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Home , Big History

SETI and Big : Challenge and Extension

Lowell S. Gustafson Department of Political , Villanova University

Correspondence | Lowell S. Gustafson, [email protected] Citation | Gustafson, L. (2020) SETI and Big History: Challenge and Extension. Journal of Big History, IV(2); 4 - 17. DOI | https://doi.org/10.22339/jbh.v4i2.4210

Abstract* SETI is one of the significant challenges to its framework that expands the purposes of big history. Big history had exerted similar impact on , as did previous national , which in turn had impacted religious history. Big History seeks to use evidence and the best theoretical analyses to integrate studies of the , , on Earth, and humanity. SETI shares the interest in the cosmos, but examines exo-, , and possible extra-terrestrial intelligence. In this article, we consider the developing relationship between the purposes of SETI and big history.

Outline World History Popular Culture Introduction Big History A Story of Endings Religious Histories SETI Conclusions Political, National, and Social A Coming of Story Histories Detecting and Communication

Introduction formation of our , provide cognitive developments that permitted The just isn’t what it used to be. us evidence of what happened in symbolic thought. Vervet monkeys It keeps changing. Where we begin our over 4.5 billion ago. Intrusions make distinct sounds that warn others accounts of the past have varied over of igneous rock give us evidence of in their troop of the presence and . Whose histories we examine what happened millions of years ago danger of eagles and leopards.3 What have changed. These changes come on Earth. But we do not think that they do not do is to use these sounds about through a process of challenge these pieces of evidence themselves in the absence of the referent. They and extension, and they tell us a lot remember or reflect on what they took do not sit around a campfire at night, about how we understand ourselves. part in long ago. with one apologizing, “I thought that I Political, national, and social histories Some have contended that had seen an eagle today when I called challenged and changed religious and remember.1 Many – out; and then it turned out that it was traditional histories. World history chimpanzees, dolphins, elephants, only a crow. Sorry for the false alarm.” challenged and extended national birds, rats, and others – show many The of the ability to hold a histories. Big history did the same signs of remembering their own pasts thought and then explicitly call it up to world history. And the search for and how that helps them prepare for by means of communicable assigned extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) is their .2 Individual not sounds is a milestone for hominins. among the challenges that implicitly only share the ability to remember, Memory of all kinds of things that call for an extension of big history. but we can also share and pass on no longer exist could often seem more One of humanity’s defining our memories in a process that David important that what does exist now. characteristics is memory, which is Christian calls collective learning. We We would remember our childhood different from evidence of the past. can hold ideas about the past even caretakers long after they had died. Chondrites, or meteorites that have when what we remember no longer Our memory of them was real to us even been orbiting our since the exists. This ability was enhanced with when they no longer existed. It was a

* I am grateful for the generous support from the Subvention of Publication Program of Villanova University for preparation of this article. I am also grateful to Lacy Loar-Gruenler for her editing of this article; of course any mistakes or errors are my reponsibility.

Journal of Big History, Volume IV, Number 2 5 Lowell Gustafson, SETI and Big History: Challenge and Extension short step to thinking that they as well Neolithic period. The Wurdi Youang often date time from an important in as our memories of them lived on. Our stone arrangement dating to between their own histories or their understanding of memories became their spirits. In this, 11,000 and 20,000 years ago in Victoria, the creation of the . This might have memory was tied to another cognitive , seems to have served this primarily to do with annual cycles that repeated explosion: imagination. We would purpose. England’s famous Stonehenge, themselves. Cyclical time has often been the imagine what never existed and then built about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, may norm. Sometimes, annual cycles were part of take steps to make those ideas physical. have recorded and predicted the winter longer cycles. For example, the Maya had a We can assume here that no one has and summer solstices. A number of Maya count of 365 days in a , (eighteen seen their ancestors in the afterlife, but constructions, such as the Caracol at each of twenty days, with a transitional we have been taking steps to prepare Chichén Itzá, are aligned with a variety of of five days) or Haab’. A k’atun of twenty years them for it long before written history. celestial events that mark calendrical dates. or 7,200 days, a baktun of 144,000 days, a There may or may not be a heaven, but These and many other examples indicate thirteen baktun Long Count, and a 52 year there are graves in which people seem periods before when our ancestors long cycle, the Round, based on a to have prepared their ancestors for the saw themselves in relationship with the comparison of the 260 ritual calendar with the next world. Not only these people, but cosmos, with its events that had happened Haab’. They had other counts of days as well. the goods they would need to live well and could be expected to happen again. The ancient Mayan long count began on the in the next life had spirits. So we buried Memory and expectation were connected. date for the most recent creation date, the pots, weapons, jewelry, and other items These cosmic events may have been equivalent of August 11, 3114 BCE in the with them. As it turned out, they could thought to be associated with events on Proleptic . take it with them. Earth, such as the appearance of certain Other religious also keep Another way to imagine came from plants, movements of herds, or the coming track of the passage of time. The calendars the ability to put together memories of rains. Cosmological observations used officially in China before 1911 were of what we had seen to see something and their association with local events primarily solarlunar cyclical calendars that new in our mind’s eye. An example developed into or often became part of ritual corresponded to astronomical and seasonal of this is the Löwenmensch figurine and religion. They were also useful in the events useful to farmers. There were also reign or Lion-Man, a carving discovered in recording of the passage of time. Religions years, Huang Li, associated with a number of Germany in 1939 (see Figure 1). We can the emperors. In the , it is remember seeing a lion and a man, but 5,122 years since Śrī K a returned to his never a creature that was both. Our eternal abode. In Buddhist calendars, the ability to imagine a synthesis created a Buddha attained parinibbānaṛṣṇ on or around new idea, a new option of what might 13 May 544 BCE. Yose ben Halafta, a Jewish be. No one had ever seen a lion-man, rabbi from the 2nd century CE calculated that but an artist from 35,000 to 40,000 years the creation began in Elul 25 of Year 1 (3761 ago could imagine and sculpt one from BCE). Maimonides, the twelfth-century mammoth ivory.4 At that time, no one Jewish philosopher and scientist, stated had ever seen a city or a computer, but that the beginning of creation was in eventually, imaginative people planned the Hebrew Year 0 (referred to as “Anno for and created them. Mundi 0” in Latin), and that the creation Memory and imagination opened of humans was in 1, which up what could be real for us. It gave corresponds to 3761 B.C.E.”5 The current us options about what we have been year (2020 CE) in the Jewish calendar is 5780. a part of over time, as well as how we A traditional date is the one used by could participate in what came before the publication date of this issue: 2020. – or what would come after us. What This date had referred to the number of we remember and how we reflect on years since Christ’s birth. St. Augustine memory opens up new futures for us. (A.D. 354-430), in his work The Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram libri duodecim) argued that the Earth was Religious Histories 6 We have many ways of how we go about 6,000 years old. James Ussher, about keeping track of our memories. a church leader in seventeenth century Ireland, roughly agreed with the date of Methods of keeping track of days and creation still used for the Jewish calendar other units such as months or years and by Augustine. Ussher’s reading of may have been developed as early as the Figure 1: The Lion Man An Ice-Age Masterpiece Biblical and other ancient texts led him

