A Case Study of Samburu County by Wangari Thiong'o

FOOD SECURITY THROUGH PERMACULTURE: A CASE STUDY

OF SAMBURU COUNTY

WANGARI THIONG’O

644870

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Humanities and Social Sciences in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of Master of Arts in International Relations (Integrated Studies)

UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY- AFRICA SPRING SEMESTER 2016

STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted to any other college, institution or university other than the United States International University- Africa in Nairobi for academic credit.

Signed: ______Date: ______

Wangari Thiong’o

This thesis has been presented for examination with my approval as the appointed supervisor.

Signed: ______Date: ______

Mr. Dan N. Odaba

Signed: ______Date: ______

Dr. Tom L. S. Onditi

Dean, School of Humanities and Social Sciences (SHSS)

Signed: ______Date: ______

Amb. Prof. Ruthie C. Rono, HSC

Deputy Vice Chancellor- Academic Affairs (DVCAA)

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Abstract

There is a serious threat posed to human survival by food insecurity, especially among vulnerable communities such as nomadic pastoralists. Food security remains a key developmental agenda, evidenced by its inclusion in the global sustainable development goals.

The second goal seeks to end hunger and achieve food security. Therefore there is need for viable solutions to the global hunger problem, particularly focusing on sustainable agricultural practices that will increase yields and also protect the environment. This paper will look into food insecurity among nomadic pastoralist communities in Kenya who live in arid areas and propose permaculture as a model of smart farming. The paper will then look into the implementation of the permaculture model in Samburu County of Kenya. There is limited literature on the application of permaculture in Kenya’s arid and semi-arid as a means to sustainable food security as well as additional income sources. This study looks into alternative methods of agriculture that are sustainable as well as environmentally friendly. It relies heavily on primary data collected from Samburu County residents. This will allow for sound conclusions on whether the permaculture model can be used to bring food security to the nomadic pastoralists of Samburu County.

Acknowledgement

To my supervisor, Mr. Dan N. Odaba, who guided me through this journey

The USIU fraternity, thank you for your guidance and support.

Sadhana Forest Kenya, you embraced me as one of own and allowed me to bank on your resources, Special mention goes to Bruce, Nicholas and Mark

Mr. Thiong’o Gatheru, as my other supervisor, for the invaluable academic guidance and moral support throughout this journey.

Mrs. Bilha Gatheru, for checking up on me and urging me on.

Shiru, Sylvia, Tusmo and Victoria, for keeping me on my toes so that we graduate together.

Table of Contents

STUDENT’S DECLARATION ii Abstract iv Acknowledgement v List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ix Definition of Terms x Chapter 1 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background Information ...... 1 1.1.1 Food Security ...... 2 1.1.2 Nomadic Pastoralism among the Samburu ...... 4 1.2 Problem Statement ...... 7 1.3 Objectives of the Study ...... 9 1.3.1 General Objective ...... 9 1.3.2 Specific Objectives ...... 9 1.4 Research Questions ...... 10 1.5 Significance of the Study...... 10 1.6 Organization of the Study ...... 10 Chapter 2 12 Literature Review 12 2.1 Introduction ...... 12 2.2 Samburu County ...... 13 2.2.1 Overview of Samburu County ...... 13 2.2.2 Geography and Climate ...... 13 2.2.3 Demography and Economic Activities ...... 15 2.3 Food Security ...... 17 2.3.1 Hunger, Food Insecurity and Malnutrition ...... 17 2.3.2 Climate Change and Food Insecurity ...... 18 2.3.3 Government Measures to Address Food Insecurity and Climate Change ...... 20 2.4 Climate Smart Agriculture ...... 23

2.4.1 Introduction ...... 23 2.4.2 Permaculture as a climate-smart farming model ...... 27 2.4.3 Case Study: Implementation of Sadhana Forest Kenya in Samburu County ...... 31 2.5 Conceptual Framework ...... 34 Chapter 3 36 Methodology 36 3.1 Introduction ...... 36 3.2 The Site of the Study and Units of Analysis ...... 36 3.3 Research Design ...... 37 3.4 Study Population and Sample Selection Procedures ...... 38 3.5 Data Collection Methods and Procedures ...... 39 3.6 Data Analysis Methods ...... 40 3.7 Limitations of the Study ...... 40 Chapter 4 41 Research Findings 41 4.1 Introduction ...... 41 4.2 An Overview of Farming Practices in Samburu County ...... 42 4.3 Data Collection and Analysis Process ...... 43 4.4 Results of the Study ...... 44 4.4.1 Demographic Data and Household Characteristics...... 44 4.4.2 Food Security ...... 45 4.4.3 Farm Characteristics ...... 47 4.4.3 Adoption of Good Farming Practices ...... 48 4.4.4 Sadhana Forest Kenya Interventions ...... 51 4.4.5 Benefits of Improved Methods and Support Needed for Adoption of Practices .... 53 4.5 Summary of Results ...... 54 Chapter 5 57 Recommendations and Conclusions 57 5.1 Introduction ...... 57 5.2 Recommendations ...... 58

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5.2.1 Water Conservation ...... 58 5.2.1 Fencing ...... 59 5.2.3 Access to Farming Inputs ...... 59 5.3.4 Management and Conservation of Rangelands ...... 61 5.3.5 Permaculture ...... 61 5.3 Conclusion ...... 62 References 63 Appendix 1: Location of Samburu County in Kenya 68 Appendix 2: Map of Samburu Sub-Counties 69 Appendix 3: Introduction Letter 70 Appendix 4: Questionnaire Cover Letter 71 Appendix 5: Questionnaire 72 Appendix 6: Focus Group Discussion and Interview Questions 75

Appendix 7: NACOSTI Permit 78

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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACTED – Agency for Technical and Co-operation Development

ASALs- Arid and Semi-Arid Lands

CSA – Climate Smart Agriculture

FAO – Food and Agricultural Organisation

FGD – Focus Group Discussions

GHG – Green House Gases

IFAD – International Fund for Agricultural Development

KNBS – Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

MDGs – Millennium Development Goals

NGO - Non-governmental Organisation

Permaculture – Permanent Agriculture

SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals

SFK – Sadhana Forest Kenya

UN – The United Nations

UNEP – United Nations Environmental Programme

WHO – World Health Organisation

Definition of Terms

Agroforestry is a land management system that optimizes the benefits from the biological interactions created when trees and/or shrubs are deliberately combined with crops and/or livestock.

Aquaculture refers to the breeding, rearing and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of water environment

Climate Smart Agriculture refers to agricultural practices that sustainably increase productivity and system resilience while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Food security refers to availability and adequate access at all times to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.

Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism where livestock are moved from one place to another, following an irregular pattern of movement, to find fresh pasture for grazing.

Pastoralism is a subsistence farming pattern through which people make their livelihoods by tending large herds of animals.

Permaculture is the development of agricultural ecosystems intended to be sustainable and self-sufficient by modelling them on naturally occurring ecosystems.

Transhumance is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed pastures. In most cases, nomadic pastoralism and transhumance are used interchangeably even though they are different.

Chapter 1

Introduction

1. Background Information

Food security is a global concern. According to the UN, globally, one in nine people in the world today are undernourished (United nations, 2015). This means they lack access to sufficient quantities of nutritious, well balanced meals. In addition to this, the majority of the people who suffer from hunger live in developing nations. As such, hunger permeates to other areas of development.

Food security is a complex sustainable development issue, linked to health through malnutrition and reduced immunity increasing proclivity to disease (World Health

Organisation, 2015). More so, the problem of hunger and food insecurity threatens efforts towards sustainable economic development, environmental preservation and trade. Therefore, it is crucial for the world to find sustainable ways to secure adequate, nutritious food for its peoples. This means looking into agricultural practices across the globe.

Agriculture as a sector remains the world’s largest source of employment. It is the largest source of income and jobs for poor rural households, providing livelihoods for 40 per cent of today’s global population (United nations, 2015). Most of this farming is carried out on small farms that are heavily dependent on rain cycles. These farms provide almost 80 per cent of the food consumed in most of the developing and developed world. Therefore, it is vital to invest in smallholder farmers as a way to increase food security and secure nutrition for the world’s most vulnerable populations, as well as increased food production for local and global markets.

Some of the most vulnerable populations are nomadic pastoralists. Nomadic pastoralists make their livelihoods through subsistence farming of large herds of animals. The livestock and the

herders move from place to place to find fresh pasture and water, in an irregular pattern. Across the world, nomadic pastoralists inhabit the less fertile areas of the earth. These areas are also prone to harsh climatic conditions that make settled agriculture difficult. Therefore, the risk of food insecurity among these populations is increased greatly as a result of the environment they live in.

One of the nomadic pastoralist communities in Kenya is the Samburu. They predominantly inhabit the North Rift area of the country. This area is classified as an ASAL area by the government. It experiences little and intermittent rainfall and the soils are infertile. This makes the area prone to drought and famine as smallholder agriculture is difficult. Therefore, the

Samburu have to trade animals or animals for food, often for an exorbitant price. There is therefore need for the Samburu to find and implement a sustainable agricultural model that complements traditional nomadic pastoralism.

Permaculture provides a suitable model for sustainable agriculture that diversifies food sources, increases yield and still protects the environment. Permaculture is based on a philosophy of working with nature, after protracted and thoughtful observation, and looking at plants and animals in all their functions and interactions (Mollison, 1979). It bases farms on naturally occurring ecosystems specific to a given climate and thereby making them self-sufficient.

Permaculture farms would complement nomadic pastoralism and go towards enhancing food security in Samburu County. More so, once it is successful, the model can be replicated across the county to raise overall food yield. This way, any excess produce can be marketed, generating income for the local communities. In the long run, this will lead to better livelihoods and increased focus on development activities for people in the region.

1.1.1 Food Security

The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines food security as existing when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life (World

Health Organisation, 2015). Food security encompasses both physical and economic aspects.

Physically, food must be nutritious to avert both malnutrition and dietary excess health problems like obesity. At the same time, people need economic resources to afford a nutritious diet. Food security is built on three pillars:

1. Food availability which refers to having sufficient quantities of food available steadily.

2. Food access whereby people have sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a

nutritious diet.

3. Food use where there is appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care,

as well as adequate water and sanitation.

Therefore, food security represents a key developmental area that influences other key areas such as health, agriculture, the environment and economic growth

At the end of the MDGs in 2015, the UN published its annual State of Food Insecurity Report.

The report gives progress relating to MDG one which was “to eliminate extreme poverty and hunger by aiming to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger” (The United Nations, 2015). A key indicator for hunger was the pervasiveness of malnourishment in a country’s population. According to the report, 72 out of 179 developing countries halved hunger defined that way. However, with an increase in global population, absolute hunger decreased only from 1010 million to 795 million today (Renz, 2015).

Food production has risen substantially to cater for the growing demand and consumption. This is attributable to increased automation of the agricultural process, irrigation to supplement changing rainfall cycles and the use of fertilizers. However, there has been little regard for the amplified energy inefficiency associated with the use of these methods. More so, the

environmental impact of increased agricultural activities has been overlooked in order to maintain focus on food security. Current projections of required increases in yield often fail to account for the losses in yield and land area due to environmental degradation. Therefore, food production and yield has gone up at the expense of the environment.

Food prices have steadily risen since the mid-2000s. In 2007, the FAO food price index rose by 23 per cent from the previous year. The surge in prices is attributable to factors such as weather related production shortfalls, reduction in stock levels, increased costs to produce and the emergence of the biofuels market as an alternative use of food. This increase in food prices has exacerbated the situation for many countries already in need of emergency interventions and food assistance (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 2008).

Narrowing down within countries, in the short term, the worst hit households by increased food prices are the poor urban and rural ones. More so, among the poor, female headed households are the most vulnerable to shocks in food prices.

The cumulating effects of all these factors has exacerbated food insecurity, especially among the vulnerable communities in developing nations. Consequently, there is a need to re-evaluate and tailor traditional agricultural practices to meet these new challenges while still fighting hunger.

