World Music Or Japanese - the Gagaku of Tôgi Hideki Author(S): Terence Lancashire Reviewed Work(S): Source: Popular Music, Vol

World Music or Japanese - The Gagaku of Tôgi Hideki Author(s): Terence Lancashire Reviewed work(s): Source: Popular Music, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Jan., 2003), pp. 21-39 Published by: Cambridge University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/853554 . Accessed: 29/05/2012 21:52

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http://www.jstor.org Popular Music (2003)Volume 22/1. CopyrightC) 2003 CambridgeUniversity Press, pp. 21-39. DOI:10.1017/S0261143003003027Printed in the United Kingdom

World music or Japanese - the gagaku of T8gi Hideki

TERENCE LANCASHIRE

Abstract The term 'world music' usually conjures up images of musics from 'remote' corners of the world. However, that remoteness is not always geographicaland can, for example, be chronological.Togi Hideki, a former musician from the Imperial court in Japan, has sought to introduce court music - gagaku - to a wider audience through the reworkingof traditionalgagaku pieces and new compositions for gagaku instruments. Gagaku boasts a history of over 1,200 years and its esoteric nature inhibits popular interest. Togi Hideki's popularised gagaku, on the other hand, has found a new audiencefor gagaku, and his music serves as a bridge introducing Japaneseback to a remotepart of Japanesemusical culture.

Introduction The formal emergence of 'world music' in 1987 as a commercialgloss denoting a body of music which hitherto defied conventional categorisation- namely musics other than popular and classic forms from North America and Western Europe- or, alternatively,the incorporationof such musics into Westernpopular genres, has met with a variety of responses from musicologists/ethnomusicologists seeking to clarify the dynamics that underlie the production and reception of world musics and the related and sometimes indistinguishablegenres of 'new age' and 'healing'.l Regional case studies and overviews (e.g. Frith 1991; Keil and Feld 1994; Taylor 1997) often draw attention towards the relationshipbetween the West and the rest where production and presentationof non-Westernmusic has often meant some form of Western control in terms of 'discovery', production, marketing and distribution.Accusations of culturalexploitation and appropriationhave, therefore, often run centralto the debate on what appears to be yet another dimension of that unbalanced and uneasy relation between the first and third worlds. In reality, the question of who is exploiting whom is often a complicatedone as non-Westernmusicians find access to marketshitherto only dreamtof. Neverthe- less, in order for such musical projectsto be realised, financialbacking is essential and it is here that resources are, more often than not, concentratedin the West. Thus, a music flow from south to north and east to west seems to define the 'world music' equation. Yet, there are other players who, through cultural ambiguity, occupy an alternativearena less easily defined. Economic development in the Far East, coupled with rapid modernisation, has meant the emergence of countries which share similar economic goals, cultural interests and perceptions with the West but, resulting from other cultural differ-

21 22 TerenceLancashire ences, most obviously language, are not so often included in debates on musics both 'popular'and 'world'. In the Far East, one country which exemplifies this ambiguous position is Japan. From the end of the nineteenth century and into the first quarter of the twentieth century in particular,it served as a conduit receiving and in turn channel- ling various aspects of Western culture, including Western music, to its neighbouring countries. Today the ambiguity remains, as modes and practices rooted in the West have become an integral and indistinguishable part of daily life. Current trends in music, too, fall within a similarpattern, as parallelmovements to the West reiterate the power of superculturaldiscourses. Yet, although the discourses are recognisable,they also have their own peculiarities. This article focuses on the musical activities of Togi Hideki,2 a former member of the Music Division of the Imperial Household Agency in Japan. It examines his attempts to introduce gagaku- the music of the Imperial court - to a wider public through the creation of new, popular compositions or re- workings of established traditional forms. It looks at the response and perceptions in Japan to his new 'gagaku' and the resulting obfuscation of the boundaries between Japanese and 'world music' to which his music has contributed. In this respect this article resonates with ideas discussed by Mitsui Toru in his article, 'Domestic exoticism: a recent trend in Japanese popular music', where Mitsui discusses the 'exotic' appeal of Japanese traditional music, from Okinawa to the main islands, for a younger generation of Japanese who, as Mitsui sees it, are turning their eyes to the East as part of a search for their own Asian identity (Mitsui 1998, pp. 1-12).