Journal of Big History, Volume IV, Number 2 Lowell Gustafson, SETI and Big History: Challenge and Extension 6 to establish the date of creation at “the Easter in different years within the annual of years for convenience, but drops the entrance of the night preceding the 23rd liturgical calendar. He was the first to religious starting point. of October... the year before Christ record that there was a date for an Easter Islam too begins its count of years 4004.”7 What mattered to Christians was 525 years after the birth of Christ, or in the from a key event in its history. The not so much the creation of the world, but , A.D., in the year of our Lord. calculates 1441 years the recreation in Christ. As was written in Some had previously stated that Christ since the emigration of Muhammad the Christian Bible’s epistle, 2 Corinthians had been born 5,500 years after the world from Mecca to Medina, known as 5:17, “. . . if anyone is in Christ, the new had been created, and then predicted the Hijra. For many centuries now, creation has come: The old has gone, the that Jesus would return in the year 6000.8 great numbers of people have placed new is here!” “The of the Incarnation . . . was soon themselves in time within these Beginning in the century after much used in Italy and, to some extent, a religious frameworks that stretch back Christ, some bishops in the Eastern Roman little later in Spain; during the eighth and millennia. empire began counting years since the ninth centuries it was adopted in England. birth of Jesus. However, various scholars Charlemagne is said to have been the first used different calendars to place Jesus’ Christian ruler to employ it officially. It Political, National, and Social birth in slightly different years. The issue was not until the tenth century that it was Histories had not yet been settled even by three employed in the papal chancery.”9 This Political and National Histories centuries later. Dionysius Exiguus, also dating system now generally refers to the It is not always easy to distinguish known as Dennis the Little, was a monk beginning of a secular (C.E.), between politics and religion, since they originally from modern day Romania and or Before the Common Era (BCE) in place have often been so intertwined. Political Bulgaria who later worked in Rome. His of one counting years Before Christ or in leaders have often claimed some sort of primary concern was locating the dates of the Year of Our Lord. It keeps the numbers religious status. Still, we can see how

Figure 2. A New Chart of History. English: A color version of Joseph Priestly’s A New Chart of History. “To Benjamin Franklin LLD. FRS. This Chart In Testimony of Esteem & Friendship. Inscribed By his most obliged Humble Serv. Joseph Priestley. 1769.”

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the count of years in calendars has Bible. But his chart did not mention the record of time with Jesus’ birth or frequently been politically defined. It Genesis, King David, or Djoser. His ancient Israel. The count of years would might begin with the coming to power new account of history was global as begin with the momentous recent of a leader or a dynasty, or in terms of well as national; it included many if not events in . People disagreed if national political histories. most of world great nations and some the count of years should begin with the During the Roman Republic, years regions, such as those of Scandinavia, Great Revolution of July 14, 1789, but too were dated by consulships. Dennis Poland, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, those who favored beginning the count the Little wanted to change the common France, Italy, Turkey in Europe, Turkey of years with that of the Republic on system of his time of counting years in Asia, Germany, Persia, India, China, September 22, 1792 won the argument. since the founding of Rome or since the Africa and America. was considered more coming to power of Diocletian, the Era The Republican Calendar (figure rational, so each day was to have ten of the Martyrs. 3) sought to place the new regime in , each with 100 and each In European history, God’s France after the French Revolution one hundred . The sovereignty gave way to dynastic of 1789 within a newly devised time limits to rationality and the respect for sovereignty after the Peace of frame that was rational and freed from classical tradition left the number of Westphalia in 1648. Under the medieval superstition. It did not begin years to use Roman numerals, such as principle of Cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion), loyal subjects accepted either Catholicism or the branch of Protestantism that their sovereign monarch held. Being a loyal subject of King Henry the VIIIth meant being a member of the Church of England that he headed. Especially with the French Enlightenment and Revolution, dynastic sovereignty gave way to national or popular sovereignty. Citizens of the nation were the people who held political sovereignty. The histories of nations more than dynasties or religions became what mattered. How and when did a nation originate and then develop? One example of this is Joseph Priestley, an eighteenth-century English Separatist theologian, natural philosopher, chemist, and liberal political theorist. He has been credited with the discovery of oxygen, among other scientific accomplishments. In 1769, he dedicated his “New Chart of History” (see figure 2 previous page) to his friend and fellow politically active scientist, Benjamin Franklin. He did not begin with the creation of the world, a religious starting point, or the coming to power of a monarch. Instead of those types of beginning points for time frames, he began his history with the ancient nations of Israel and Egypt. To be sure, these were national starting points that happened to correspond to the inherited sense of time from the Figure 3. Calendrier républicain...: an III: [estampe] / P.L. Debucourt del. et sculp. 1794,