1.1.2 Nomadic Pastoralism among the Samburu

The Samburu people are a nomadic pastoralist community from Kenya. They are Nilotic speaking people with close ties to the Maasai. Traditionally, the Samburu are pastoralists whose life has been revolving around the wellbeing of their goats, sheep, cattle and camels (County

Government of Samburu, 2015). Initially, the Samburu economy was purely pastoral but with longer drought and famine, population growth and declining pastoral land, some have diversified to crop growing while others have abandoned agriculture altogether and are looking

for employment in cities within Kenya. They live north of the Equator in Samburu County which lies in the Kenyan Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs). This is a dryland area with little rainfall.

The Kenyan Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASALs) is a region prone to harsh weather conditions which render agro-pastoral communities in this area highly vulnerable to natural hazards, particularly droughts. The above factors have made transhumance as a way of life increasingly difficult. Additionally, herd sizes and animal qualities have declined as they are decimated by persistent drought. The incomes earned by the pastoralist families from sale of the animals and their products have also fallen thereby reducing money to purchase food to supplement their traditional diet. Thus, there has been growing food insecurity and malnutrition in the Samburu community.

Agro-pastoralist households in Samburu employ various coping strategies during times of drought, most of which relate to food consumption: reducing how much and often they eat; switching to lower-quality, cheaper cereals; turning to traders for credit; seeking gifts of food from friends or neighbours and relying on relatives, social support and humanitarian assistance

(ACTED Appraisal, Monitoring and Evaluation Unit, 2011). These mechanisms, however, are not sustainable and have significant long-term impacts on household nutrition and health. In turn, pastoralists in Samburu are increasingly relying on these negative coping mechanisms— particularly accessing food on credit—which contributes to a downward spiral of vulnerability and risk.

Pastoralists’ attitudes towards livestock and long-term strategies are also often inappropriate in the face of increasing climatic risks. For example, the respect for a livestock owner in Samburu is typically secured by the size of livestock herds, not the degree to which animals are healthy or their productivity rate; Samburu and other pastoralists are typically unwilling to sell animals

during times of good body condition and high market prices. This poor livestock herd management contributes to significant animal losses during drought (through distress sales and increased animal morbidity), owing to herd sizes that are too large to be maintained with diminished financial and environmental resources.

Additionally, cattle farming is one of the world’s most environmentally destructive activities: it devours resources, pollutes groundwater and is a climate killer (Heine, 2015). More so, meat and dairy production is very energy intensive and leaves a larger carbon footprint than other food production processes. Additionally, with the competing need to grow crops, conflict arises with regard to land use and management practices. The land is classified by the government of

Kenya as low potential rangeland, meaning that only a small portion of the land is suitable for agricultural production. Currently, only a small percentage of the agriculturally productive land is cultivated, growing wheat, barley, maize, beans, and green vegetables.

Perversely, as more land is put under cultivation in the highland areas of Samburu, vegetation cover has been reducing and soil is increasingly exposed to additional erosion agents. An increasing population has also led to increased demand for utilization of natural resources which provide a key source of income particularly for poorer families, such as timber, charcoal, and other fuel wood. Vulnerable pastoralists have also been led to over-exploit remaining pasture while at the same time traditional methods of livestock and rangeland management have been eroded with increasing sedentarization (Sadhana Forest Kenya, 2016). For example, the increase of both human and livestock populations and their concentration around ‘urban’ centres such as Kisima or Maralal where they have adopted a sedentary pattern of life has not been followed with appropriate measures of conservation.

Degradation of dryland areas is therefore closely linked with changing systems of livestock management, livelihood strategies, increasing poverty, and repeated cycles of drought that result in simultaneous over- and under-grazing of rangeland.

1. Problem Statement

The second of the seventeen goals of sustainable development purposes to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. This means that there is a need to evaluate the ways in which we grow, share and consume food globally. There is need for nutritious food that is grown through sustainable means that protect the environment, generate decent incomes and support people-centred development (The United

Nations, 2015). This works towards eliminating both hunger and poverty.

It is therefore important to look for new, innovative ways to combat food insecurity via sustainable agriculture that harnesses productive yet safe methods of food production and sharing. Additionally, food must also be nutritious. This is especially true for traditionally nomadic pastoralist communities that are facing increasingly longer periods of drought and famine.

Additionally, the thirteenth goal is to take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Climate change has affected all the continents of the globe. The impacts are now being felt in national economies and affecting lives, costing people, communities and countries dearly today and even more tomorrow (The United Nations, 2015). The impacts of climate change are being felt across the globe with phenomena such as extreme weather event and rising global temperatures being indicative of a proliferation of these impacts. The poorest and most vulnerable communities will be affected the most (The United Nations, 2015).

One of the most vulnerable groups of people are the nomadic pastoralists, mostly in Sub-Sharan

Africa. Nomadic pastoralism, also known as transhumance, relies heavily on predictable

rainfall patterns for the pasture and water for the animals. Additionally, these animals serve as both food and an asset base for nomadic families. With the double pronged problem of food insecurity coupled with malnutrition and climate change, the lives of nomadic pastoralists are under threat as their way of life is slowly ending. This has been evident among the Samburu in

Kenya’s Samburu County. The Samburu practice transhumance which has been threatened by prolonged and more frequent drought. Malnutrition and food insecurity is prevalent in the community. Consequently, the Samburu are unable to have decent livelihoods and an improved quality of life.

There is therefore need to urgently revaluate transhumance as a way of life for the Samburu people. This requires creating sustainable yet effective solutions that allow the pastoralists to create food security and generate decent incomes while at the same time promoting eco- friendly agricultural practices. This can be achieved through the practice of permaculture which utilises sustainable agro-forestry management and ecosystem transformation to enhance agricultural based livelihoods.

There is substantial literature on the use of permaculture to rehabilitate degraded land. Popular examples are the setting up of permaculture farms by Sadhana Forest in Haiti to aid in economic recovery following the catastrophic earthquake in 2010. Sadhana Forest is an NGO founded in

2003 whose aim is to partner with local communities and carry out the rehabilitation of severely degraded land. The model originated in Australia where it was utilised to recover degraded land from years of Aborigine use without proper reclamation and rehabilitation (Mollison,

1979). More so, the model has been used across Britain to transform agricultural practices into more environmental friendly means.

There is a wealth academic work on food security across diverse geographical areas of the world. Scholars have focused on causes, contributory factors and solutions to food insecurity

and hunger. Additionally, as the problem of food insecurity continues to pose a threat to human survival, there is a lot of literature on new ways of agriculture and overall improvement of farming. Gerd Muller asserts that innovation and knowledge management are the driving forces behind successful small scale agriculture especially in developing countries (Muller, 2014).

However, the literature on permaculture is heavily biased towards developed nations. There is strong emphasis on permaculture being utilised to reverse the negative impact of energy intensive agricultural practices. As such, permaculture is predominantly proposed as a model for mitigation of the effects of climate change and reversal of environmental degradation. Food security is seen as a secondary benefit.

There are abundant research avenues into the link between permaculture and food security, specifically in the dryland areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. Permaculture has been successful in other areas in the globe and as such, it can be examined as a solution to the persistent hunger, drought and famine problem in Eastern Africa.

2. Objectives of the Study

1. General Objective

The general objective of the study is to assess the impact of application of the permaculture farming model on food security in Samburu County.

2. Specific Objectives

1. To identify the extent of food insecurity and malnutrition in Samburu County.

2. To argue for the implementation of the permaculture model alongside traditional

nomadic pastoralism as a sustainable solution to food insecurity in Samburu County.

3. To evaluate whether the permaculture model can be replicated to other arid areas in the

region.

1. Research Questions

1. What is the extent of food insecurity and malnutrition in Samburu County?

2. Can the permaculture model be implemented alongside traditional nomadic pastoralism

as a sustainable solution to food insecurity in Samburu County?

3. How can the permaculture model be replicated to other arid areas in the region?

1. Significance of the Study

There is minimal academic work on how permaculture can be used to address food insecurity especially in ASAL areas. Most literature draws on the use of permaculture to combat adverse climatic effects of use of environmentally harmful agricultural practices. Permaculture has been used successfully in developed nations to improve overall crop and animal yields while utilizing environmentally friendly practices. It has been used to change the way agriculture is carried out. The model has been successfully implemented in various climate conditions, most of them humid and wet. The adaptation has however been less popular in dry and arid areas.

This study aims to add to the body of knowledge concerning the use of permaculture as a means for achieving food security for the vulnerable communities that live in ASAL areas. The discussion on permaculture and food security especially for developing nations is very limited.

This study therefore seeks to catalyse debate on the use of permaculture as a sustainable agriculture model especially in arid lands. It is also expected to initiate academic research into the opportunities and impact of permaculture in food security for drylands in developing nations.

2. Organization of the Study

This thesis comprises of five chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction to the key concepts under analysis. It gives a brief background into the areas of food security and permaculture. It will also give an outline of how the permaculture model is designed. Food insecurity and malnutrition will be quantified using statistical data. Focus will then be narrowed down to Samburu County in Kenya.

The second chapter will give an in-depth analysis of nomadic pastoralism in Samburu County, the impact of these practices on both the environment as well as on the persistent hunger problem and the efforts made towards developing sustainable agricultural practices and policies in pastoral communities. Material will be derived from existing research on the various areas.

The third chapter will outline the methodology used to interrogate the subject matter outlined in the previous chapters. Chapter four will be used to present the findings from research carried out in the field. Presentation of the data will be structured along the specific objectives and their respective research questions. The fifth chapter will give a summary of the findings and conclude by giving recommendations for future research.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Every living thing needs food for sustenance and survival. This makes food security is a global concern affecting the livelihoods of different communities across the globe. With a growing global population, increasing life expectancy and lower mortality rates, there is an urgent need for sustainable food sources for the people of the planet. This has led to a drastic change in agricultural practices. Most have become highly mechanized and automated. While this has seen increased yield, most of these practices are not sustainable and often have adverse effects on the environment they are carried out in. Permaculture represents a viable solution for the world’s persistent food insecurity. The model that is built around the natural ecosystems in a given region allows it to be replicated for sustainable food provision. This chapter will introduce and discus how permaculture can be used to address food insecurity, especially among the nomadic pastoralists of Samburu County.

The section will rely heavily on the work of Bill Mollison who authored books in how to design and implement self-sustaining farms in Australia. This model was later adopted in different parts of the world. Additionally, the section will look into the demographic and climatic characteristics of Samburu County to establish the viability of permaculture for the region. This will utilise a development report prepared by the County Government of Samburu. These documents will provide a base for the investigation into the applicability of permaculture in

Samburu County alongside pastoralism as a method of sustainable farming that creates food security. Some practical examples in other regions of Kenya will be discussed as a start to the implementation of eco-friendly, self-sustaining farms. Further examples of the use of integrated agriculture within Samburu County will be discussed. This will form the basis for the

discussions of the research findings. The chapter will conclude by giving a theoretical framework for the study.

2.2 Samburu County

2.2.1 Overview of Samburu County

Northern part of the Great Rift Valley in Kenya. It has an area of 21,022.1 square kilometres.

The county is divided into three sub counties namely: Samburu Central with Lorroki, Kirisia and Malasso Divisions; Samburu East with Wamba and Waso divisions; and Samburu North with Baragoi and Nyiro divisions.

2.2.2 Geography and Climate

Samburu County lies in the ASAL areas of Kenya and is bordered by Turkana to the Northwest,

Baringo to the Southwest, Marsabit to the Northeast, Isiolo to the East and Laikipia to the South

(Samburu County Government, 2013). In Kenya, the ASAL occupy 89% of the country and are home to about 36% of the population and 70% of the national livestock herd (Ministry of

Devolution and Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015). The defining feature of the

ASALs is the high temperatures throughout the year alongside low rainfall, ranging between

550 to 880 mm per annum, and very high rates of evapo-transpiration. As such, the primary

challenge is how to ensure food and nutrition security in a sustainable manner in environments that are prone to drought, where people’s access to and control over critical livelihood resources such as land is insecure, and where unpredictability is set to increase as climate change takes hold (Ministry of Devolution and Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015). Overall, these areas are prone to persistent drought which results in chronic food insecurity, degraded ecosystem and severe effects of climate change.

Samburu County has a diverse climate. The altitude ranges from 2040 metres above sea level to 600 metres above sea level. Additionally, rainfall varies across the county with the highest being an average of 880 millimetres per annum while the lowest is below 700 millimetres per annum (Samburu County Government, 2013). The higher areas are too cold for growing crops and are therefore used for rearing livestock. The lower areas are warmer allowing for cultivation of crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat and barley and for agroforestry.

