transcription depending on which effector with gene repression or activation have been identified, protein is being recruited. It should be noted that the underscoring the plasticity and dynamic nature of his- unmodified residues can also serve as a binding template tone methylation. Recent discoveries have revealed that for effector proteins leading to specific chromatin states histone demethylases take part in large multiprotein (Lan et al. 2007b). complexes synergizing with histone deacetylases, histone Arginine residues can be modified by one or two meth- methyltransferases, and nuclear receptors to control de- yl groups; the latter form in either a symmetric or asym- velopmental and transcriptional programs. Here we re- metric conformation (Rme1, Rme2s, and Rme2a), per- view the emerging biochemical and biological functions mitting a total of four states: one unmethylated and of the histone demethylases and discuss their potential three methylated forms. -
Functional Genomics Analysis of Vitamin D Effects on CD4+ T Cells In
Functional genomics analysis of vitamin D effects PNAS PLUS on CD4+ T cells in vivo in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis Manuel Zeitelhofera,b, Milena Z. Adzemovica, David Gomez-Cabreroc,d,e, Petra Bergmana, Sonja Hochmeisterf, Marie N’diayea, Atul Paulsona, Sabrina Ruhrmanna, Malin Almgrena, Jesper N. Tegnérc,d,g, Tomas J. Ekströma, André Ortlieb Guerreiro-Cacaisa, and Maja Jagodica,1 aDepartment of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden; bVascular Biology Unit, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden; cUnit of Computational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden; dScience for Life Laboratory, 171 21 Solna, Sweden; eMucosal and Salivary Biology Division, King’s College London Dental Institute, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom; fDepartment of General Neurology, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria; and gBiological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division, Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, 23955 Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Edited by Tomas G. M. Hokfelt, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, and approved January 19, 2017 (received for review September 24, 2016) Vitamin D exerts multiple immunomodulatory functions and has autoimmune destruction of myelin, axonal loss, and brain atro- been implicated in the etiology and treatment of several autoim- phy (6). Increased risk of developing MS has been described in mune diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). We have previously carriers of rare and common variants of the CYP27B gene (7, 8), reported that in juvenile/adolescent rats, vitamin D supplementation which encodes the enzyme that catalyzes the last step in con- protects from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a verting vitamin D to its active form, from 25(OH)D3 to 1,25 model of MS. -
Hypoxia Meets Epigenetics in Pancreatic Cancer
cells Review Coming in the Air: Hypoxia Meets Epigenetics in Pancreatic Cancer Claudia Geismann 1 and Alexander Arlt 1,2,* 1 Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine I, UKSH-Campus Kiel, 24105 Kiel, Germany; [email protected] 2 Department for Gastroenterology, European Medical School (EMS), Klinikum Oldenburg AöR, 26133 Oldenburg, Germany * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-441-403-2581 Received: 4 October 2020; Accepted: 21 October 2020; Published: 25 October 2020 Abstract: With a five-year survival rate under 9%, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) represents one of the deadliest tumors. Although the treatment options are slightly improving, PDAC is the second leading cause of cancer related death in 2020 in the US. In addition to a pronounced desmoplastic stroma reaction, pancreatic cancer is characterized by one of the lowest levels of oxygen availability within the tumor mass and these hypoxic conditions are known to contribute to tumor development and progression. In this context, the major hypoxia associated transcription factor family, HIF, regulates hundreds of genes involved in angiogenesis, metabolism, migration, invasion, immune escape and therapy resistance. Current research implications show, that hypoxia also modulates diverse areas of epigenetic mechanisms like non-coding RNAs, histone modifications or DNA methylation, which cooperate with the hypoxia-induced transcription factors as well as directly regulate the hypoxic response pathways. In this review, we will focus on hypoxia-mediated epigenetic alterations and their impact on pancreatic cancer. Keywords: pancreatic cancer; hypoxia; HIF; epigenetics; DNA methylation; non-coding RNA; histone modifications 1. Introduction In western countries cancer-related diseases are a major cause of mortality.