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An (Year) I or VI or X. The Republican Christ that seemed to engage many as When the American Historical calendar was used in France for 12 years much as the Manifest of the Association (AHA) was founded in from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by Republic in a New Land. The classical 1884, history had only recently emerged the Paris Commune in 1871. civil religion of America is where Walter as a distinct academic discipline. “The The teaching of history in America A. McDougall begins his Tragedy of first few professors in the field of never led to a new calendar, but for U.S. Foreign Policy.11 The papacy had history had only been appointed at many, national history is the history its papal succession reaching back major universities in the 1870s.”12 The that mattered. The nation’s nearly to Jesus; the has its country had survived its Civil War and sacred documents from 1776 and 1787 constitutional dynasty begun with the last spike of the transcontinental were almost Biblical in importance. As George Washington. The current latest railroad had been driven in 1869. C. Bradley Thompson writes, Abraham occupant of the presidential succession The nation had achieved its Manifest Lincoln paraphrased Proverbs (25:11) is Donald Trump, the 45th holder of the Destiny of integrating territory from and “asserted that the Declaration’s office. Some Americans took pride in sea to shining sea. It was ready to tell liberty principle “was the word, ‘fitly the unbroken constitutional succession its story. In 1872, John Gast painted his spoken’ which has proved an ‘apple of of power reaching back to 1789. “American ,” showing a woman ’ to us.” The Constitution was the American political identity is bound with flowing blonde hair and billowing “picture of silver” that “framed” the up with being aware of the history of white robe flying like a goddess over Declaration.”10 It was not God’s creation the American national experience that settlers and developers who were of the world or the new creation in was a key purpose of public education. replacing wild animals and peoples.13

Figure 4. John Gast, American Progress, 1872.

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(Figure 4 previous page). The state Social Histories back even as far as ancient Sumer. By the was ready to sponsor public schools Over the past generation, the study time writing had developed in Sumer by in part to foster nationalism and good and teaching about nations have fallen 2700 BCE, there were different groups citizenship. American history was on on hard . As Jill Lepore observes, of people living on all continents and the curriculum, not the histories of all intellectuals “stopped studying the regions in the world except Antarctica. nations. Americans were not the only nation, believing that the nation-state Peoples were speaking different ones who celebrated their national was on the decline. The world had languages and had developed distinct histories.14 There are many histories grown global, tied together by intricate cultures; the now familiar physical of many nations whose purpose is to webs of trade and accelerating forms differences among peoples were visible. encourage national political identity. of transportation and communication. Civilizational, regional, national, Heroic figures, great battles, and epic The was cosmopolitan, they ethnic, and other differences were events form the origin stories of many insisted, not provincial. Why bother to already well developed. Beginning the nations – and the political identities of study the nation?”15 study of humans within this period of many citizens. Many historians began to move away time leaves out a very long prelude. Similarly, the American Political from political and national histories in Historians whose purpose is to foster Science Association was founded a favor of investigating , or a global political identity face the task few decades after the AHA, in 1903. the histories of race, gender, class, and of trying to build bridges among various The study of political science, like other categories of people at various pre-existing cultural identities. By history, was associated with being points within the last decades, centuries, starting the teaching of history within American and even participating in or millennia. Studies of African- the past few thousand years, the story American public life. Courses on the American, Afro-Latinx, women, people starts with well-established differences three branches of government were from LGBTQ communities, and others that have often led to conflicts. This eventually supplemented by work became much more common. To these approach begins with difference and on ethnic, class, and gender politics, were added thematic histories, such often with distrust and hostility. What along with many other sub-fields. as environmental histories. These political identity would be formed if Knowing about and understanding were often told as part of an effort to the starting points of political stories the events leading to – and the texts give voice to the heretofore voiceless are pushed back before the origins of of – the Declaration of Independence, or understudied groups. Still, most nations? If the political story Constitution, Gettysburg Address, the national, political and even social is shown to begin in Africa at least Letter from a Birmingham Jail, and histories were usually limited to the 200,000 years ago, then new human much else became part of being a good period of the written record of the identities may be a result of courses on American citizen. human past. Human Politics in addition to those on It was not only American political Everyone has a story, not just American, British, Chinese, and other history that has been a commonly important political leaders and great nations. taught course and an important part of nations. If they did not fit neatly into It may be that, welcomed or not, forming national identities. Courses a grand narrative, so much the better. national histories have made a come- on any number of other national, and Grand, all-encompassing narratives back in recent years. China, India, sometimes regional histories, have ended up just excluding marginalized the United States, Britain, and others been common: courses on British, groups and served the interests of the all seem to be keen on making their French, Russian, Chinese, African, groups domineering the creation of nations great again. Many have seen Latin American histories have been culture. a new tribalism in the global wave common in American universities and of populism of recent years in which elsewhere. If students left with little World History various social groups seek more else, they took away that it was nations Some historians sought a larger impermeable boundaries. But others that merited study. The time that each framework than the study of nations, challenged and sought to expand course used to begin a course varied regime types, or social groups. Just over on national, social, and even world significantly. The course normally a century after the formation of the histories. began some centuries ago. In some AHA, in 1982, some historians banded cases, such as with courses on ancient together in a World History Association Big History Roman or Chinese history, the course to tell a story of globalization. These William McNeill began his world might begin with events millennia ago. were histories of humanity at least since history text with the revolution in food the dawn of agricultural societies.16 production between 8500 and 7000 Historians comb filled with B.C..17 By doing so, he used sources primary documents, perhaps going other than archived . To discuss