The County experiences both short and long rains. The driest months are January and February.

The long rainy season falls in the months of March, April and May. A part from South Horr and Wamba areas, short rains occur during the months of July and August, sometimes extending into September. At Wamba and South Horr areas, the short rainy season is usually delayed and occurs in October and November and sometimes extends into December. This short rainy season succeeds a fairly dry spell during the month of June. Rain distribution varies across the county. The southwest plains and the Lorroki Plateau receive between 500 mm and

700 mm of rain annually. The Nyiro and Ndoto Mountains and Matthews range, however, receive the highest amount of rainfall between 750 mm and 1250 mm per annum. The central basin and the plains east of the Matthews Range are the driest parts of the county with annual rainfall of between 250 mm and 500mm. Temperatures in the County vary with altitude and mean temperatures generally range between 24 degrees Celsius and 33 degrees Celsius. The central plains and the region east of the Matthews Range have the highest temperatures while

the highland belts in the North Eastern side of Lorroki Plateau are cooler. The county has a mean temperature of 290C. The fast blowing winds, especially in the lowlands areas of the county like the Nyiro division, is a great resource especially if tapped for renewable power generation. The month of January experienced the highest temperature of 33 degrees Celsius and the month of July is the coldest month with 24 degree Celsius.

2.2.3 Demography and Economic Activities

An understanding of demographic characteristics is vital as it allows for development planning. Population features allow for estimation of the labour force, the degree of resource exploitation, allocation and utilisation, and the distribution of social amenities.

According to the 2009 KNBS Population and Housing Census, the population of Samburu

County was 223,947. Given a population growth rate of 4.45 percent per annum, as opposed to the national growth rate of 3 percent, the county population is expected to have risen to

255,931 persons in 2012 comprising of 128,004 females and 127, 927 males. The population is projected to increase to 292,484 in 2015 and 319,708 in 2017. These changes represent a

24.9 percent population rise between 2012 and 2017. There is therefore need to increase economic output within the county in order to ensure that the county has food security and can use excess produce to better the livelihoods of the people.

Overall, the county has a youthful population with over 80 percent of the population being below 35 years of age. As of 2009, an estimated 103,987 people in the county were in the labour force age category of fifteen to sixty four years. This is projected to have risen to

118,839 in 2012 and 148,453 in 2017 (Samburu County Government, 2013). This economically active population represent a 46.4 percent of the total population in the county resulting to a dependency ratio of 1:1.16. This, coupled with low literacy levels in the county, significantly contribute to high levels of unemployment. Approximately 27 percent of the population have the ability to read and write. Through adult education classes offered by the

department of adult education has seen this rate increase from 12 percent in 2008 to 27 percent in 2012 (Samburu County Government, 2013) .

Economic activity in the County is mainly agricultural. This is substituted by tourism that is supported by the rich wildlife found in the County (Samburu County Government, 2013).

The primary land use practices are pastoralism and wildlife conservation. These account for about 90 per cent of land use in the community. Additional activities include subsistence farming in move favourable climatic areas of the county. Gazetted forests occupy 15% of land area. These forests provide habitat and foliage for both wildlife and livestock.

The main crops grown within the county are maize, beans, wheat, barley and millet. There is a government funded irrigation scheme is underway at Tuum which is expected to boost food production in the area (Samburu County Government, 2013). Livestock farming is also key in the area. The main animals kept are indigenous cows, sheep, goats, camels and donkeys.

These are used for meat, milk and transportation. However, as a result of the increasingly harsh weather conditions in the region, this area is highly vulnerable to natural hazards, particularly droughts. Projected temperature increases by the end of the 21st century are expected to have a significant impact on water availability, with higher temperatures increasing drought periods as well as increased unpredictability of rainfall patterns (Herrero,

2010). This has made transhumance as a way of life increasingly difficult. Additionally, herd sizes and animal qualities have declined. The incomes earned by the pastoralist families from sale of the animals and their products have fallen thereby reducing money to purchase food to supplement their traditional diet. Thus, there has been growing food insecurity and malnutrition in the Samburu community.

Other economic and agricultural activities in the area include: agroforestry, quarrying, sand harvesting, fishing and tourism. More so, there are residents under formal employment such

as teachers, health workers, security officers and employees of NGOs with branches in the towns within the County.

2.3 Food Security

2.3.1 Hunger, Food Insecurity and Malnutrition

The world produces more food per head of population today than ever before in human history.

It produces nearly 500 kilogrammes per head of cereals and root crops, the primary sources of food (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 2015). Yet amid this abundance, about 793 million people – one in every nine – in the world still lack sufficient food for conducting and active and healthy life. They live in a state of undernourishment which is defined as a level of food intake insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements for more than a year (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 2015). As such, there are places where little to nothing grows and there are other places where a significant part of the population cannot afford to buy food.

Overall, the highest percentages of malnutrition recorded are in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.

Additionally, access to food also creates a threat to food security. An adequate supply of food does not in itself guarantee household level food security. Access to food is determined by incomes, food prices and the ability of households and individuals to obtain access to social support. Individuals’ access to food is also heavily influenced by social variables, including gender positioning and power hierarchies within households. In addition to economic affordability, physical access to food is also facilitated by adequate infrastructure, such as railway lines and paved roads. According to FAO, there has been a decline in food deficit across the globe from a lack of 100 - 200 calories per capita per day in 1990 to a lack of 150 –

50 calories per capita per day in 2015. This is attributable to better infrastructure, technological advancement and an increase in household incomes. However, a rapidly growing global

population and an ever increasing wealth divide between rich and poor communities has seen food insecurity persist over time.

According to FAO, in 2015 the prevalence of undernourishment in Kenya is at 21.2% of the total population. Additionally, the country has a cereal import dependency ratio of 36.4% of all its cereal needs. This is higher that global averages. The Samburu are among the most vulnerable communities in Kenya to hunger and malnutrition. Food insecurity is a constant threat for nomadic pastoralists who traditionally inhabit ASAL areas. As a result of their way of life, their diet primarily consists of dairy products such as meat and milk. Families, especially mothers and children are therefore prone to malnourishment. This stems from a lack of alternate sources of key nutrients necessary for good health. Additionally, with the decimation of herd sizes and quality by factors such as drought and shrinking rangelands, the pastoralist sources of income have also diminished. Therefore, the amount of money available to allow families to purchase food to supplement their diet has declined. Increased food prices have served to also put important sources of food out of reach for these vulnerable communities. Government and NGO intervention to provide assistance is often in times of extreme drought and is also limited because many people in diverse areas are in need of these scarce resources.

2.3.2 Climate Change and Food Insecurity

In recent years, recurrent droughts have become more severe and frequent and are progressively eroding livelihoods in pastoral, agro-pastoral and agricultural zones. The number of people receiving food aid as a proportion of the total affected by drought increased from 60 per cent in 2006 to 91 percent and 88 per cent in 2009 and 2010 respectively (Ministry of

Devolution and Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015) (Ministry of Devolution and

Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015). The Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) showed that 2008-2011 drought slowed GDP by an average of 2.8% per annum and cost Kenya

US$ 12.1bn (KES 969 billion). The frequency and severity of drought periods appear to be increasing. Northern Kenya recorded 28 major droughts in the last century, four of which occurred in the last decade. Other pressures, such as population growth and settlements, undermine the capacity of communities to manage drought.

Kenya’s average annual temperatures increased by 1 °C between 1960 and 2003 (UNEP,

2009)and by 1.5 °C in the nation’s drier regions in the same time period (Osumba & Rioux,

2014). Additionally, rainfall seasons and patterns have become more erratic and unpredictable.

Given that most of Kenya’s agricultural production is from small scale farmers who are heavily reliant on rainfall for farming, production levels have been affected significantly. Extreme weather and climate events have also become more common. Since agriculture in Kenya is largely dependent on regular climatic patterns, the sector is extremely vulnerable to floods, droughts and temperature changes. Such weather patterns, manifested through longer and more frequent dry periods interspersed with intense but shorter and unpredictable periods of rainfall, are likely to deplete water and pasture resources, leading to natural resource scarcity

(Government of Kenya, 2007). This has had severe implications especially for rural smallholder farmers who derive their livelihoods from farming. They are often subject to livestock losses, crop failures and related income and livelihood losses, without sufficient recovery times in between events.

Another key aspect of climate change is the degradation of land through damage to soils and vegetation. The degradation results from activities such as leaving pasture land devoid of plant cover after the pastures have been depleted, deforestation and sedentarization especially in developing towns. Soils are vital for growing both crops and pasture and it is important to replenish and protect them. According to UNEP, it is thought that some 10–20% of the world’s drylands suffer from one or more forms of land degradation. As of 2006, government statistics indicated that 20% of soil and vegetation cover in Samburu County was “severely damaged”

and in need of rehabilitation measures such as reforestation. Among dryland subtypes, ecosystems and populations of semi-arid areas like Samburu Central are the most vulnerable to loss of ecosystem services owing to high population density, while conversely the sensitivity of dryland ecosystems to human impacts that contribute to degradation increases with increasing aridity. Therefore, risk is more highly concentrated in semi-arid areas with high population density.

These threats are even more pronounced for nomadic pastoralists who traditionally inhabit dry areas. As a result of their way of life, their diet primarily consists of dairy products such as meat and milk. Families, especially mothers and children are therefore prone to malnourishment. This stems from a lack of alternate sources of key nutrients necessary for good health. Additionally, with the decimation of herd sizes and quality by factors such as drought and shrinking rangelands, the pastoralist sources of income have also diminished.

Therefore, the amount of money available to allow families to purchase food to supplement their diet has declined. Increased food prices have served to also put important sources of food out of reach for these vulnerable communities. Government and NGO intervention to provide assistance is often in times of extreme drought and is also limited because many people in diverse areas are in need of these scarce resources. This makes climate change one of the key causes of food insecurity through stress on the resilience of the ecosystem, its constituents and especially on agriculture. There is therefore need to address this two-pronged problem urgently through sustainable yet environmentally friendly agricultural practices.

2.3.3 Government Measures to Address Food Insecurity and Climate Change

The government has taken various measures to combat food insecurity in Kenya. This is especially after recurrent droughts in the East African region have made food insecurity a recurrent threats. The most commonly used short term solution is to provide relief food to the poor families in rural areas that are often the worst hit. However, this solution is often short

lived and insufficient. In most cases the government will partner with donors and aid agencies to supplement their efforts. However, other longer term initiatives have been pursued as a viable yet sustainable solution to food in security. These are often to address the different sectors that affect food insecurity. Some of these sectors are discussed below.

1. Agriculture sector

The government aims to develop and provide certified drought resistant seed varieties of hardy and nutritious crops such as maize, sorghum, millet and wheat. Additionally, there is establishment of water harvesting structures especially in arid areas that will be used to ensure that there is adequate water for increased crop production. There is a renewed drive for rehabilitation of irrigation schemes across the country. Additionally, there is increased bulking up of drought tolerant crops and increased capacity building on post-harvest management to reduce losses.

2. Livestock sector

Activities undertaken by the government under the livestock rearing sector include: constant surveillance for disease, provision of vaccinations and treatments for any sick animals. They also assist farmers in restocking of small stock such as sheep and goats and in camels. Livestock feed supplementation and pasture conservation are also part of government measures to curb herd decimation and aid in recovery.

3. Water Sector

The government has focused on rehabilitation of water sources as well as cleaning up any polluted sources. More so, there is increased focus on the use of water tankers to provide water to the very remote areas. Fuel subsidies are often provided to these tankers to reduce the costs of water supply.

4. Food and Nutrition Sector

The government carries out periodic nutrition and food availability surveys to ascertain the levels on food security and nutrition. There is the building resilience to future shocks through food-for-assets programs and cash-for-assets programs and general food distribution where the other two are not possible to implement. Government also seeks to provide food commodities and associated costs for all the people who are in need of food assistance, usually for a period of the coming six months

With regard to climate change, Kenya was among the first non-LDC countries in Africa to develop government plans for responses to climate change across key economic sectors

(Maina, Newsham, & Okoti, 2013). Specifically, the government in 2010 unveiled the National

Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS). This is the main document that outlines the need to identify the challenges that are created by climate change across various sectors of the economy and put down policy that will guide the responses to these challenges. However, the

NCCRS was not a policy document, but rather an outline of government strategy. Therefore in

2012, the government launched a National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) in order to operationalise the NCCRS.