World music - a Japanese perspective Arjun Appadurai's use of the five -scapes - finanscape, mediascape, ethnoscape, technoscape and ideoscape - to conceptualise various seams of globalisation pro- duces a skewed picture when applied to Japan (Appadurai 1996, pp. 334). Japan appears to be very visible in the finanscape, technoscape and mediascape, if, in this last example, financial control and ownership of the media are included in its definition. However, in terms of influence - an outward flow of ideas or cultural traits - visibility in the global ideoscape and ethnoscape is, by contrast,minimal.3 Given the size of the Japanese music market and the direct control of both popular music and 'world music' through corporation giants such as Sony and Toshiba EMI, English language publications on 'world music' and popular music in Japan- thriving, viable industries in their own right - are few when compared to the attention that is directed towards Anglo-Americanpopular music. Popular Music devoted an issue to the Japanese scene in 1991 and a number of overviews of Japanese popular music have, at last, begun to emerge, particularlyfrom the 1980s on (Tsurumi 1987; Fujie 1989, 2001; Stanlaw 1989; Mitsui 1991, 1997, 2002; Sweeney 1991; Cahoon 1993; Hosokawa 1994;McClure 1998). Likewise, The most recent edition of WorldMusic The RoughGuide, aimed more at the mass market, provides a balanced account of the Japanesepopular music scene in the late 1990s (Broughtonand Ellingham2000, pp. 143-59). Nevertheless, from a Western stand- point, interest in Japanesepopular music tends to be more academic than popular. In his article, 'Not so big in Japan.Western pop music in the Japanesemarket', Guy de Launcey demonstratesthat Japanesepopular music coexists with its West- Worldmusic or Japanese 23 ern counterpartsand, in terms of CD sales, the music charts show complete market domination by the former rather than the latter (de Launcey 1995). Utada Hikaru, Mr. Children, and the highest earning J-pop performer today, Hamasaki Ayumi (figures released 17 May 2002), to name just a few of the top performingartists or groups in Japantoday, are household names and, as far as the Japanesestudents I teach, are certainlymore familiarfigures than Westernpop or rock acts. In terms of Slobin's 'imaginarylandscape' of supercultures,subcultures and intercultures,Japan's popular music occupies positions in all three (Slobin 1992).It is rooted in the Westernidiom being subjectto both superculturaland intercultural forces. And yet the music seldom travels beyond its borders other than to neighbouring East Asian countries.4In this respect,Japan's popular music can be seen as a global subculture making it possible for Utada Hikaru to lead a quiet existence as a student at Columbia University in the United States, returning for the occasional concert and even more occasional interview in Japan. 'World music' too occupies a place in the JapaneseCD store. Tower Records, HMV and Virgin Records,as in the cities of most Western countries, have become the major CD outlets in Osaka where I live. The classificationof music follows a 'supercultural'pattern of classic, rock and pop, jazz, 'new age', 'healing'and 'world music' but, in addition to these, what would be 'world music' from a Western perspective becomes 'J-pop' (Japanese pop - sometimes referred to as hogaku, 'Japanesemusic'), junhogaku,'pure Japanese music' - an alternative title to traditional Japanesemusic, and sections for enkaand kayokyoku(Japanese popular bal- lads of the 1960s and 1970s).These occupy their own significant spaces within the geography of Tower records, Virgin and HMV. 'Worldmusic' in Japanincorporates the popular music from the neighbouring countries of Korea,China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. This is the music of the 'other' along with the staple diet of examples from the Indian sub-continent,Africa, the Caribbeanand Latin America. Yet, if 'world music' derives from a fascinationwith the other and sees newness in that which, in its indigenous environment,is rooted in the old, then 'world music' in Japancannot be seen as a contemporaryphenomenon. Instead it mirrors an earlierfascination, appropriation and hybridisationof the music of an alternative other- that of the West, introduced during the Meiji era towards the end of the nineteenth century. Here a reversed form of orientalism- westernism - pertained where, in this light, the Western orchestracould, perhaps, be posited as an exotic form of gagakuand the combinationof piano, violin and 'cello, a bizarreand other- worldly form of a more usual koto,shakuhachi and shamisentrio. Fascination,no doubt coupled with subsequent perceptions of superiority of the other and inferiority of the native meant a virtual supplantation of Japanese music by Western forms. Some elderly Japaneserecall how their parents forbade them to listen to Japanese music on the radio; Beethoven and Mozart were pre- ferred. 'World music' for Japan, then, was Western music, and the sentiments behind the adoption and adaptation of this new 'exotic' music form in this earlier period of music history are possibly paralleled by similar sentiments surrounding 'world music' today. At least the adjective 'Western'still maintains the distinction between Japanesemusical forms, whether they be traditionalor popular, and music whose roots lie in Europe or North America. Yet, given Japan'sgeographic and cultural position and at times ambiguous relationship with its own indigenous traditional musical forms, perceptions of 24 TerenceLancashire