Journal of Big History, Volume IV, Number 2 Lowell Gustafson, SETI and Big History: Challenge and Extension 10 his topic, he had to refer to artifacts 2010, the International Big History SETI and a Coming of Age Story and . This opened a flood Association was formed with the As striking as the view of the Earth gate for some historians who learned purpose of examining “the integrated from the moon was, many wondered from the natural how to go history of the Cosmos, Earth, Life, and if there were other habitable planets beyond written materials in archives Humanity, using the best available beyond our solar system. Mars had once to examine the past that came before empirical evidence and scholarly been thought to be a possible homeland writing. These historians began to place methods.” The bulletin of the IBHA, for intelligent life, but increasingly lent the written record of the human past Origins, as well as the organization’s itself to questions about its hosting within the natural record of the entire Journal of Big History, writings even microbial life. One of our best known past. In doing so, they entered and academic articles about these hopes is in the seas of one of Jupiter’s an intellectual world that geologists, topics.20 David Christian, who coined moons, Io. The search for exoplanets astronomers, astrophysicists, chemists, the Big History, published Origin (planets outside of our solar system), biologists, physical anthropologists, Story: A Big History of Everything in life anywhere in the universe beyond and others had been developing for 2018.21 It begins with the and that on Earth, and extra-terrestrial centuries. It was the natural scientists goes through the Anthropocene, or that intelligence all challenge and extend big rather than the traditional historians current period of Earth’s history during history. Big history is not big enough and others in the humanities and which humans have exerting the most for these fields. There are many planets social sciences who revolutionized our pronounced effect on the . other than Earth; as of 2019 over 4,000 understanding of our place in the past. Histories of nations from around have been detected just within our local The past did not begin with the Epic the world challenged the idea that a area of our own galaxy.23 The number of Gilgamesh in the Middle East some single religion’s idea is best to date of planets in the universe with over 100 4,000 years ago, the writings of the all events. World history challenged billion galaxies must be phenomenal. Bible or the pre-Socratics. Scientists the predominant idea of dividing The interest in there possibly being learned how to read the stories told by humanity into national borders and many other planets has not been light, stones, bones, and blood. And social groups; it sought an integrated unique to our own time. German these stories were about times millions history of all of humanity since the Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested and billions of year ago. Humans were agricultural revolution. Big history in the fifteenth century that there are indeed formed from the same elements placed that into its own other planets around other than that are common on the surface of the past of some 200,000 to 300,000 years, our sun. He wrote that “The earth is Earth, but they were clearly not formed and then the many steps that had to be a like other stars, is not the centre directly from a clump of clay. The first taken over 13.82 in order to of the universe, is not at rest, nor are single cell organisms were formed from get to Earth, life, and humanity. its poles fixed. The celestial bodies the elements and chemicals found The new view of who we are, where are not strictly spherical, nor are their on the Earth’s crust. The carbon, we come from, and what we are a part orbits circular.”24 The sixteenth century , amino acids, and proteins of was reinforced by the Italian Dominican friar, Giordano themselves had had long histories. As photo taken on December 24, 1968, by Bruno, argued that stars were distant so eloquently and famously astronaut . It surrounded by their own planets, observed, we are all made of star stuff. is the photo that Fred Spier used for the as well as that the universe is infinite And then as and others cover of his book on Big History and the and could have no center. (Figure 5, argued, the star stuff was concentrated Future of Humanity. He has reflected next page) by Earth.18 And then it took billions on that photo ever since.22 Seeing Earth In 1685, the French author Bernard of years of evolution between the first from the vantage point of the moon le Bovier de Fontenelle published single cell organisms and humans. changed who we are. The beautiful Conversations on the Plurality of , David Christian, blue, white, and green Earth shown like Worlds. He wrote it not in Latin, which Fred Spier and many others published a jewel in very black, foreboding space. was common for scholars of the time, evidence-based accounts of the periods There was no Planet B that we could but in French since his purpose was to of time reaching from the big bang escape to with our technology then or make the ideas accessible to popular 13.82 billion years ago, to those of stars now if we manage to make our Earth culture.25 and galaxies, chemicals, terrestrial uninhabitable. For many, old ideas of A major difference between these planets like Earth, life, evolution, national security paled in comparison early writings and SETI is the great and human culture. History did not to global homeland security. scientific and technological advances begin with nations, or made in recent times that permit us to even ; it began with the look for physical evidence of exoplanets beginning of time and space.19 In rather than just speculate about