Agriculture is a key part of the NCCRS, and the NCCAP given that the national economy is heavily dependent on agriculture. Eighty per cent of the Kenyan population lives in rural areas and is reliant on agriculture for their livelihoods, either directly or indirectly. The agricultural sector comprises twenty four per cent of Kenya’s GDP and nineteen per cent of the formal wage employment. Furthermore, it is estimated that sixty per cent of all households are engaged in farming activities. In this regard, the main agricultural policies pursued by stakeholders in the sector revolve around transforming Kenya’s agricultural sector into an innovative,

commercially oriented, competitive and modern industry for poverty reduction, improved food security and equity in rural and urban Kenya.

However, there is very little mention of climate change and how the policy will guide agricultural development in these documents. There is a lack of clear linkage between NCCRS and the agricultural sector. Agricultural sector goals revolve around increasing productivity and income growth, especially for smallholders; enhanced food security and equity, emphasis on irrigation to introduce stability in agricultural output, commercialisation and intensification of production especially among small scale farmers; appropriate and participatory policy formulation and environmental sustainability. Therefore, it is assumed that if the agricultural sector aligns its operations to the tenets of the NCCRS and now the NCCAP, then the agricultural sector will respond effectively to the challenges of climate change and climate variability. However, this is not always the case. There is therefore need for a need for robust policy to guide the agricultural sector concisely towards climate smart practices that complement the other policies being pursued. This means actively pursuing climate smart agriculture as the means to transform the agricultural sector to allow it to adapt to and mitigate the effects and impacts of climate change.

2.4 Climate Smart Agriculture

2.4.1 Introduction

The world’s population is set to increase by one third by the year 2050. Majority of these additionally people will live in developing countries and in cities. If current income and consumption growth trends continue, FAO estimates that agricultural production will have to increase by 60 percent by 2050 to satisfy the expected demands for food and feed. Agriculture must therefore transform itself if it is to feed a growing global population and provide the basis for economic growth and poverty reduction (Food and agricultural Organisation of the United

Nations, 2013). Climate change is making this goal increasingly difficult as traditional agriculture is heavily dependent on predictable rainfall patterns and suitable temperatures. To circumvent the dependence on rainfall, farmers are moving towards the use of green housing to grow crops more efficiently. However, this alongside increased mechanisation, has resulted in an overall heavier carbon footprint from the agricultural sector.

Livestock farming, which is the primary means of livelihood for nomadic pastoralists, is a carbon intensive practice. The agricultural sector is the largest source (58.6%) of total GHG emissions in Kenya, and livestock related emissions account for the overwhelming majority

(96.2%) of those emissions (World Bank; CIAT;, 2015).. Agricultural emissions are projected to increase from 20 mega tonnes CO2 equivalent (Mt CO2 eq.) in 2010 to 27 Mt CO2 eq. in

2030, driven in large part by livestock methane emissions (Osumba & Rioux, 2014).

Additionally, livestock farming is partially responsible for the land degradation seen in arid areas. This means that soil in these areas has been stripped of nutrients and there have been little to no efforts to replace them. This results in chronically poor yields and productivity. As such, farmers are unwilling to invest and engage in agricultural production.

In countries where the economy is heavily based on agriculture, development of the agricultural sector is the most efficient poverty reduction measure. Yet agricultural expansion for food production and economic development which comes at the expense of soil, water, biodiversity or forests, conflicts with other global and national goals. There is therefore growing need for climate smart agriculture. This is agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience to climate change, reduces emissions, and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals (Kituyi, 2011).

Climate-smart agriculture occurs across different scales. At the international and global level, it could equate to setting rules for the global trade of biofuels and guidance on carbon emissions

from the practices. At a national scale, a government or its relevant agencies could work on providing a framework that incentivizes sustainable management practices. Locally, CSA may be may provide opportunities for higher production through improved management techniques such as more targeted use of fertilizers. Finally, for smallholder farmers in developing countries, the opportunities for greater food security, increased income, more secure livelihoods together with greater resilience will be essential to adopting climate-smart agriculture. Where agricultural operations are intensively mechanized, the opportunities to reduce emissions will be of greater interest. The table below gives a summary of climate-smart practices that are useful in smallholder agricultural production.

Table 1. Climate-smart practices useful in smallholder agricultural production

Crop Livestock Soil and water Agroforestry Integrated food management management management energy systems Intercropping Improved feeding Conservation Boundary trees Biogas with and production and strategies (e.g. cut agriculture (e.g. use Legumes ’n hedgerows minimum tillage) carry) Crop rotations Rotational grazing Contour planting Nitrogen-fixing Production of trees energy on farms plants New crop Fodder crops Terraces and bunds Multipurpose Improved stoves varieties trees (e.g. drought resistant) Improved Grassland Planting pits Improved storage and restoration fallow with processing and conservation fertilizer shrubs techniques

Greater crop Manure treatment Water storage (e.g. Woodlots diversity water pans) Improved livestock Alternate wetting and Fruit orchards health drying (rice) Animal husbandry Dams, pits, ridges improvements Improved irrigation (e.g. drip)

Table 1: Climate-smart practices useful in smallholder agricultural production. Reprinted from

Neufeldt H, Kristjanson P, Thorlakson T, Gassner A, Norton-Griffiths M, Place F, Langford

K, 2011. ICRAF Policy Brief 12: Making climate-smart agriculture work for the poor.

Nairobi, Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

These practices provide mitigation benefits such as: maintaining or improving soil

carbon stocks and soil organic matter content, reducing methane emissions, reduction

in the amount of inorganic fertilizers required, facilitating carbon sinks in soils,

reduction of nitrogen loss, provision of an alternative on-farm energy source,

improvement of foliar biomass and increased carbon sequestration. In addition, there is

a notable increase in productivity among the farmers. This is evidenced by: improved

yields, greater yield stability during dry seasons, increased yield per unit area of land,

reduced economic vulnerability through diversified production, increased plant and

animal product quality and overall increased incomes for families.

However, most of these practices are used in isolation or combination of one or two.

Uptake for most of these practices is especially slow in rural areas because of various

challenges, such as financial, infrastructural and skill and knowledge limitations. More

so, policies and legislation, especially in developing nations, are often weak and

unsystematic because agriculture is a vital industry and the priority is on increased yield as opposed to green initiatives.

The solution is to combine practices that deliver short-term benefits with those that give longer-term benefits can help reduce opportunity costs and provide greater incentives to invest in better agricultural management practices. One model that advocates for combination of these practices is the implementation of permaculture farms.

2.4.2 Permaculture as a climate-smart farming model

The term permaculture refers to permanent agriculture and permanent culture. It provides a philosophy and ethic for agricultural transformation. Permaculture is defines as: consciously designed landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision of local needs (Holmgren, 2012).’ Permaculture involves the design of sustainable agricultural systems and human habitats that are based on the patterns and relationships found in natural ecologies. The approach seeks to reduce reliance on industrial agricultural production methods which have systematically destroyed the earth’s environment. The alternative is a creation of a permanent self-sustaining farm as opposed to the seasonal production systems currently in practice. These systems include: seasonal tillage, planting, weeding and harvesting. Thus, the main aim of permaculture is to encourage people to redesign their environments into self-sustaining settlements that are self- regenerative and can solve their problems internally.

According to Mollison and Holmgren, permaculture is guided by three ethical, equal priorities. These are:

5. Care of the earth – all life on planet Earth is interdependent, and in developing

our farms, that we have regard to the living ecosystems that already live there

(including soil biota) as well as creating an agro-ecology to support ourselves

and other imported animals and plants, and that we do no harm and restore

damaged environments where we are the stewards of the land.

6. Care of the people – whilst the humans who live in a place need to develop and

maintain an ecosystem that supports them (as opposed to only caring for the

natural environment), we need to support and help each other in developing

ways of living that do not harm ourselves or the planet, and that we work

together to restore and develop a healthy society.

7. Return of the surplus to the system – limiting our own consumption of

resources, ensuring that we use Planet Earth’s resources in an equitable and wise

manner, that abundant production is shared, and that we use our land and

community resources to be self-sufficient, wherever possible.

These ethical principles provide restrictions to the human tendency to pursue survival as the sole goal. At the same time, they provide a guiding baseline for the establishment of farms.

In the practical application of permaculture, Mollison and Holmgren provide twelve guiding principles that provide the scientific foundations for the establishment of the systems. The principles provide insight into the various methods that can be utilised under the systems that are being implemented. They are discussed briefly below.

1) Observe and interact: By taking the time to engage with nature we can design solutions that suit our particular situation.

2) Catch and store energy: By developing systems that collect resources when they are abundant, we can use them in times of need.

3) Obtain a yield: Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the work that you are doing.

4) Apply self-regulation and accept feedback: We need to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that systems can continue to function well.

5) Use and value renewable resources and services: Make the best use of nature's abundance to reduce our consumptive behaviour and dependence on non-renewable resources.

6) Produce no waste: By valuing and making use of all the resources that are available to us, nothing goes to waste.

7) Design from patterns to details: By stepping back, we can observe patterns in nature and society. These can form the backbone of our designs, with the details filled in as we go.

8) Integrate rather than segregate: By putting the right things in the right place, relationships develop between those things and they work together to support each other.

9) Use small and slow solutions: Small and slow systems are easier to maintain than big ones, making better use of local resources and producing more sustainable outcomes.

10) Use and value diversity: Diversity reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats and takes advantage of the unique nature of the environment in which it resides.

11) Use edges and value the marginal: The interface between things is where the most interesting events take place. These are often the most valuable, diverse and productive elements in the system.

12) Creatively use and respond to change: We can have a positive impact on inevitable change by carefully observing, and then intervening at the right time.

In summary, permaculture design mimics natural systems by using all of our scientific and technological skills to design a system for a particular site that mixes different types of animals and plants, in multiple layers that support each other including human life

(Frederick, 2010).

Permaculture farms can be tailored to suit different types of landscapes. Some of the climate conditions that have been addressed include: humid areas, low and high islands, granitic landscapes and more recently, arid areas. For arid areas, the primary goal is to carry out a lot of water conservation. Water is vital for support of all the life forms in the ecosystem and the farm. Drip irrigation and mulching are used to sustain crops that are often a mix of those that require a lot of water as well as drought resistant varieties.

Animal farming, especially through nomadic pastoralism, is environmentally destructive.

However, it carries benefits that include such as improving soil quality, preserving biodiversity, keeping nutrient cycles intact and helping to maintain regional food security. These benefits can be harnessed and supplemented with sustainable crop farming, agroforestry and aquaculture. Under the project, farms that incorporate different methods will be set up. The various methods are interdependent which allows utilizing the benefits to mitigate the harmful effects. For instance, animal dropping provide manure and fish food while the crop residues from the harvest can be used to feed the animals. Allowing the animals to range graze will help to turn the soil and improve quality. The planting of trees will boost the water and air cycles that are essential for agriculture.

Environmental management is important in the reversal of climate change and environmental degradation. Agricultural practices are a good way to halt and reverse environmental degradation. Farming practices can be used to re-establish and improve water, nutrient and

air cycles, reclaim arid areas, accelerate soil creation, improve farming energy efficiency and

restock marine resources.

In Samburu, planting drought resistant crops and trees will help to reverse the impacts

of environmental degradation especially through the practice of pure transhumance.

Incorporating other forms of farming will also help reclaim areas at risk of

diversification, help in soil creation and prevention of erosion and improve water

management practices. More so, the exploration of green practices such as herd

thinning, agroforestry, use of manure as opposed to fertilisers and pursuit of alternative

renewable energy sources, are vital to creation of permanent farms.

For the Samburu, the establishment of these farms will result directly in increased

yields, for both animals and crops. This will translate to increased incomes and better

livelihoods. This will successfully address the multifaceted challenges that have

hindered food security in the area.

2.4.3 Case Study: Implementation of Sadhana Forest Kenya in Samburu County

Sadhana Forest was founded in 2003 with the aim of working with local communities in Southeast

India to rehabilitate a 70 acre piece of severely eroded, arid land. In 2007 after four years of intensive water conservation work, the underground water level had risen by 6 meters from an average of 26 feet deep to an average of 6 feet. By 2013, more than 30 kilometres of trenches had been dug and eight earth dams built, storing more than 50,000 cubic meters of rain water. In addition to this, over

31,000 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest plants of 170 different indigenous species have been planted.