'world music', though dominated by discourses which are recognisably supercultural - the adoption of the term in Japan is, itself, evidence of this - demand that alternativeperspectives be examined. The concept of the other lies at the root of 'world music'. But what constitutes the other in a Japanese setting? Although terminology juxtaposes Western music against Japanese forms, the former is now an integral part of Japanesemusic culture. Consequently,in Japan,that which constitutes the other is, in reality, defined against a shifting perceptualbase - a base in which both the West and the East are often confused. Thus the assimilationand direct appropriationof various 'Western' musical idioms into peripheries of Japanese popular music constitute part of a Japanesemainstream negating the position of the other. An elaborationof genres included within J-pop, already noted above, demonstratessubdivisions into kurabu (club), hippuhoppu (hip hop), tekuno(techno), hardcore/punk, Indie, ska-core/mixture (incorporatinga CD series entitled JapJam(Japanese Jamaican), melocore (music which retains a melodic core) and mainstream Japanese pop. These genres are complemented by their own specialist magazines such as Indies and Remix Club (titles are in English, content in Japanese),which report on both national and international trends in their respective fields. J-pop thus mirrorspopular music trends in the West, producing its own versions of genres, for example punk/hardcore, which are, perhaps, purposely located on the periphery of mainstreampopular music in the West but which, in fact, have become an integral part of a supercultureexpression of that periphery.5Although Japanesemagazines reporton both Westernand Japaneseexponents of these genres as if part of an interculturalwhole, the flow is almost always invariably one way, with Japaneseversions seldom finding their way into Western markets on a scale that makes any impact. CDs of mainstreamJ-pop performerUtada Hikaru and the Japanese hip hop group Dragon Ash, for example, are available on the global market created by Amazon.com and CDNOW.com,receiving enthusiastic reviews from their English and American purchasers.But essentially they remain elements of that global subculture. 'Worldmusic' in Japan,too, occupies its own spaces within this Westernpara- digm, for perceptions of the other can be directed towards musics not only geo- graphicallyremote but towards local musics distanced conceptuallyby internalcul- tural boundaries. In Japan, self-conscious adoption of supercultural identities undeniably means, for a great majority of the population, alienation from, or an ambivalent relationship towards indigenous traditionalforms of music once considered to be an integral part of Japanese life. This allows for the remodelling of the traditional into forms acceptable to a Japanese public who, through lack of knowledge, are unfetteredby concernsfor authenticity,and in turn provides a point of entry into genres hitherto shrouded by a veil of esotericism. One such genre is gagakumusic of the Japanesecourt and of major temples and shrines. In Osaka, the gagakubased at Shittenojitemple holds annual public performancesat the Festival Hall. These are well attended. However, exposure is minimal, and for those Japanese,particularly a younger generationunfamiliar with the word gagakuitself, the sounds are perhaps only recognisable through taped versions of the most familiarpiece in the gagakurepertory, 'Etenraku', occasionally played at wedding ceremonies. Gagakuoccupies an extreme position in the spectrum of traditionalJapanese music. In Osaka, lessons in the various instrumentsmay be obtained at the Tennoji Worldmusic or Japanese 25 gakusogaryokni or gagakutraining centre which annually offers places to twenty students to each instrument on the sho (bamboo piped mouth organ), hichiriki (double reed woodwind), ryuteki(horizontal flute), biwa (four-stringed plucked lute), gakuso(the gagakuversion of the koto- thirteen-stringedzither) and percussion types, on a 'first come, first serve' basis. The centre has its own website inviting people (on appointment) to drop in and observe practices every Thursday. How- ever, in contrastto the occasionalmin'yo (Japanese folksong) programmes,and programmes on no or 1wbukion NHK's educationalchannel, exposure to gagakuon the media is virtually non-existent. Without any concerted effort, gagakuremains an unknown entity to many people in Japan.As music initially intended for the court, temple and shrine, this remoteness is perhaps natural. But it is a remoteness that has placed the music of gagakuin the realm of the musical other. Only now, through CDs, and music composed for gagakuinstruments by Togi Hideki for television dramas, is a wider audience being reached.