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at some point Coming of Age Story Even though we have not found fi = the fraction of planets with life that actually go on to develop intelligent examples of the simple or intelligent life (civilizations) life beyond Earth, the search is influential. For many centuries, we fc = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable thought that our Earth was the center signs of their existence into space of the universe. We thought we were L = the length of time for which such the only life forms in the cosmos. Even civilizations release detectable just a century ago, well after we learned signals into space that we orbited around the sun, most assumed that we were in the universe’s On Earth alone, there is almost an only galaxy. It was not until Edwin infinite variety of life forms in addition Hubble and others proved that there to humans. Would it be surprising if on were an enormous number of other the almost limitless number of planets galaxies that we realized that there within the universe there are many were not just a few clouds or nebulae other life forms, including intelligent circling the . Before 1995, we ones? Big history’s interest in the had no evidence of planets outside our cosmos is fine; its emphases on Earth, solar system. Now we know there are life on Earth, and humanity are just too thousands just within a few thousand Figure 5: Location in Rome where on February myopic. We need to also think about light years of ours. We did not assume 17, 1600, Giordano Bruno was burned at the and search for exoplanets, astrobiology, that we are all that exists. We have gone stake for his heretical views. and exo-intelligence. looking for and found other planets. Photo by Lowell Gustafson. To many, it seemed very likely that We have gone looking for life beyond them. We can now use observation to with innumerable habitable planets, Earth and intelligent life beyond Earth establish that there are other habitable only a few of which we have discovered, – and we are still looking. planets, that is, those with liquid water there must be lots of extraterrestrial life Imagining and searching for that can host life as we can imagine it. forms.26 The great Italian-American extraterrestrial life and intelligence We have successfully found evidence physicist, Enrico Fermi, thought so represents the next level of complexity for exoplanets; we are still looking for too, but then, he asked, “So where is that big history had not before evidence of any other life, much less everybody?”27 emphasized. The story of big history was intelligent life, beyond Earth. How already about the increasing complexity likely it is that we will find evidence Detecting and Communication of relationships. History depended on for it is still an open question. In 1961, So far we have not yet detected the of earlier relationships Frank Drake wrote his famous equation extraterrestrial life or intelligence. being incorporated into new, more that suggested what we needed to know An even more ambitious hope is that complex ones with new properties. Big before we could calculate how many life perhaps we might communicate with history presented a narrative of up and forms beyond Earth existed. It was: extraterrestrial life or form some down quarks in relationship within sort of relationship with the other neutrons and protons through the N = R* · fp · ne · fl · fi · fc · L where beings.28 And more ambitious yet is mediation of the strong force. Protons N = the number of civilizations in our the idea of their visiting Earth or we and neutrons formed relationships galaxy with which communication traveling there.29 Given the enormous with electrons through the mediation might be possible (i.e. which are on difficulties of travel over such distances, of the electro-magnetic force. The our current past light cone); we certainly have no way now or in the dynamic equilibrium between gravity and near future of doing such. Other far and permitted stars to R = the average rate of star formation in more advanced civilizations may have form nuclei with greater numbers of figured it out, but there is no evidence protons than hydrogen and helium had ∗ our galaxy that has persuaded scientists of such previously achieved. These elements, fp = the fraction of those stars that have planets visits yet. We haven’t even detected once spewed into space by dying stars the far more likely radiation from or supernovae, connected within ne = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star civilizations beyond Earth. multi-element chemicals. With this that has planets process, plus neutron stars colliding with each other, heavier elements were fl = the fraction of planets that could support life that actually develop life available to form terrestrial planets.

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Some like Earth had multiple levels, Popular Culture extensive.34 We seemingly cannot get with a metallic core, magma, a seafloor, Many people have not waited for mere enough of the fear, marvel, excitement, continental plates, and much more. evidence of extra-terrestrial life and and wonder from the thought of what evolved into bio-chemistry intelligence to imagine what it might be life forms on other planets might mean that evolved into the most complex sets and how it would affect us. Life forms for us. of relationships to date within viruses and highly developed civilizations on While these are often marvelously and single cell prokaryote cells. These other planets have caught our attention entertaining, they also often permit us eventually became even more complex in a host of fictional sources, including to reflect on what discovery of extra- with new organelles and a nucleus novels, movies, comic books, television terrestrial life would mean for us. Will in eukaryote cells. Multicellular life series, and songs. we bicycle with E.T. across the sky or fight forms exploded into an almost infinite Percival Lowell popularized the Darth Vader in high-tech inter-galactic number of life forms in the Cambrian idea about intelligent life on Mars in battles? In the 2016 documentary period. A devastating meteor may have his three books: Mars (1895), Mars Stephen Hawking’s Favorite Places, caused the extinction of non-avian and Its Canals (1906), and Mars As the famous astrophysicist warned us , and given space the Abode of Life (1908).31 Within two that “Meeting an advanced to evolve eventually into homo sapiens. years of Lowell’s 1895 book, H. G. Wells could be like Native Americans Relationships among individuals of published his novel The War of the encountering Columbus. That didn’t our own kind went from nomadic Worlds. In 1938, Orson Welles adapted turn out so well.”35 Will the extra- kinship groups, to settled agricultural and had the story performed on radio, terrestrial life forms we discover just villages, to city states, nations, empires, causing widespread panic in the United be microbes? Will they offer us new and fragile global institutions. Now, States.32 medicines or pandemic diseases? How with authors like H. G. Wells and Sightings of UFOs were more do we imagine our relationship with SETI scientists, we could imagine a common in the 1950s,33 but we still them? There are serious reasons why next level of inter-planetary, inter- regularly get reports of them, with we are fascinated by yet undiscovered galactic relationships. The idea was as some suspicion that our government is extraterrestrial life. preposterous as the idea of a prokaryote suppressing knowledge about them for cell would have been to the earliest fear of the panic it would cause. A Story of Endings carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. In 1966, the Byrds sang in “Mr. Coming of age comes not only There is an ironic effect in how we Spaceman” about: from a relationship, even if it is only understand ourselves, life, and Earth speculative, with other planets’ life as soon as we start to think about other . . . those strangers that come forms. It also comes from a sense of planets and lifeforms and intelligent every night mortality. Even if we do answer Fermi’s beings. Even if we do not find extra- Those saucer shaped lights paradox and find evidence of other terrestrial life, the search matures put people uptight intelligent life forms through detecting us. We think about the origins of Leave blue green footprints some sort of radio signals, our new other planets, other life forms, other that glow in the dark found life forms are likely to be a great intelligent beings, and we do not I hope they get home alright. distance from us. We have only looked exclusively think about our own origins. within 5,000 light years for habitable This process is not an origin story for us; The Star Trek television series planets. Just our own galaxy is 100,000 it is a coming of age story. An individual ran from 1966 - 69, and has retained light years across. We have barely begun person might be said to come of age devoted fans ever since. George Lucas’ to explore our own galaxy, much less the with the realization that other persons phenomenally successful series of other hundred billion. If we get a signal exist independently and have their own movies, Star Wars, began in 1977. from only a thousand light years away, ideas, emotions, and interests. Some In 1982, we saw Steven Spielberg’s it will take 2,000 years at best before we experienced that maturation from a magnificent movie, E.T. the Extra- would get our reply to them and then keen interest in the evolution of other Terrestrial. In 1997, Jodie Foster starred their reply to us. That is a hardly the rate species here on Earth. The line from in Contact, based on Carl Saga’s book of communication on which to build a life runs not only to humanity, as in by that name. No less enchanting was meaningful relationship. Any of us who the IBHA purpose statement, but to an James Cameron’s 2009 Avatar. Sandra heard their first signal and then send a almost infinite number of other species Bullock and George Clooney ran into reply will most certainly be long dead on and perhaps beyond Earth.30 serious trouble in space in the 2013 by the time they respond. Even more film, Gravity. Matt Damon starred in bothersome, will their civilization still The Martian in 2015. The list of popular exist when we do finally get our reply accounts of extra-terrestrial life is to them? Maybe they too are ravishing