The average survival rate has been between 80-90%.

Due to the immense success of Sadhana Forest India, Sadhana Forest Haiti was founded in 2010 in direct response to the devastating earthquake that impacted the country. The organization works in southeast Haiti to provide nutrition and food security to one of the poorest communities in Haiti, the town of Anse-a- Pitre. To date, the organization has planted more than 80,000 food producing trees

in thousands of households and public areas, and has trained over 7,000 local people in agro-forestry techniques.

In 2012, Sadhana Forest Kenya was established in the dry-lands of Samburu County, northern Kenya.

Following in the footsteps of Haiti, Sadhana Forest Kenya focuses on resiliency-building and food security among the agro-pastoralist communities of Samburu. The Samburu are increasingly marginalized from the development that reaches most other areas in Kenya, while at the same time, are most affected by climatic and non-climatic shocks. Specifically, the organization works to build the capacity of local villagers in conservation, resource management and dry-land tree planting techniques. It also facilitates households planting their own indigenous and food-producing trees for long-term food security and livelihood enhancement. In 2014 with funding from the UNDP under the

Global Environment Facility Small Grants Programme, Sadhana Forest Kenya established the

Community Agro-Forestry Learning Centre (CALC). The Centre is a public space for community members, partners and stakeholders to learn more about agroforestry, conservation, agriculture, environmental conservation and sustainable living methodologies. This is achieved through trainings and tours of demonstration areas and pilot plots. In the years since implementation began, Sadhana

Forest Kenya has worked with local staff and over 100 volunteers to train over 600 community members and students in dry-land tree planting and water conservation techniques and to plant over

400 trees in 200 households and a variety of public spaces, including churches and schools. In this time, the project has impacted close to 2,000 people.

The Community Agro-Forestry Learning Centre (CALC) is an 11 Hectares (27.4 acres) plot of land owned by Sadhana Forest Kenya. It is a fully fenced campus inside which the organization has drilled a bore well and established a 20,000 litre water storage capacity. Water is offered for free 24 hours a day to the local Samburu community. The project promotes sustainable use of resources through the use of renewable energy. A hybrid solar and wind energy system has been installed which powers all the needs of the compound including water pumping, computers and communication and lighting. In

addition it provides a free phone charging station to the local community charging on average 150 phones per day. The centre includes a classroom for local people and a few plots demonstrating different water conservation, tree planting and kitchen garden techniques. Simple accommodation is provided for trainers and volunteers, and the project team stays on-site at the centre. Part of Sadhana

Forest’s successful strategy has been to link community-driven development with research from international institutions through partnerships with the Institute of Earth Sciences of the University of

Lausanne in Switzerland and the University of Montreal. Sadhana Forest, therefore, ensures that selection of appropriate tree and plant species, horticultural techniques, and other agro-forestry practices are driven by the most recent developments in environmental research.

Looking for ways to increase its mitigating effect on global warming, Sadhana Forest incorporates the planting of oxalogenic species. These tree species sequester carbon permanently in the soil in the form of calcium carbonate (lime stone). In every region, priority is given to planting oxalogenic trees.

Additionally, the current environment is severely degraded. Trees, which hold the soil together and have myriad other benefits are scarce in this area. The older members of the community reported that there were many mature indigenous trees but they were felled for timber, construction and fuelwood. They also linked the destruction of natural forests to persistent droughts and floods.

Sadhana Forest Kenya is partnering with the community and promoting the planting of trees in homesteads. The long term objective is to establish food forests for long term food security and climate modification.

Sadhana Forest also utilizes a strong community-driven approach to project implementation, which has been crucial to the sustainability and success of project activities in each country of operation. Local community members are active participants in all aspects of Sadhana Forest activities, from the initial infrastructure creation and water conservation efforts, to planting trees in their households and public areas. Public workshops and trainings are held to educate community members on sustainable livelihood practices and environmental conservation

efforts, held jointly by skilled volunteers and local advocates. For the quality and innovative nature of the work achieved in Haiti, in 2010 Sadhana Forest won third place for the

Humanitarian Water and Food Award.

Building on the work of Sadhana Forest’s climate-smart farming, stakeholders in the community have suggested the implementation of a full permaculture farm. However, there are inadequate studies on such a farm in the arid areas of Africa and specifically in Kenya. The increasing embrace of substitute farming methods by the Samburu to supplement their transhumance is a positive indicator that they are open to the approach of permaculture.

2.5 Conceptual Framework

The Conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between the independent variables (food security) and the dependent variable (through the application of the permaculture model). The model will supplement conventional pastoralism with other climate-smart farming methods that are tailored to improve the livelihoods of pastoralists, provide sustainable food security and conserve and rehabilitate the environment.

Dependent Variable Independent Variable

Sustainable sources of nutritious food for households.

The food should be sufficient in quantity and nutrients.

Improved livelihoods for the nomadic pastoralists Government, NGOs and the Food Security for the people of local community The pastoralists can sell off Samburu County. excess produce to meet the The County is prone to needs of their households, such recurrent drought and famine as better education for their which severely compromises children. food security in households. This is exacerbated by land degradation resulting from Environment rehabilitation and nomadic pastoralism conservation.

It is vital to reverse land degradation stemming from nomadic pastoralism. Then, utilise permaculture to implement systems that conserve the environment.

Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines the methodology which will be employed in conducting the research. The chapter details the target population, research design, data collection methods, instruments and analysis that will be used in the research.

3.2 The Site of the Study and Units of Analysis

This study will be carried out in Samburu County, in North Rift Kenya. Kenya is classified as a lower middle income country by the World Bank. As of May 2015, the total population of the country is estimated to be 45.6 million people. Out of these, 45.9 per cent are estimated to be living below the poverty line. As of 2014, FAO estimates that there is a 35.5 per cent prevalence of food inadequacy in the country. Additionally, the prevalence of undernourishment was at 24.3 per cent. According to the Global Food Security Index, in 2015,

Kenya was ranked an overall 83/109 in food security. 35.2 per cent of the population can afford sufficient food, while availability is at 46.6 per cent. Finally, the quality and safety of the food is at 41.3 per cent. As such, food security remains a major issue for the country.

Samburu lies in the geographical area that is classified by the Government of Kenya as dryland areas. Samburu County is mostly arid with ninety per cent of the county being dry while ten per cent is viable for agriculture. According to the County government, less than five per cent of this is under cultivation. As such, the county is not self-reliant for food security. Livestock grazing is more pre-eminent with thirty seven registered ranches in the county, occupying thirty seven thousand acres.

These activities are concentrated in Samburu Central, specifically in Maralal town. This is also the largest town and headquarters for the County government. It has the highest population density. Hence it will be the site of the study. The units of study will be pastoralists in the town who are engaging in other farming methods to substitute their food supply. NGOs handling food security in the area as well as local government officials will be studied as well.

3.3 Research Design

There are two broad methods of doing research namely, quantitative and qualitative research methods. To develop a general understanding of food insecurity among nomadic pastoralists in Samburu, a descriptive survey will be employed. (Orodho, 2005), argues that a descriptive study involves finding out who, where, when and how something is done. This particular study will make use of specific variables, namely food insecurity and alternative agricultural practices, common to all respondents. The design was chosen since it is more precise and accurate since it involves description of events in a carefully planned way (Babbie, 2002). A survey is defined as an “attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables” (Yin,

2009, p. 46). It is claimed to be the best available method to social scientists interested in collecting original data for the purposes of describing a population which is too large to observe directly (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003)

A qualitative research method will be further employed to help draw conclusions on the association between food security and permaculture practices in Samburu. This will give deeper insight into the complexities of the two variables. It will also allow for a thorough understanding of the food security problem and why permaculture provide a viable yet sustainable solution. The study will review primary data obtained through questionnaires, interviews and observation. The secondary data will be sourced from books, journals, scholarly

publications in magazines, and assessment research and strategy reports by different agencies.

Descriptive research will be used to source data concerning the research problem in respect to both independent and dependent variables.

3.4 Study Population and Sample Selection Procedures

(Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) Described population as, the entire group of individuals or items under consideration in any field of inquiry and have a common attribute. This study will target nomadic pastoralists in Samburu County, specifically Samburu Central sub-county. Specifically, these farmers are also trying out other methods of farming in collaboration with different stakeholders. Respondents in this region will be the sole area of focus because they are considered to be the best representation of nomadic pastoralists in arid lands who are at risk of food insecurity. They are also adopting other methods of farming to substitute their sources of food as well as take care of their environment.

Research shows that Samburu Central has a population density of 21 persons per km², the highest in the entire county. This study will incorporate findings from key informants to this research including; the local administration in Samburu West such as community leaders, local pastoralists, and various staff from agricultural and food security NGOs based in the region. These groups represent the major stakeholders of food security in the region and will provide essential and relevant data regarding agricultural methods in use in Samburu.

Sampling frame is the listing of all elements of the population from which a sample was drawn.

It is a complete and correct listing of population members only (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).

Krecjie and Morgan (1970) will be employed in estimating the sample size which is a widely used research method. The Krecjie and Morgan (1970) sample size formula and table will provide guidance on the appropriate sample size necessary for the qualitative study. Based on the population under study, the sample size will be 25 Samburu pastoralists and from this population, purposive sampling will be employed. According to Kerlinger (1986), purposive

sampling is a non-probability sampling method, which is characterized by the use of

‘judgment’ and a deliberate effort to obtain representative samples by including typical areas or groups in the sample. On the other hand, (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) note that purposive sampling allows the researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to the objectives of the study.

3.5 Data Collection Methods and Procedures

Various data collection instruments that ensure validity, reliability and objectivity of data will be used in the survey. An interview schedule will be used to assist in filling in the questionnaires. This is a data collection instrument commonly used in social surveys and traditionally takes the form of a printed document with a list of questions. An observation checklist will also be used to capture data obtained through observation. As and when needed, community volunteers will be used to assist in translation when cases of language barrier arise during the study. This means of data collection is appropriate in reaching a wider population as it is less time consuming and causes less disruptions to the respondents’ schedules. The researcher collecting the primary data collection instruments from the respondents will ensure that they have been duly filled. Only questionnaires with 70% of the questions filled will be included in the data analysis.

Interviews will also be conducted with NGOs addressing food insecurity and agricultural practices in the area. Additionally, members of the county government will also be interviewed to provide a view of the government’s role and input in improving the acceptance of permaculture. These interviews will then be transcribed and reviewed.

Finally, focus group discussions with local farmers and women group will be conducted as a follow-up to the use of questionnaires. This will allow for open-ended discussions where the farmers can give their analysis of the improved farming practices they have been utilising. They will also give insight into which methods are most effective and which have been received with difficulty. Likewise, they

will analyse the economic benefits and livelihood improvements of better farming practices. They will give feedback on areas they need more support and who should provide this support.

3.6 Data Analysis Methods

Data collection will result in the accumulation of a large amount of data, primarily qualitative.

Prior to formal analysis of the data, the researcher will put in place several data management procedures to organize and stabilize the data collected. MS Excel will serve as the primary tool for data management and analysis. The data will be presented in tables, graphs and charts. From the results, an analysis of food security, sustainability of food security and sustainable development will be made. Since the indicators for these measures are not well established, the concepts will be analysed by looking into all the components that influence the variables. These will include the concerns raised in the development of the permaculture model and also through observation of the knowledge of the stakeholders in the study.

3.7 Limitations of the Study

The primary respondents for this study are Samburu nomadic pastoralists. Literacy levels within the County are among the lowest in the County. This creates a communication barriers since the primary data collection tool is a questionnaire. More so, the questionnaire is in English which might not be a prevalent language in the community.

The study also relies on information from NGOs and Country government officials. It might be difficult to source information from these two groups. County government may use bureaucracy to slow the information gathering process down.

However, these challenges do not negate the credibility of the thesis. Instead, they allow the study to make use of measures such as the use on interpreters to bridge the gap.