T6gi and the gagaku connection Inaccessible,distanced by the veil of esotericism,gagaku, or its instruments, have attractedthe attention of the avant-gardeWestern composer or, alternatively,the Japanesecomposer trained in the Western idiom but discovering the music of his own country.John Cage's 'Two 4 for Violin/Piano or Sho (or Both)'is one example. Another is TakemitsuToru's 'In an Autumn Garden'for gagaku.But, by the nature of their compositional styles, these works do not attractpopular attention and, in terms of the spatial organisationof Tower Records,Virgin and HMV, their CDs are located firmly within the classical. By contrast,there are the compositions of Togi Hideki. Togi's relationshipto gagakuis special because, unlike JohnCage and TakemitsuToru, who have reached from the outside to take in elements of gagaku,Togi has come from both the outside and the inside. Togi is the insider, for his family's connectionsto gagakuare histori- cally deep and, more importantly he was a gagakushi- member of the Imperial Music Division, Boardof Ceremoniesin the ImperialHousehold Agency. Although Togi admits that he had no special interest in gagaku,he developed a sense that the music was 'uchino ongaku'('our music') through listening to the sounds which his grandfathermade practisingat home (Togi 2000A). But Togi is also the outsider for, as he explains, his initial musical tastes were formed not by the traditionalbut by superculturalmusical trends represented by 'the Beatles, rock and roll, classical music and jazz'. He retains his diverse tastes in music today with a stated prefer- ence for 1970s rock and the music of Pink Floyd (ibid.). Togi Hideki is a member of the Togi family, which has been connected to gagaku,on a hereditarybasis, since the Nara period (AD 710-94).6According to his 'Profile',the family was descended from a certainHatano Kawakatsuwho, in turn, claimed descent from the first emperorof the Manchu dynasty. The name Togi was granted by the Japanese prince regent Shotoku in the seventh century. For 1,300 years the family has been connected with the gagakuof the Imperial court, the gagakuat ShitennojiTemple in Osaka and that of the Tokugawa shogunate - rulers in Edo period Japan(AD 1600-1867). Togi Hideki's fatherworked for a tradingcompany, which meant that he himself spent some time in Thailandand Mexico as a child. Earlymusical ambitionsin high school were directed towards the formationof a rock band and, on finishing 26 TerenceLancashire

high school, he was determined to become some form of musician. It was in response to this that his mother (it is through her, not his father, that he inherits the name Togi) suggested that he should enrol in the 'ImperialMusic Division, Board of Ceremonies,Imperial Household Agency'. His initial reaction was one of resistance,but finding no logical excuse for disliking gagaku,he decided to 'give it a go' (Togi 2000A). In the ImperialMusic Division, he received instructionmainly in the hichiriki, but also learnt the biwa,various drum types, song and dance as well as the 'cello. He became a recognised gagakushiin 1986 and, as such, participatedin court per- formancesand ceremonies. However, being also interested in the piano, synthesizer and computer music, he began experimenting with his own compositions based on gagakumusic. His intention was to 'present to the world music that shows the harmony of Japanese traditions and new inventions', and this was realised in January 1996 with the release of his first album TogiHideki. The success of this, combined with a conflict of interest with the ImperialMusic Division (he states that restrictionsimposed by the Division ran counter to any creative act), prompted him to leave in September of the same year. He now devotes his time to composition, performance,television appearances,writing and the production of CDs. Since embarkingon a solo pro- fessional careeras an exponent of gagakuinstruments, chiefly the hichiriki,Togi has released, to date, eight CDs and one video. Thrust into the commercial world, the distinction between artistic creativity and commercialenterprise has become blurred for, in addition to the production of CDs, he contributesto, or is the subject of magazines ranging from Ongakukyoiku (Music education), Bogu Nippon (Vogue Japan) and Mens Ex to Pureiboi(Playboy Japan).Likewise, frequenttelevision appearancescover a wide range of programme types. 'Seishun Poppusu' (Youth Pop) with the explanation 'hichirikide poppusu o enso shimasu' ('I play pop on the hichiriki',8 May 2000, NHK); 'Irukani attekita koto' ('I Met Dolphins', explanation- 'Togi Hideki communicateswith dolphins in Hawaii', 30 March 2000, TBS);and a documentary in search of the sound of the ancient flute, 'Waga kokoro no tabi' ('A Journey of the Heart', 2 July 2000, NHK) are just some of the programmesin which he has appeared or presented. In addition to the production of CDs and concert performances,his musical activity has extended to compositionsfor television commercials(Suntory Pekoe - a canned drink of Pekoe tea), and theme tunes for a variety of television programmes including NHK's 'Shin Ajia Hakken' ('The Discovery of a New Asia). His activities have also extended into the theatre, taking on the part of Kent in a modern dance adaptationof King Learperformed at Tokyo's Shin KokuritsuGekijo (New National Theatre). Togi Hideki's concern, channelled through Toshiba EMI's publicity department, to change or popularise the image of gagakuthrough conveying a personal image of the modern young man, is evident on the home page which ToshibaEMI has createdfor him. A photographicgallery section entitled 'Shumino heya' ('Room of Hobbies') confuses images of a youthful Togi playing a synthesizer and electric guitar with images of pecuniarysuccess. Togi sits in his MercedesBenz; Togi stands next to his red Porsche;dressed in black leathers,Togi sits astride his Harley David- son. This positive display of blatant materialism seems to raise no postmodern reflection,an equably viable promotion strategy given the antiquity of gagaku. Worldmusic or Japanese 27