Journal of Big History, Volume IV, Number 2 13 Lowell Gustafson, SETI and Big History: Challenge and Extension their own environment or blowing each kept sounding more upbeat. Perhaps Carroll, Brian Greene and other serious other up. Will ours exist when we get many of us who were rather long in astrophysicists do not end with gloom their response? After just a handful of the tooth were also like some teenagers and doom about our universe’s fate. episodes in our dialogue with our new who can be daredevils because they friends, it is more likely than we might seem to think they are immortal. If we Conclusions want to admit that our species will be end our story with the Anthropocene, SETI challenges and expands on gone. it almost suggests that this is a period big history’s purpose of examining Admittedly, big history too has long that will go on forever. It won’t. Homo the planet Earth, life on Earth, and been not only about origins; it has also sapiens have existed a mere two to three humanity. It reminds us that a myriad been about endings. We listened to hundred thousand years. How long of other life forms exist on Earth and the astronomers and astrophysicists we will survive is anybody’s guess, but that even more may exist on other who talked about our sun becoming is highly unlikely that we will be here planets. Homo sapiens – “wisemen” – a Red Giant within five billion years, until the Red Giant of our sun makes may be only one among many types of expanding until it evaporates Earth’s life on Earth impossible. The hopes intelligent beings, each with their own oceans and fries any creature still that after we complete the destruction long and complex histories. In a way, hanging onto life. The coup de grace of our home planet we can migrate to we have recovered our position at the comes from dark energy which is some other is an idea that some have center of the universe that we held in pulling the galaxies in our universe entertained. It is the stuff of science the Ptolemaic worldview. It is just now apart. Many keep vanishing beyond an fiction for now. Discussing how that all of the other planets and galaxies event horizon, never to be seen again humanity, life, Earth, and exoplanets in our universe also began at the same by us. Given enough time, most of the will end is nobody’s idea of a good time, point, and that from their viewpoint, galaxies in our universe will have sped but that is part of our Coming of Age everything else is expanding out from out of our view, leaving us with a mostly Story. their location. Every place in the black sky. And then, our own local More cheery views are of a multiverse universe is the center of the universe. galaxies and even matter might come with perhaps an infinite number of Every place – and every life form – has apart. Chinua Achebe was even more yet undiscovered beyond its own history that stretches back to right than he knew; things do indeed ours. Maybe our universe, like others the beginning of time. The Big Bang fall apart.36 Or things get ripped apart. no doubt, in a way give birth to other leads in steps to us and everything else. In the long run, everything. In this view, universes. Maybe ours has already The study of Earth, Life, and Humanity the Big Rip follows the Big Bang. It is dripped off new universes which needs to be a part of the study of not only we as persons and as a species never bother to get back in touch. exoplanets, astrobiology, all possible that will end, it is our solar system and Maybe ours won’t rip apart, but will life, and all ways of being intelligent. our entire universe – perhaps. over a trillion years bounce back in an The effort may help us discover and love We knew this possibility, but Origins eternal cycle. Paul Steinhardt, Sean our neighbor.