Chapter 4

Research Findings

4.1 Introduction

Nomadic pastoralists in Africa and particularly Kenya have relied on the predictable weather patterns of the areas they inhabit to for the renewal of water and pasture sources for their animals. With consistent weather patterns, they were able to move with their animals from one area to another without lack. More so, they often carry out little to no tillage or replanting of the grazing land. Instead, they rely on the natural ecosystems of the ASAL areas to regenerate the pasture. Climate change and global warming have drastically changed weather patterns across the globe. Weather is now highly unpredictable and erratic. There has been an increase in extreme phenomena such as floods, hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis. The effects of these occurrences has adversely affect agricultural practices across the globe. Most the world’s food supply comes from small scale farmers, most in developing nations, who rely on rainfall to grow crops and provide pasture for their animals. Climate change has thus made agricultural production more difficult. This is especially true for farmers in vulnerable environments such as arid and semi-arid areas.

Having looked at permaculture as a viable solution to food insecurity through improved and climate smart agriculture, this chapter now focuses on the uptake and effect of improved agricultural practices among the Samburu nomadic pastoralists of Northern Kenya. It will examine the specific practices that farmers are utilising so far to improve both animal and crop yields. Then, it will analyse the economic benefits of these practices and the impact on the livelihoods of the pastoralists. It will look at the practices that are most favourable among pastoralists and those whose uptake has been limited and the reasons behind this. Finally, the

discussion will end by assessing what resources are needed for full implementation of permaculture and which stakeholders play a vital role in this process.

4.2 An Overview of Farming Practices in Samburu County

Traditionally, the Samburu are nomadic pastoralists who migrate with their animals in search of water and pasture. They would predict weather patterns and use these as a guide to determine when and where they will move to. They had large, open tracts of land for grazing. They depended on open grazing along community based structures. However, with the onset of colonialism, some of this land was gazetted and protected as wildlife reserves. As such, the

Samburu pastoralists lost some of their grazing land, most of it prime source of pasture. This forced the pastoralists into smaller parcels of land that were inadequate and unsuitable for both pure nomadic pastoralism as well as other agricultural practices.

After independence. Kenya has witnessed increased modernization and changing land management and ownership practices. Modernization has seen increased demand for land to put to alternate uses such as putting up of housing, infrastructure and commercial buildings.

Changes in ownership of land saw the land subdivided and allocated to individual owners.

Grazing land which was once a community resource now became smaller and subject to alternative use by the title or leaseholders.

The areas inhabited by the Samburu already have low rainfall and harsh climate. Climatic changes have led to more frequent, prolonged droughts that decimate animal herds and leave insufficient time for recovery. The low tillage of land leaves it exposed to degradation and desertification. This is exacerbated by low rainfall and increasing global temperatures.

In order to mitigate these effects, the farmers are diversifying into crop growing. The main aim of crop growing is to supplement traditional sources of food to increase food security and improve livelihoods through sale of surplus. Traditional sources of food are milk, blood and

meat from the animals. This is coupled with purchases of items such as maize meal and leafy vegetables from shopping centres along grazing corridors. Additionally, they gather fruits and herbs from the forests in their vicinity. These are used to enrich their meals as well as for medicinal purposes. Additionally, as their animals are grazing and walking over the land, they help to turn over the soil. This helps to aerate the soils, break up the rock bed to enhance soil formation scatter seeds for planting and germination. This self-sustaining practice has in turned helped pastoralists make a living through sale of animal products. The large herds are also a source of prestige for families as they are perceived as evidence of wealth for families and communities.

Food often has to be transported for long distances with poor infrastructure to reach the pastoralists. For instance, the food for Maralal and Kisima Towns comes from Nyahururu which is about two hundred and fifty kilometres away. This is a four hour journey by road with only three buses per day going in either direction. Thursday is the market day per week. The culmination of all these factors leads to a high mark up on food items. This makes them expensive and out of reach for many families. As such, the families are seeking alternative sources of food leading to an uptake of crop farming. Additional practices such as agroforestry, bee keeping, fodder growth and poultry farming have also been adopted by the farmers.

4.3 Data Collection and Analysis Process

Data was collected through a structured questionnaire (Appendix 5). The questionnaire asked about: 1) household information 2) food security status 3) farm characteristics 4) training and adoption of improved farming practices and 5) benefits of the adoption of these practices.

The data collection begun with a focus group discussion with members of staff and volunteers from Sadhana Forest Kenya. This provided vital insight into the activities carried out, the uptake of those activities and any challenges faced during implementation. This was followed

the filling in of questionnaires by the local community around Sadhana. This comprised of members of a local women’s group as well as randomly selected respondents with farms in

Kisima, around Sadhana area. To conclude, there was a focus group discussion with the same respondents through a community meeting forum to allow the respondents to give responses to open-ended questions. Overall, there were 18 respondents out of an expected 25. This represents a 72 per cent response rate which is within the acceptable margin of at least 70 per cent of all questionnaires must be completed in full.

Data was analysed through MS Excel software. The common themes were coded and grouped together. Prior to entry into Excel, basic data organisation and cleaning as recommended by

(Verbeek, 2008) was done. The responses from the FGD were transcribed onto MS Word. The results of the data collection are presented in tables, graphs and narratives in the text.

4.4 Results of the Study

4.4.1 Demographic Data and Household Characteristics

There were total of 18 respondents to the survey. Out of these, twelve were female while six were male. The females made up 66.7 per cent of the population while the males represented the remaining 33.3 per cent. The balance was in favour of females because they are usually left to take care of the households while the men move with the livestock. Additionally, Sadhana partners with women groups in the area so respondents came from one of the groups.

The average size of households is seven family members, including the parents. For some of the families, the household includes grandchildren or nieces and nephews left in their care as their parents go to urban areas to seek employment or ways to generate revenue. The range of the household size varies from a minimum of four members to a maximum of ten members per household. Most households are male led, with the man being responsible for major decision making while the woman runs the household on a daily basis.

4.4.2 Food Security

Food security presents a major challenge in the community around Sadhana. From the data collected, it was clear that most households sometimes ran out of money to buy food. Thirteen respondents said that in the span of one year, they sometimes ran out of money for food. This was approximately once in every quarter. The remaining five respondents said that they rarely ran out of money for food, approximately twice in a year. It is interesting to note that all five respondents who said that they rarely ran out of money for food were men. The majority who sometimes ran out of food were women. When further queried on this, the women alluded to the fact that they rely heavily on the men to provide funds for use within the home. Sometimes, the men would give money that was insufficient to meet all the household needs. For instance, for a given sum of money, there are competing needs such as clothing, medical care, groceries and food. The woman must allocate funds to each of these need yet the funds often fall short.

The women fail to ask for more money for fear of repercussions such as creation of disputes within the home.

As a result of lack of funds, most households had to rely on limited food to feed their households. The staple diet consists of meat, milk and ugali. This is sometimes supplemented by maize, beans, cabbage and dark leafy vegetables grown on their farms. However, the farming is heavily dependent on rainfall. The rainy season spans approximately four months of the year. For the remaining eight months, households have to buy food from vendors bringing food from Nyahururu. The food, mainly vegetables, legumes and fruits, is often overpriced due to transportation, making it dear and out of reach for the community. In such periods, households will resort to limited foods to feed their households. These foods are mainly milk, ugali and a two sisters stew comprising of maize and beans.

In addition to this, some households will skip meals or cut the size of meals to make up for the lack of money to buy food. Out of eighteen people polled, fifteen indicated that they sometimes

cut back on the size and number of meals per day. Respondents who were mothers said that they relied heavily on school feeding programs for lunch meals for their children. During holidays, they made food portions smaller or just gave a cup of milk to their children as a meal.

For themselves and their spouses, they would skip meals or rely on water and tea to ward off the hunger. Fifteen respondents also indicated that they sometimes went without meals for a whole day because they couldn’t afford to buy food.

With regard to government interventions, all eighteen respondents said that they rarely relied on government food rations to substitute their needs. This is mainly because government has cut back on supplying food ratios to the community. During the past year, the government only provided rations once. There is a heavy NGO presence in Maralal town, around twenty kilometres away from Kisima area. These NGOs are involved in a variety of areas, one of them being food security. They help to provide food to communities as well teach new farming and livelihood sustenance techniques. However, the reach has not yet permeated into Kisima. The government has also pulled back on provision of food and farming support to focus on creation of physical infrastructure to support the increasing NGO presence. This has seen a decline in food rations which has left households more vulnerable to food insecurity. Below is a summary of the food security in Samburu.

Figure 1: Summary of Food Security in the County Variables Ran out of Reliance on Skipped meals Not eat for a Reliance on

money for Limited foods or cut portions whole day government

food rations

Female

Sometimes 12 12 12 12 0

Rarely 0 0 0 0 12

Male

Sometimes 1 4 3 3 0

Rarely 5 2 3 3 6

Total 18 18 18 18 18

4.4.3 Farm Characteristics

Land ownership in Samburu County is predominantly communal ownership of traditional land.

The land is held as community trust land which under the custody of local governments.

Community land includes land lawfully held, managed or used by specific communities as forests, grazing areas or shrines and land traditionally occupied by hunted gatherer communities. The land occupied by the Samburu fits both of these categories. However, some land owners have purchased tracts of this land which they own as freehold land. Most of this land is maintained as communal grazing rangelands. However, households are allocated smaller portions where they set up their households and engage in small scale farming. Out of eighteen respondents, fifteen were on communal land, two had purchased or inherited freehold land and one respondent did not own any land.

The average size of the allocated tracts of land for each farmer is 0.83 acres. The minimum size is quarter an acre while the maximum is two acres of land for each household. The respondents all practice mixed agricultural practices on their land. These practices include: animal husbandry, crop farming, bee keeping and agroforestry. The men will graze the cows, goats and sheep while the women plant crops and manage bees and poultry. Grazing is carried out on communal rangelands in the areas around Kisima area as opposed to on the smaller patches

of household land. Fifteen respondents with livestock carry out this form of grazing. The farmers do not utilise stalls in their homestead or paddocks on their land to feed animals. They rely on traditional nomadic pastoralism where they move with their animals according to changes in season. These activities are means that the community employs to achieve food security. They also rely on remittances from family members who are either employed or have started business ventures in urban areas. These remittances are mainly through MPESA.

The number of livestock kept per household varies as explained below: cows range from a minimum of none to a maximum of twenty per household. Sheep and goats are often counted together by the community. The average size of the herd is fifteen animals with the minimum being one animal and a maximum of sixty sheep and goats. Poultry is kept in small number with the maximum being ten chicken in one household.

4.4.3 Adoption of Good Farming Practices

In order to secure their food needs, the community in Samburu have begun to substitute the traditional nomadic farming with improved agricultural practices. During the FGD, the farmers said that they would like to be self-reliant with regard to their food needs. Their main challenges to food security are erratic weather, insufficient government and NGO support, a lack of knowledge on new farming techniques and food variants and conflict with wildlife. Most of the farmers are willing to try new farming methods but they don’t know how to go about the new methods. They also lack knowledge on which foods to plant and which variants of these foods suit their climate. Ideally, government agricultural extension officers should step in and help to meet training and demonstration needs. However, they are few and they tend to focus on animal health and breeding.

Some of the improved practices that have been adopted are discussed below. Three of the farmers polled are growing fodder on their farms. This is mostly indigenous grass found in

their locality which makes it suitable to the climate. A variant of Napier grass that has been developed for arid areas has been to some of the farmers for trial purposes. The uptake is still slow among the farmers. They have planted this grass in segregated portions of their farms and are not intercropping it with other crops such as maize or beans. The main benefit given by the respondents is access to animal feed at a convenience. This reduces the need to travel to far distances to feed animals. However, none of the farmers polled conserve their feed in any way.

They just cut what they need and feed it to the animals directly. This has left a gap because during extended dry periods, these farmers do not have preserved fodder which they can rely on to sustain their animals or even sell to other farmers for money.

Agroforestry remains one of the most popular methods of improved agriculture that farms in

Samburu are adopting. Out of eighteen respondents, thirteen had planted agroforestry trees on their farms. Some of the trees variants they have planted are those given to them by Sadhana.

SFK gives seedlings for drought resistant food trees to farmers around Kisima area. These trees provide fruits, roots and leaves with nutritional and medicinal values. The benefits accruing from the trees are given as: a source of food, wind breaking, giving fresh air, providing shade and providing medicine. However, there were five respondents who had not planted trees on their farms. These farmers said that the rainfall in the area was little and unreliable which made tree planting difficult. In response to this, SFK provides free water to farmers for various uses.