Tagitsmusic But what of Togi's music? New tunes for gagakucombined with synthesizer and instrumentsnot associated with the court or temple demand an alternativeform of classification,for Togi has extricated his gagakufrom the Japanese traditionaland placed it in an area which, in a Japanesecontext, meets with an unclear response. In the small CD store, Togi's music is often located within jun hogaku- pure (traditional)Japanese music. However, for the larger Tower Records, Virgin and HMV in downtown Osaka,Togi's music, though rooted in the native, has unequivo- cally become the music of the other: Togi's CDs reside in 'world music'- sub- address, 'Asian healing'. This is the (or rather,an) external response to his music, for Togi himself states that he wishes to: make music that feels good to me. I'm not particularlyconcerned with the questionof genres, of gagakuversus Westernmusic. Still, even when I create new music, I am always aware of gagaku'sspecial place in my heart. To me, gagakuitself is the perfect form of artistic expression. (Tsuchiya2000) Thus in the new there is always the old and, through this combination,Togi seeks to introducegagaku to a wider audience. CD compilations,therefore, include a mixture of his own compositions and his arrangementsof classic gagakupieces. Even in the new compositions,with the addition of synthesizerto provide beat and supplementarytimbral nuances, the melodic lines, as in gagaku,are uncomplicated with extended notes and there is no display of melodic acrobatics. The hichiriki retains throughout its characteristicupward gliding into notes - an ornamentation known as enbai,which is fundamental to hichirikiplaying in all performancesof classic gagaku. In the concert hall, Togi often maintains a temporal distinction between his own compositions and the classic repertoire.Divided into two halves, the first is devoted to performances of gagaku where he and his mother and sister, who accompany him on the sho and ryuteki,respectively, appear in traditionalgagaku costume. The second half is made up of his own compositions. Dressed in modern (Western)costume, and surroundedby grand piano and synthesizer, he plays the hichiriki.The stage becomes a sea of white smoke supposedly to createan additional sense of mystery- 'New age'? 'Healing'? On the other hand, in his CDs, particularlyhis early examples, Togi Hideki (1996)and Gensofu(1997), gagaku structures are a consciously integratedpart of the whole with less clearly defined distinctions between the new and the old. Togi Hidekibegins with his own composition 'Hikarino Jo' ('Preludeof Light'), a short piece which, Togi explains, correspondsto the netoriof gagaku- an opening section whereby instruments make adjustments by playing a short melody before embarking on the main pieces. 'Hikari no Jo' is followed by Togi's own compositions on the one hand, and a reworking of the gagakupiece 'Etenraku',which he entitles here 'Etenrakugensokyoku' ('EtenrakuFantasy'), on the other. A closer look at this piece demonstrates how Togi attempts to reassemble this eleventh- century composition and make it more digestible for the modern ear. The original 'Etenraku'7is made up of three melodic sections played on the hichirikiand the ryutekito the accompanimentof the sho, biwa, koto and various drum types (Example1). These, melodies are each repeatedtwice with a final return to two repeats of melodies A and B at the end, so that a structuralpattern of A A B B C C A A B B pertains. (Apartfrom the opening melody, repetitionsof melodies } J j } J ffi JJ 1 J J} I J 4J 1 J t J J I Dz JJx $ I