Endnotes December 15, 2015, https://www. https://www.theatlantic.com/ 1 Sarah Abbott, “Plant Memory,” nationalgeographic.com/science/ science/archive/2019/06/ Untamed Science, https:// phenomena/2015/12/15/can-a- surprising-complexity-- untamedscience.com/biology/ -remember-this-one-seems- memories/589420/, last accessed plants/plant-memory/, last to-heres-the-evidence/; Sarah December 17, 2019; Panoz-Brown accessed December 18, 2019; Laskow, “The Hidden Memories of et al., 2018, “Replay of Episodic Gagliano M et al. 2014. Experience Plants, Atlas Obscura, September Memories in the Rat,” Current teaches plants to learn faster and 5, 2017, https://www.atlasobscura. 28, 1628–1634, https:// forget slower in environments where com/articles/plant-memory- doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.006, it matters. Oecologia, published hidden-vernalization, last accessed, last accessed December 17, 2019; online January 05, 2014; doi: December 18, 2019. Christine Dell-Amore, Dolphins have the longest memories in the 10.1007/s00442-013-2873-7; Robert 2 Frans de Waal, “The Surprising Krulwich, “Can a Plant Remember? animal kingdom, August 6, 2013, Complexity of Animal Memories” National Geographic, https:// This One Seems to – Here’s the , June 2, 2019, Evidence,” National Geographic, www.nationalgeographic.com/

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news/2013/8/130806-dolphins- gov/resource/rbctos.2017gen52659. of Nationalism in an Age of memories-animals-science- Globalization (East Lansing, longest/, last accessed December 17, 8 Declercq, Georges: Anno Domini. Michigan: Michigan State University 2019. The Origins of the Christian Era. Press, 2017); Derek Hastings, Turnhout Belgium. 2000. Nationalism in Modern Europe: 3 Klaus Zuberbühler, Predator- Politics, Identity and Belonging since Specific Alarm Calls in Campbell’s 9 Lersch, Chronologie, Freiburg, 1899, p. 233, cited in “Dionysius the French Revolution (London; New Monkeys, Cercopithecus York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017); campbelli, Behavioral Ecology Exiguus,” the Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/ Guntram Henrik Herb and David and Sociobiology, Vol. 50, No. 5 H. Kaplan, eds. Scaling Identities: (Oct., 2001), pp. 414-422, https:// cathen/05010b.htm, last accessed on December 13, 2019. Nationalism and Territoriality www.jstor.org/stable/4601985, last (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & accessed December 16, 2019. 10 Thompson, C. Bradley. America’s Littlefield, 2018); John Hutchinson, 4 The Lion Man: an Ice Age Revolutionary Mind (p. xi). New Nationalism and War (New York: masterpiece, The British Museum, York, Encounter Books, 2019. Oxford University Press, 2017); Fawcett Kohl, eds. Nationalism, https://blog.britishmuseum. 11 McDougall, Walter A.. The Tragedy org/the-lion-man-an-ice-age- Politics and the Practice of of U.S. Foreign Policy: How America’s Archaeology (Cambridge University masterpiece/, last accessed Civil Religion Betrayed the National December 16, 2019. Press, 1996); Ronald Grigor Suny, Interest. New Haven, Yale University “Constructing Primordialism: Old 5 David B. Green, This Day in Jewish Press, 2016, p. 25. Histories for New Nations,” The History 3761 BCE: The World Is 12 “Brief History of the AHA,” Journal of Modern History 73, no. 4 Created, According to the Hebrew American Historical Association, (December 2001): 862-896. Calendar and an Obscure Sage. accessed December 17, 2019, http:// 15 Jill Lpore, This America: The Case Basing himself on no source but www.historians.org/about-aha- the bible, Rabbi Yose ben Halafta, for the Nation, New York, Liveright and-membership/aha-history-and- Publishing Corporation, 2019, p.15. who lived in the 2nd century CE, sat archives/brief-history-of-the-aha. down and did the math. Haaretz, 16 A classic in this genre is William H. Oct 07, 2015, last accessed on 13 John Gast, American progress, McNeill, A World History, Oxford, December 10, 2019, https://www. Library of Congress Prints and Oxford University Press, 1979. haaretz.com/jewish/3761-bce-the- Photographs Division Washington, world-is-created-1.5405777. D.C. 20540 USA http://hdl.loc. 17 William H. McNeill, A World gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, ppmsca History, Oxford, Oxford University 6 Taylor, J.H., translation and 09855 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ Press, 1967. annotation of St Augustine, ppmsca.09855, Reproduction The Literal Meaning of Genesis Number: LC-DIG-ppmsca-09855 18 Olga García-Moreno, Luís Erick (Augustine, De Genesi ad Litteram), Library of Congress Prints and Aguirre-Palafox, Walter Álvarez, Vol. 1, Newman/Paulist Press, New Photographs Division Washington, William Hawley. “A Little Big York, 1982. Also see Augustine, The D.C. 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/ History of Iberian Gold,” Journal City of God, 12.10, ‘Of the falseness loc.pnp/pp.print. Last accessed of Big History, Volume 1, Issue 1, of the history which allots many December 17, 2019. 2017, https://doi.org/10.22339/jbh. thousand years to the world’s past’, v1i1.2243. in Schaff, P. (Ed.), NPNF1–02, ref 6, 14 Benedict Anderson, Imagined pp.232–233. Communities: Reflections on the 19 See, e.g. , Esther Origin and Spread of Nationalism Quaedackers, David Baker, The 7 Ussher, James. Annales Veteris (London: Verso,1991); Marc Ferro, Routledge Companion to Big History, Testamenti, a prima mundi origine The Use and Abuse of History: Or New York, Routledge, 2020; Brown, dedvcti: una cum rerum asiaticarum How the Past Is Taught to Children Cynthia Stokes. Big History: From et ægyptiacarum chronico, a (London: Routledge, 2003); Ernest the Big Bang to the Present. New temporis historici principio usque Gellner, Nations and Nationalism York: New Press: Distributed by W. ad Maccabaicorum initia producto. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, W. Norton, 2007; Carroll, Sean. The Londini, ex officina J. Flesher, & 1983); Stephen J. Hartnett, Lisa B. Big Picture: On the Origins of Life, prostant apud J. Crook & J. Baker, Keranen, and Donovan Conley, Meaning, and the Universe Itself. 1650. Pdf. https://www.loc.gov/ eds., Imagining China: Rhetorics New York: Dutton, 2017; Chaisson, item/21002221/. https://www.loc. Eric. : Seven