These five farmers said that SFK is somewhat far from their farms therefore they have to prioritise their water needs when they go to fetch water. They will use the limited water for household needs first before they use it for growing trees. Another popular farming alternative is bee keeping. Five respondents have kept bees and harvest honey. The honey is mainly for household consumption because marketing channels are very poor. Farmers said that the market for honey in Maralal is virtually non-existent. However, the market in Nyahururu is

thriving and the farmers lack ways to get into this market with their refined product. They have therefore resorted to either consuming it themselves or giving it to their friends free of charge.

All the farmers polled collected manure from their farms. Usually, they collect it from the area where they keep their animals, then store in in heaps just outside the compound. Most of these farmers use manure to grow crops in their farms. However, the use is on a small scale so most of the manure remains unused. Two of the farmers interviewed also use the dung as construction material. Once they have finished construction of their houses using mud or bricks, they smear wet dung on the inside and outside to seal off any cracks thereby making the houses waterproof.

Most of the farmers use small scale irrigation to grow food items on their farms. They mainly grow maize and beans on their farms. They also allow wild green leafy vegetables to sprout seasonally on their farms. However, irrigation is limited to the use of manual methods and is contingent on the distances they have to travel to get the water. During the rainy season, there are several seasonal rivers flowing in the area that ease access to water. However, in the dry season, the farmers usually have to travel for some distance to access the water. SFK has helped to solve this problem by creating a water point where farmers can get water for free any time for their needs. While this is a very good solution, most households still have to carry the water to their homes. The main mode of transportation is on the backs of the women and their daughters. Therefore they can only carry limited amounts of water for competing needs. Most households will utilise the water for needs such as drinking, cooking and cleaning as opposed to be for irrigation. They also don’t recycle household water which can be used for instance for cleaning and irrigation. The community has not also harnessed the seasonal rivers by looking for ways to store the water. There are no communal water reservoirs such as dams or ponds.

Water tanks for households are also few with reliance being mainly on rainfall and community water points.

One of the main barriers to agriculture as brought out in the FGD with the farmers is human wildlife conflict. Some of the land around Maralal is gazette wildlife conservancies. These are set aside as wildlife sanctuaries and are not fenced. The Samburu have also lived in harmony with wildlife throughout therefore they discourage animal poaching, mainly through taboos handed down over generations. The farmers said that they don’t have access to good fencing materials to protect their farms. This leaves the farms exposed to animals such as zebras which trample on the crops destroying them. The farmers have tried to mitigate this by rigging up rudimentary fencing from tree branches or by staying up late to watch their shambas and chase away the animals. However, this is often ineffective because the animals break through the fencing. Sometimes it is not always possible to stay up overnight so this is not a viable long term solution.

Access to quality seeds is another barrier to agro-pastoralism. The government provides seeds that mature within six months yet the rainy season in Samburu is three months. This means that in the middle of growth, the plants lack water and dry out. This results in less than adequate harvests across seasons. More so, the seeds given are limited to maize and beans as opposed to other drought resistant crop varieties like millet and sorghum. Additionally, agricultural extension officers rarely visit farmers to advise them on planting and farm management. This community has been based on hunting and gathering and is only now diversifying into crop farming. Therefore, they need all the government support that they can get.

4.4.4 Sadhana Forest Kenya Interventions

The Samburu community has been actively involved in looking for solutions to improve their food security. However, these interventions have not always been sufficient or sustainable.

SFK stepped in to fill this void. All the respondents had heard of SFK, gotten water from them or charged their phones at their centre. Out of these, thirteen of them had participated in

capacity building activities arranged by Sadhana. Below is a summary of the participation by community members.

Figure 2: Participation in SFK Activities Activity Number that have participated

Training on nursery establishment and management 9

Training on tree planting and management 13

Training on manure management and composting 7

Training on soil management 7

Training on rocket stove construction and use 10

Climate change awareness sessions 11

Sadhana’s main focus is on improvement of food and water security through environmental transformation. Their interventions focus on methods that create sustainable food security while at the same time transform and conserve the environment. They do this through provision of water, tree seedlings and on trainings on improved farming methods. The most attended trainings by local farmers have been those on tree planting and management, rocket stove construction and use, and climate change awareness. Manure management and soil management have seen the lowest attendance. The farmers are very willing to try new technologies to improve not just their food security but also their livelihoods. However, their primary focus is on tree planting, energy saving stoves and taking care of their environment.

The Samburu have been interacting with drylands areas for generations. They realise that this is their home and they must take care of it especially in light of recent changes in climate. They therefore want to play a pivotal role in preventing and reversing climate change. Most of the

farmers collect but don’t use manure extensively on their farms. The farmers are only now beginning to plant crops, trees and fodder. They are sometimes uncertain about the use of manure on their farmers. This has directly affected the training on manure and composting.

The training on soil management has also had fewer participants mainly because the farmers tend to focus on yields and animal health as compared to on soil quality.

4.4.5 Benefits of Improved Methods and Support Needed for Adoption of Practices

The main benefits surveyed were increased food security and increased household income from employment of improved agricultural practices. The respondents were each required to assess the extent of the impact of these practices on their households. The qualitative scale ranged from not at all to a lot with a little and somewhat as the middle measures. The responses were the collated and summarised in the tables below.

Figure 3: Increased Food Security

Variables Frequency Percentage

A little 1 5.6

Somewhat 5 27.8

A lot 12 66.7

66.7 per cent of the respondents held that the improved practices that they were undertaking increased food security a lot in their households. 27.8 per cent held that their food security had somewhat increased. The new approaches have let farmers increase their crop yields as well as diversify the nutrition that their families have access to. Thus, both the quality and the quantity of their diet has improved. Farmers are planting crops, planting fruit trees, tending to wild

growing leafy vegetables and keeping honey. This has helped to give farmers access to increased food supplies as well as to products they can sell or exchange for other food varieties.

Figure 4: Increased Household Income

Variables Frequency Percentage

Not a lot 3 16.7

A little 4 22.2

Somewhat 3 16.7

A lot 8 44.4

In comparison, only 44.4 per cent of the farmers in the survey said that their household income had increased a lot from improved practices. 16.7 per cent said somewhat while 22.2 per cent said a little. However, 16.7 per cent of the farmers felt that their income had not increased by much. These results show that the benefits that the farmers are getting from trying new farming methods may not be translating to increased income. This is because most of the harvests are just enough to meet household needs with nor surplus to sell. Also, the marketing channels are weak or non-existent. This was evident for farmers who engage in bee keeping. They would either consume the honey at home or give it to their friends and relatives for free because they lacked adequate channel to market and sell their products.

4.5 Summary of Results

Food insecurity remains a major problem for the people of Samburu County. Most households are at risk of inadequate and poor quality meals. The households will employ short term coping mechanisms that are detrimental in nature. These measures include: reliance on limited food

sources to feed themselves, cutting down on portion sizes, skipping meals in a day or not eating anything for a whole day. This has wide reaching ramifications such as malnutrition and stunted growth as well as lower immunity levels. This poses a risk to the health of the entire community which in turn will slow down their development process.

On their own, nomadic pastoralists have taken initiative to seek more viable and sustainable options. Most of these are in diversification into alternative farming methods. The biggest method has been agroforestry which combines both crop farming and tree planting. This has been somewhat successful in increasing household food quality and quantity. Yet, there are still some major barriers to sustainability for these methods, primarily lack of adequate water for farming, human-wildlife conflict and a lack of robust government support. Other farming methods that have been implemented include the use of compost, poultry farming and bee keeping.

In addition to what the farmers are doing for themselves, there have been interventions by other stakeholders. One such stakeholder is Sadhana Forest Kenya who have provided various solutions to farmers in an effort to transform the drylands of Samburu and at the same time ensure food security for the farmers. One of the key interventions by Sadhana has been provision of capacity building activities for the farmers. These include: trainings, demonstrations and awareness creation. These activities have seen farmers learn more on tree planting, composting and manure management, construction and use of energy-efficient stoves and climate change impacts on their environment. This has directly translated into an increased willingness to improve their farming methods while at the same time protecting their environment. The farmers are already experiences changes in their food status as well as in their income levels. If practised more consistently, these farming methods will definitely translate into overall improved livelihoods.

Chapter 5

Recommendations and Conclusions

5.1 Introduction

From the research findings, it is clear that the journey to food security for the Samburu has begun but it is long and filled with a lot of challenges. However, the community is very willing to take the lead in engaging in activities that will boost their food status while at the same time preserving the climate in their home. This willingness needs to be harnessed and fully utilised in partnership with other strategic stakeholders. The ones that come to mind immediately would be SFK, who have already begun to work with them, and both local and national governments who are pivotal in resource allocation as well a provision of a policy framework.

SFK has already set up a demonstration centre for improved farming methods. Their main focus is on agroforestry and dryland environmental transformation. They have demonstration centres where they show farmers how to go about these improved planting and management methods. Additionally, they also use renewable green energy sources to power the facility as well as provide free phone charging services for local residents. The local community has been very involved with Sadhana with most of them taking part in the activities they have to offer.

In spite of the progress made, there are still major challenges faced. The first challenge is the lack of reliable sources of water. The farmers rely heavily on rainfall which is erratic with the rainy season lasting only three months. The farmers do not have a reservoir to store the water for the drier months of the year. The second challenge is conflict with wildlife. The Samburu inhabit areas that have been gazetted as wildlife conservancies. They have lived alongside the animals for generations. However, with the advent of farming on smaller pieces of land, the animals have become a nuisance because they trample on the crops or eat them, leaving nothing for the family. The third challenge is lack of proper support from government agencies. The

farmers have been using seeds that don’t match the rainfall cycle in arid areas. Agricultural officers have failed to come train and demonstrate to farmers on proper farming techniques.

Fertilizers have been subsidised but they are still out of reach for most of the farmers. More so, government has ceased to provide food rations, limiting this to once a year. The fifth challenge are the harsh effects of climate change in arid areas. Climate change has resulted in adverse weather patterns such as longer and more frequent droughts and reduced rainfall. This has affected the yields from crops and has decimated herd sizes in the community.

These challenges can be handled with recommendations given by both the community and

Sadhana Forest Kenya.

5.2 Recommendations

5.2.1 Water Conservation

One of the major challenges facing the farmers in Samburu is lack of access to a reliable source of water. Additionally, the water supply needs to be sufficient and accessible for farmers. SFK has worked towards provision of a solution to this problem by providing water to the residents around Kisima in Maralal for free. This water comes from a borehole and is pumped to taps where the community can access it from. However, the women in the community usually carry the water back to their homesteads which is over an average distance of one kilometre. This limits the amount of water that gets to the household. With competing needs for the water, very little is often left over for irrigation.

To mitigate this, SFK is looking to purchase a water truck that will allow them to distribute water to the farmers. This will eliminate the need to walk for long distances to get water. The water supplied can be used to water the crops and trees as well as for the animals. In addition to this, there is a permanent fresh water lake and two intermittent streams in Kisima. These are

Lake Kisima and Nontoto and Engare Narok streams. These are mainly used by herders to

provide water for their animals. However, there is potential for piping of the water to the households in Kisima to create easier access. Irrigation methods that conserve water while protecting the soil, such as drip irrigation, are being taught to farmers especially for nursery management. This can be expanded to crop production.

5.2.1 Fencing

One of the main concerns brought out by farmers is the destruction of crops and trees by both domestic and wild animals. The animals eat the shoots of growing crops which kills the crops.

There are also instance where animals such as zebra trample on the crops. The farmers usually put up rudimentary fences made from tree branches for their farms and combined with thorns.

Alternatively these fences are easily ran over by the animals which leaves the crops exposed.

The community needs support with proper access to robust fencing material to keep the animals away from the crops. The fences would be made with wooden planks or posts that are strong enough to keep out both domestic and wild animals. These materials require a substantive capital investment which is restrictive for most farmers. The community can appeal to county government to subsidise the fencing materials for farmers. Alternatively, the farmers can identify stronger branches from trees in the vicinity which can be cut and processed. This would significantly reduce the cost of sourcing for fencing materials.

The farmers are keen to utilise untreated wood as the fencing medium because it is biodegradable and eco-friendly yet still strong enough to keep animals away from the crops.

Treated posts may adversely affect the animals, crops and even their immediate environment.

Therefore, the farmers will utilise natural wood products.