28 TerenceLancashire Threemelodies in Etenraku- originalversion

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Example1 in Example 1 and in subsequent scores are omitted. Other accompanying instru- mentation is also omitted.) In Togi's version, he retains melody A, alters B slightly and creates his own version of melody C (Example2). As in the gagakuoriginal, melody A is first played by the ryutekialone with sho accompanimentand then repeated with the addition of the hichirikisecond time around. However, there is no repetition of the other melodies, so the entire structureof Togi's version is shortened to A A B C A A. In addition, in order to make his version more palatable for his listening public, Togi 'irons out' the odd dissonance and awkward movement (heterophony) in the original hichirikipart. He exchanges, for example, the low F-naturalin bar 2 of melody B (Example 1) for a G (Example2) to facilitate a more logical melodic progressionand to match the ryutekipart, and omits the same awkward note altog- ether in bar 6 of the same melody. In addition, all the F-naturalsin both the ryuteki and hichirkiare sharpened to facilitate easier synthesizer harmonisation.Through these minor alterations, the melody of the hichirikiand the ryutekiconsequently become virtually identical. The tempo of Togi's version is also stabilised and quickened. In performances by the gagakuof the ImperialHousehold Agency, the tempo is uneven, due particularly to frequent extended pauses between phrases within the melodies.8However, in the melodic movement, the tempo of the gagakuversion registers somewhere around a very slow twenty-eight beats a minute. This contrastsconsiderably with XJ J 1; r IJ J j IJ - IJ J ¢ l"j. IJ X J g

Worldmusic or Japanese 29 Etenrakugensokyoku (EtenSu Fantasy,by Togi Hideki,author's transuiption) ryuteki melodyA @t- - } - I - I - Ir f tr J:lt

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T6gi's more up-beat, but still moderate tempo of around sixty to sixty-two beats a minute.9The end result is that the total performancetime for the original gagaku performanceof 'Etenraku',with its extra repeats, lasts over nine minutes, whereas Togi's version is an easily digestible three minutes fifty-threeseconds. Finally, the most conspicuous alterationto the original is the addition of synthesizer accompaniment.Arpeggio chords form a new introduction changing the heterophony of the original to a harmonic composition. These chords continue throughoutthe piece accompanyingthe melody line on the hichirikiand ryutekiand provide a clearersense of tonal base.l° Tempo alterations and harmony apart, by altering notes of the hichirikiin XJ. J IJJ 1} -J l_JJ CI j =1 t Is}J D J I

30 TerenceLancashire melodyB @ lo : ;#Jl: Jrlf r l#f rC:It r9S

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e f f f 1t i If t In ll Example2b melody B to createa smoothermelodic line, Togi implicitly questions the musicality of the gagakuoriginal adding to the debate on the accuracy of the transmission process. His rendition emphasises his position, which contrasts with that of the gagakuestablishment, where he wishes to give priority to musicality (gagakuas art) as opposed to the strict adherence to a supposedly 'correct'form handed down unquestioningly from generationto generation. Synthesizerharmonies set the mood for what has become one of Togi's signature tunes: 'Tsuis6' ('Memories')on the same CD. These harmonies add interest to simple melodies, one on the hichirikiplayed by Togi himself, and the other on the ryutekiplayed by his sister. His mother contributeswith cluster chords on the sho. I provide the melody lines only and again show no repeats of the melodies (Example3). These simple unembellished melodies are typical of Togi's compositions and, melody E

Worldmusic or Japanese 31

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Example3 as one of Togi's signature tunes, this piece may be considered representativeof his compositional style. The simplicity of the melodies and slow, steady tempo are influenced, as Togi admits in general, by the essence of gagaku.The piece is a little under seven and a half minutes and, despite the brevity of the melodies, this dur- ation owes its length to the frequent repetition of these melodies with very little thematicdevelopment, a factorwhich is again characteristicof gagaku(Garflas 1975, p. 81). The overall structureof 'Tsuiso' is A A B B B B(1) C A D D A A B B B B(1) E A. The tempo of melodies A and B is sixty beats a minute and this changes to seventy-eight beats from melody C, remaining so to the end of the composition, even with the repeats of melodies A and B. However, in contrastto the 4/4 or 8/4 time, which often characterisestraditional gagaku (Garfias 1975), the beat in 'Tsuiso' is in triple metre - a metre which is uncommon in Japanese traditionalmusic. In terms of modality too, the first melody could approximateto that of ichikotsucho (one of the six gagakumodes whose tonal centre is, in this case, A) but this is disturbed by the presence of pitch C. Likewise, there is a brief shift from A minor to A major,or at least an example of the melodic minor scale in the ascent, as the melody moves from B1 to C. These are all departures from the gagakunorm and spring from Togi's own (Western-derived)musical sense. Another piece on the Togi HidekiCD, 'Yuzu', makes a personal connection. Yuzu is purportedly the name of Togi's original ancestor, King Yuzu, whose descendant, Hatano, became a naturalisedJapanese. Here, the music is performed only on three instrumentshichiriki, sho and ryuteki,with the occasional addition of synthesised koto.Without any other synthesiser accompaniment,this piece creates the atmosphere of traditionalgagaku. 32 TerenceLancashire