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York: Macmillan, 1973; Morrison, Publishing, New York, 2018. York, The Macmillan company, Philip., John Billingham, and John 1908, https://archive.org/details/ Wolfe. The Search for Extraterrestrial 27 Milan M. Cirkovic: The Great agg9438.0001.001.umich.edu/page/ Intelligence, SETI. [Washington, Silence: The Science and Philosophy n2, last accessed, December 20, D.C.]: National Aeronautics and of Fermi’s Paradox: Oxford 2019. Space Administration, Scientific and University Press, Great Clarendon Technical Information Office, 1977; Street, Oxford OX2 6DP, United 32 H. G. Wells, The War of the Worlds, Regis, Edward. Extraterrestrials: Kingdom, 2018; Davies, P. C. W. Last Updated: September 20, 2019, Science and Alien Intelligence. The Eerie Silence: Renewing Our Project Gutenberg, https://www. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New Search for Alien Intelligence. 1st gutenberg.org/files/36/36-h/36-h. York: Cambridge University Press, U.S. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin htm, the original 1938 broadcast 1985; Ross, Monte. The Search Harcourt, 2010; Webb, Stephen. If is available at various locations, for Extraterrestrials: Intercepting the Universe Is Teeming With Aliens including https://www.youtube. Alien Signals. Berlin ; New York : ... Where Is Everybody?: Seventy-five com/?v=9q7tN7MhQ4I, last Chichester, UK: Springer; published Solutions to the Fermi Paradox and accessed December 16, 2019. in association with Praxis, 2009; the Problem of Extraterrestrial Life. 2nd Ed. Springer, 2015. 33 E.g., Donald Keyhoe, Flying Saucers SETI: Search for Extra-terrestrial from Outer Space, New York, Henry Intelligence. Washington, D.C.: 28 Hippke, Michael. “Interstellar Holt 1953. Moffett Field, Calif.: Pasadena, Communication: The Colors Calif.: Washington, D.C.: of Optical SETI.” Journal of 34 See, e.g. Extraterrestrial life National Aeronautics and Space and in popular culture, https:// Administration; Ames Research 39, no. 6 (2018): 1-16; Vakoch, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category: Center, SETI Office; Jet Propulsion Douglas A. Communication With Extraterrestrial_life_in_popular_ Laboratory, California Institute of Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Albany: culture; List of films featuring Technology, SETI Office ; NASA State University of New York Press, extraterrestrials, https:// Headquarters, Office of Space 2011. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ Sciences and Applications, Life films_featuring_extraterrestrials; Sciences Division, 1990; Shuch, H. 29 Haswell, Carole A. Transiting Songs about extraterrestrial Paul. Searching for Extraterrestrial Exoplanets. Cambridge: Cambridge life, https://en.wikipedia. Intelligence: SETI Past, Present, and University Press, 2010. org/wiki/Category:Songs_ Future. Berlin; Heidelberg; New about_extraterrestrial_life; York: Chichester: Springer; Praxis 30 This point is made regarding species Books about extraterrestrial Publishing, 2011; Squeri, Lawrence. on Earth at https://opentreeoflife. life, https://en.wikipedia.org/ Waiting for Contact: The Search github.io/, as described by Mark wiki/Category:Books_about_ for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Fischetti, All 2.3 Million Species extraterrestrial_life, last accessed Gainesville, Florida: University Are Mapped into a Single Circle of December 20, 2019. Press of Florida, 2016; Traphagan, Life Lineages of all known species John. Extraterrestrial Intelligence on Earth are finally pieced together, 35 Michael Greshko, Stephen and Human Imagination: SETI At Scientific American, March 1, 2016, Hawking’s Most Provocative the Intersection of Science, Religion, https://www.scientificamerican. Moments, From Evil Aliens to Black and Culture. Cham: Springer, 2014; com/article/all-2-3-million-species- Hole Wagers: The famous physicist Vakoch, Douglas A., and Albert are-mapped-into-a-single-circle-of- was fond of making scientific bets A. Harrison. Civilizations Beyond life1/, last accessed April 16, 2020. and predictions, from the nature of black holes to the end of humanity. Earth: Extraterrestrial Life and 31 Percival Lowell, Mars, Boston, Society. New York: Berghahn Books, National Geographic, May 2, 2018. Houghton, Mifflin, 1896, https://www.nationalgeographic. 2011; Waldrop, M. Mitchell. “The https://archive.org/details/ Search for Alien Intelligence: SETI com/news/2018/03/stephen- marsbypercivallo00lowe/page/ hawking-controversial-- Is Dead ? Long Live SETI.” Nature n8; Mars and its canals, New 475, no. 7357 (2011): 442-444; Wall, black-holes-bets-science/#close, York, The Macmillan company; last accessed April 16, 2020. Michael. Out There: A Scientific London, Macmillan & co., ltd., Guide to Alien Life, Antimatter, 1906, https://archive.org/details/ 36 Achebe, Chinua. The African and Human Space Travel (For the marsanditscanal01lowegoog/page/ Trilogy. (London: Everyman’s Cosmically Curious). Grand Central n13; Mars as the Abode of Life, New Library, 2010) ISBN 9781841593272.

Journal of Big History, Volume IV, Number 2 17 Lowell Gustafson, SETI and Big History: Challenge and Extension

Edited with an introduction by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. Things Fall Apart, No Longer at Ease, and Arrow of God in one volume.

Journal of Big History, Volume IV, Number 2