5.2.3 Access to Farming Inputs

Farming inputs encompass both crop and livestock interventions. These are mainly backed by the government and distributed to farmers at a subsidised price. The interventions include:

provision of seeds for planting, provision of fertilizer, creation of animal breeding schemes and dispersion of agricultural extension officers to train and offer practical support to farmers.

Currently, the government provides maize seedlings to farmers. These seeds have a six month long growth cycle. The rainy season is three months meaning that the crop lacks water, becomes stunted and give poor yields. There are three month seed varieties which would take a shorter growth time in line with the rainfall patterns. The government should issue this variant to the farmers in ASAL area. In addition to maize seeds, the government should also issue seeds for other drought resistant crops such as sorghum and millet. These foods are nutritious yet at the same time suited for dry climates.

According to The Samburu Community Protocol, government-backed schemes often provide exotic breeds on the basis that these breeds would provide higher yields. However, the community has observed that these breeds die much faster that indigenous breed during droughts or disease outbreaks. Climate change has led to longer and more frequent droughts which has decimated herd sizes. Additionally, during disease outbreaks, traditional medicine is less effective on exotic breeds therefore they have to spend more money on drugs and veterinarians. Therefore, the community, with government assistance would like to revert back to indigenous breeds. Indigenous breeds are particularly suited to local conditions because of adaptation through natural selection, as well as genetic development through selective breeding.

Agricultural extension officers are few and do not often work closely with the community.

These officers are under the jurisdiction of the local or county government. The county government need to mobilise more officers to support farmers in their quest for food security through farming. These officers should be able to visit farms, attend community organised

training activities and offer advice to farmers especially on improved practices that they have not tried before.

5.3.4 Management and Conservation of Rangelands

The Samburu live in areas that are rich in animal and plant biodiversity as well as environmental resources. They live harmoniously with the animals and share resources such as watering holes and grazing rangelands. They also utilise taboos and customary law to conserve the environment. For instance, it is taboo for the Samburu to eat game meat. Community elders will often enforce laws limiting the use of forests for grazing, firewood provision to allow the forests to recover from use. This sustains the sources of food, medicine and wood. The same committees made up of elders also govern the use of the seasonal grazing lands. This ensures that they are not overstretched.

With the increase in land demarcation and allocation to other uses such as construction of commercial property, the rangelands are shrinking, threatening the Samburu heritage and way of life. The government needs to step in and regulate the change of use for this land. The rangelands need to be demarcated and protected as a vital resource by the government.

Consent must be sought for any activities that will be undertaken within the Samburu community lands. In addition to this, government must consult the community widely on any policies concerning the lands they inhabit through participatory engagement. Any agricultural practices they intend to implement must have the approval of the community as they are the key stakeholder.

5.3.5 Permaculture

The Samburu are willing to take up new practices that will work in harmony with their traditional farming methods to improve their food security and livelihoods as well and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and environmental degradation. Since their problems are

shared within a tight-knit community that has robust structures into place, the community can come together to establish a climate-smart that harness the benefits of both permaculture and pastoralism. Seeing that the community has access to vast rangelands, they can section off a part of the rangelands that has access to a permanent water source such as Lake Kisima for crop growing and tree planting as a start. SFK already supplies seedlings to farmers in the area for hardy fruit and food trees. These can be planted within the communal farm. Additionally, the demonstrations carried out at SFK can be implemented on a larger scale to grow vegetables, tubers and fruits. Any remains from the harvest can be preserved into silage for the herds and flocks during the dry season. Manure collected from the animals can be collected and brought to the communal farm for composting and application to the crops and trees. The manure can also be put into biogas converters to generate clean energy for use, both on the farm or via distribution to nearby homes. Wind and solar energy will also be harnessed not only on the farm but also in individual households. This communal farm will be managed by local women and community groups who will be tasked with tillage, weeding and harvesting. The harvest can be distributed among the households involved in the project and any surplus sold in nearby centres such as Maralal. Any profits will be ploughed back into the farm or distributed among families in the project.

This set up will also allow for protection of rangelands as the pastoralists will utilise the segregated rangelands for grazing. Pastoralism boosts the soil cycle when the animals break up the rocks as they walk on the land. They also help to aerate the soil as they turn it over. This can be used as an alternative to mechanised tilling which degrades the environment. Animals also act as pollination agents to transport seeds across pastures which will boost biodiversity.

Therefore a community managed climate-smart farm is a sustainable solution to food security.

5.3 Conclusion

The President of Kenya on 6 May 2016 signed into law the Climate Change Bill. The aim of this Act is to develop, manage, implement and regulate mechanisms to enhance climate change resilience and low carbon development in Kenya (Kenyatta, 2016). This will provide vital policy for Kenya to take measures towards adapting to and mitigating climate change. In addition to this, at the 2015 Paris UN Conference on Climate change, Kenya voluntarily pledged to take national measures to enhance adaptation to climate change. Some of the measures include: expansion into green energy options, introduction of low carbon transportation systems and increasing the country’s tree cover from 7.3 per cent to 10 per cent of the total land area. These measures all reflect steps that the nation is taking to combat climate change. This is key in shaping the developments in agricultural process as this is one of the biggest industries in Kenya. The measure to increase tree cover specifically touches on this sector.

Climate change goes hand in hand with water and food security. Therefore, measures taken to mitigate adverse climate change impacts will translate to better farming conditions. Equally, measures taken to improve agricultural yields must be eco-friendly to preserve the environment, ensuring that these increased yields are sustainable. The most vulnerable areas to degradation are ASAL areas. These provide a home and a source of livelihood for nomadic pastoralists. Adverse climate change effects have led to persistent food insecurity for the

Samburu. They have resorted to diversification of their agricultural processes and activities to try combat hunger. However, there is need to ensure that these improved methods are tailored to suit the ecosystem in ASAL areas. The solution to this is the adoption of permaculture practices to both protect the environment and ensure food security.

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Appendix 1: Location of Samburu County in Kenya

Source: Kenya Open Data 2016

Appendix 2: Map of Samburu Sub-Counties

Source: Samburu County Government

Appendix 3: Introduction Letter

Appendix 4: Questionnaire Cover Letter

Dear Respondent,

RE: FOOD SECURITY THROUGH PERMACULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF

SAMBURU COUNTY

I am a student at the UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY-AFRICA and currently pursuing a Master of Arts degree in International Relations. As a requirement of the program, I am undertaking a course in research. Therefore, I am currently carrying out a study on FOOD SECURITY THROUGH PERMACULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF SAMBURU

COUNTY and this will involve use of questionnaires.

There are no correct and wrong answers to these statements and they are intended just to obtain opinions, views and feelings. Please spare a few minutes of your precious time and answer the following questions. The information you will provide in this study will be treated with the utmost confidence and will be used strictly only for the academic purpose mentioned above.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Yours faithfully,

Wangari Thiong’o

Researcher.

Appendix 5: Questionnaire Section A: Demographic Data

1. Name:______

2. Age:______

3. Gender:______

4. Marital Status:______

5. Size of household(number of all members that stay within your household):______

Section B: Food Security

1. In the past one year, how often did your household run out of money for food? Sometimes_____ Rarely____ Often____

2. In the past one year, did you rely on limited foods to feed your household because you didn’t have money? Sometimes_____ Rarely_____ Often_____

3. In the past one year, did members of your household skip meals or cut the size because there is no money for food? Sometimes_____ Rarely_____ Often_____

4. In the past one year, did members of your household not eat for a whole day? Sometimes_____ Rarely_____ Often_____

5. In the past one year, did you rely on government provided food rations? Sometimes_____ Rarely_____

Often_____

Section C: Farm Characteristics

1. What is the size of all the land managed by the household in acres? ______

2. What is the type of ownership for the land you have? Traditional/Communal_____ Freehold without title______Freehold with title_____ Leasehold/rented_____ Other (specify) _____

3. Do you practice any agriculture and/or livestock keeping on your farm? None_____ Cropping only_____ Livestock only_____ Cropping and livestock_____

4. What type and number of livestock do you own? Type Number Cows Goats Sheep Poultry (chicken, duck, turkey, quail) Pigs Donkeys Rabbits

5. Where do you feed your cattle? In a stall in the homestead ____ Grazing on paddocks _____ Grazing on communal land _____

Section D: Training and Adoption of good agricultural practices

1. Have you participated in the Sadhana Forest Capacity building activities like trainings, awareness creation and demonstration activities? Yes____ No____

2. If yes, please indicate which of the following activities you participated in: Activity Participation(Yes/no) Training on nursery establishment and management Training on tree planting and management Training on manure management and composting Training on animal health, breeding and rearing Training on biogas

Training on pasture management Climate change awareness sessions Field days

3. Have you planted fodder on your farm? Yes_____ No_____

4. How do you conserve feed for your livestock? No conservation_____ Bale hay_____ Make silage_____ 5. Have you planted any agroforestry trees on your farm? Yes_____ No _____

6. If NOT, why? (tick all appropriate) Lack of preferred seedlings _____ High cost of seedlings ____ Small land size _____ Unreliable rainfall _____ Other (please specify) _____

7. What are the benefits of agroforestry trees? (tick all appropriate) Source of wood fuel _____ Source of construction materials _____ Source of income _____ Wind breaking _____ Fresh air _____ Other (please specify) _____

8. Have you collected livestock manure in your farm in the last 12 months? Yes_____ No _____

9. What do you use the manure for? (tick all appropriate) Crop and fodder production _____ Dry dung for fuel _____ Biogas generation _____ Use as construction material _____ Sell to others ______Other (please specify) _____

10. Do you use irrigation on your farm? Yes_____ No _____

11. Do you practice bee keeping on your farm? Yes_____ No _____

Section E: Benefits

1. In your view, to what extent has the implementation of the improved practices increased your household food security? Not at all _____ A little _____ Somewhat _____ A lot _____

2. In your view, to what extent has the implementation of the improved practices increased your household income? Not at all _____ A little _____ Somewhat _____ A lot _____

3. If you are not applying these practices on your farm, what do you need to adopt these improved practices (Please tick ONLY THREE)? Improved Practice Need for adoption (ONLY THREE) More trainings and demonstrations Lower cost of initial investment Access to planting materials and seeds Visiting farms where practices have been adopted More benefits/farm income Access to affordable credit facilities Remunerative markets for farm produce More assistance from a project Secure land ownership More government support to access inputs Easier access to markets

Thank you for your responses.

Appendix 6: Focus Group Discussion and Interview Questions

1. PROJECT STAFF FROM SADHANA FOREST

1. What are the activities and improved practices advocated by Sadhana Forest Kenya?

2. What are the most popular improved practices among farmers? What proportion of

farmers working with SFK has adopted at least one of the improved practices? Why do

you think these practices are favoured by farmers?

3. What are the benefits of these practices?

4. Are there activities that have been abandoned or not adopted at all? Why were they

unsuccessful?

5. What institutional support would facilitate wider promotion and adoption of these

improved practices? Which institutions or organisations would be pivotal in the

promotion and implementation of improved agricultural practices?

6. What policy framework would support the utilisation of improved agricultural practices

in the area? Please share with us any efforts by the government (both county and

national) to create and implement policy that favours uptake of improved agricultural

practices.

7. In your assessment, how prepared is the community and other relevant stakeholders to

continue with the advancement of the improved practices in the area?

8. PARTICIPATING FARMERS AND ONE WOMEN GROUP

1. Are you food secure?

2. What livelihood assets and practices do you rely on (livestock, poultry, skilled labour,

remittances from relatives)?

3. What measures have you taken as an individual farmer to boost your food security?

4. What interventions have been provided by other groups such as self-help groups, NGOs

and government agencies?

5. What benefits have been realized as a result of the improved farming practices adopted?

How has farm productivity (milk, crop yields) changed? Have there been changes in

farm incomes and rural livelihood opportunities? What environmental co-benefits have

you seen from these improved practices? Kindly share with us the success stories.

6. Which practices have been abandoned after some time of practicing them and why?

Which ones were not adopted at all and what hindered their uptake? How can the

adoption of these improved farming practices be enhanced?

7. What are farmers doing to empower themselves to continue implementing these

improved practices (e.g. farmer-farmer extension, exchange visits, farmer trainers, table

banking, group credit access, etc.)? What kind of support and by who is required to do

more?

Appendix 7: NACOSTI Permit