Togi's third CD, Gensofu,follows a similarpattern to TogiHideki, incorporating much of the traditionalwith the modern. The opening contemporarypopular idiom of the first three tunes with synthesised percussion, piano and hichirikicontrast with Togi's succeeding 'Kiyura'composed in the gagakuidiom. The following piece, 'Banshikicho netori', precedes an attempted reconstruction of 'Chogen raku', a gagakupiece not performed today. Togi explains that he found the notation for the hichirikipart in his grandfather'shouse and, on the basis of this, attempted its reconstruction.A reworking of 'Kimi ga yo' - the Japanesenational anthem, com- pletes the eclectic nature of this album. Easternidentity is broadened in his album, FromAsia, where the newness of his approach to gagakubecomes a symbol for a new Asian perspective and force. The title of this CD is in Englishbut the katakanascript renditionSromu eijiadeliber- ately changes the normalpronunciation of Asia - ajiato eijia.This is a play on words to evoke the beginning of a new age as the word 'age' is pronounced 'eiji' in Japanese.The piece 'Yo ake furusato'became the theme tune for a television series, 'Shin Ajia Hakken' ('Discoveryof a New Asia'). Here, all the compositions are new and only the solo hichirikipiece, 'Asakurano netori', hints of gagaku. In stark contrastto FromAsia, Togi returns to the source of his inspirationby devoting a whole album to gagakupieces - GagakuTen Chi Sora Sennenno Yuga (Gagaku- Heaven, Earth,Sky - a Thousand Years of a Distant Elegance).This, as Togi himself states, is a primer for gagaku,with CD notes in the form of a mini- booklet providing not only historical and technical detail but Togi's own thoughts on the relationshipbetween gagakuand Japaneseculture. Gagakuis a form of perceiving the universe, a philosophy, a harmony of aesthetics. Gagaku is not just the sound; it is, perhaps, the wellspring of all Japaneseculture. Here, and in other writings, he explains a perspective of the universe deriving from onyodo(or onmyodo)- the way of the in/yo, Chinese yin/yang whereby the instrumentssho, hichiriki and ryutekiare, respectively, symbolic of the heaven, earth and sky - hence the subtitle of this CD. The sho sounds the light that comes from the heavens. The hichirikiis the sound of the human voice - the sound of the face of the earth. Finally, there is the ryuteki,which, as the Chinese characterssuggest, denotes 'the cry of the dragon swimming in the space between the heaven and the earth- the sky'. Togi has selected what he considers representativepieces in the gagakurepertory for an uninitiated listener who, he worries, 'on being suddenly exposed to gagaku,may fall asleep'. Pieces include the Togaku(gagaku of Chinese origin) 'Eten- raku', 'Bairo'and 'Ranryod',the vocal roei piece 'Jisei'and a Komagaku(gagaku of Koreanorigin) piece, 'Nasori'. As if to demonstratethat this CD occupied a special position in Togi's output serving perhaps more as a didactic tool than entertainment,on the same day of its release on 1 January2000, anotherCD, Togism2 was also availablein stores. As with an earlierTogism, this CD representsa compilationof best previous compositionsas well as some new arrangements,one in particularreinforcing his affinity with the popular in his version of the Beatles' 'Hey Jude' and 'Yesterday'played on the hichiriki. These CDs, with the addition of Modeof Rising Sun, Happano Furedi- Inochi no Tabi(a collaborativeeffort with T6gi producing music for a narration),Togism 2001, and a video Ten to Chi to Sora Sennenno Yuga (Heaven, Earth and Sky - a Thousand Years of a Distant Elegance)represent Togi's work to date. Worldmusic or Japanese 33

Togi's gagaku - the reaction Modifying the traditionalthrough new compositionsor rearrangingthe old through the adoption of contemporaryinstrumentation is a predominant feature in many 'world music' examples. In Japan,the reworking of min'yo,jazz tunes for shakuch- achi, and, more recently, the appropriationof the Okinawa sanshin (shamisen)in examples of f-pop' follow superculturaltrends. But the culturalbaggage that surrounds gagakuis dominated by a strong sense of history, heritage and a perceived need to preserve and retain, unchanged, a music that originates, in its Japanese form, in the Nara era. Gagaku,as Togi himself likes to believe, is the 'wellspring of Japaneseculture' and, as such, must occupy a sacrosanctposition within that body of music in Japan,which is emblematicof the traditional. If this is the status of gagakuin Japanthen Togi's musical activities are contradictory. He is in conflict with the position adopted by the gagakushiof the Imperial Household Agency. For them, as he sees it, gagakuas tradition has become more importantthan gagakuas music. Togi's aim is, on the other hand, to shift that bal- ance towards gagakuas music, but in order to achieve this, he has had to leave the ImperialHousehold Agency. In a frank conversation with journalistMiyazaki Midori, Togi admits to the conflict of interests and an incompatibilitybetween himself and the gagakushiof the Imperial court. He relates his difficult relationship with them and their attitudes towards his music making.The conversationis revealing and, for this reason,worth quoting at length. Miyazaki: When you quit the ImperialHousehold you got a fair amount of bashing. Togi: It is a strange story, but in the gagakuworld they think that any contactwith me is bad. M: Why is that? T: If they listen to my music, which is differentto gagaku,that is OK, but if I add the hichiriki,this is a violation against gagaku. M: Are you seen as a heretic? T: I was a heretic from the time I entered the ImperialHouse Agency so I have become used to it. I don't feeling anything now. M: But doesn't that attitude bother you? T: As I too was in the ImperialHousehold, I can understandthis kind of thinking. They don't want to change gagaku.Since the beginning of the gagakuryo (gagaku institute) in A.D. 701 they want to continue to maintain the same way of doing things. M: 701? That's the same year of the founding of the TaikaReforms. T: Because of their efforts, gagaku has been able to survive, handed down unchanged from the past. And so they don't want to change it now. You can't tell them to do something new. But I want them to look into gagakumore closely, to really take responsibility and to approach gagakuwith much more artistic feeling. I decided to quit because I felt strong doubts about performinggagaku as a public civil servant. M: When you are in the confining position of public civil servant, there are many restrictions.There are rules forbiddingadditional work on the side. Concertsare impossible. T: But when I was in the ImperialHousehold, I had alreadybegun concertactivity and I released my first CD during my employment. M: Did you release it in secrecy?Were they angry with you? T: At the time they made every effort to avoid me but they weren't directly angry with me. M: Was it a case of 'The wise man avoids danger'? 34 TerenceLancashire

T: Higher-level individuals understood what I was doing as a way to heighten knowledge of gagaku. M: There are also broadmindedpeople too. T: But, in fact I didn't think that I would appear to this extent on the media. M: You were rushed. T: At one time, when I was appearing for a television interview, the 'Togi Hideki problem' arose amongst the higher levels of the Imperial Household Agency. They carriedout the meeting thoroughly. M: They deliberatedthe 'Togi problem'. T: At one time, before such a meeting, the television happened to be switched on and I was appearingas a guest on the programme'Tetsuko no Heya' ('Tetsuko's Room'). M: That must have been hard. Of course you kept silent about appearing on that programme[beforehand]. T: I kept silent about everything. I knew that there was no way that I would get . permlsslon.. M: Indeed, you are not cut out to be a 'salaryman'[Japanese English for a company office worker]. T: 'Not Hideki again?' Because there are many people in the Music Department with the name Togi they would call you by your first name. M: Was it a difficult position to be in? T: The people in the higher positions were OK, the others in the same work area with me would take care as to how they would treat me and I would have to take care too. It was suffocatingat times. No-one would directly say to me 'Isn't what you are doing bad?'. M: Thatis very Japanese.If only people would come and say clearlywhat they think to your face. T: When I would go into the gagakushiroom it felt as if they had been talking about the latest rumoursabout me. They would all suddenly stop talkingand hurriedly begin to write something. M: That's really phony. A weak person would be destroyed by that. (The conversation shifts to other matters.)(Nii 2000, pp. 12v8; author'stranslation) This conversation clearly demonstrates the contradictory spaces that Togi inhabits. Togi aims to bring gagaku,through both contemporarycompositions and the reworking of original gagakupieces, to a wider audience, but in so doing, has become alienated by one of the very institutions which bears the mantle of that tradition.He still uses the title gagakushibut in his stage performancesof gagakuhe cuts a somewhat lonely figure supported only by his immediate family - mother and sister. Nevertheless, the gagakuof the ImperialHousehold Agency is a remote existence and that remoteness inhibits it from challengingTogi's position as defacto spokesman of and mediator between the esoteric world of gagakuand a wider public. He has become, and is seen by the outsider as the representative of an institution, which, in fact, denies that representation. Although Togi respects the role that the Music Division of the ImperialHouse- hold Agency played in contributingto the preservation and transmission of that tradition,he prefersto adopt an alternativerole outside its parameters.As he states, in his interview with Miyazaki,it is better to be the one who is envied than to be a part of the group that does the envying (presumablyhis success). But Togi occupies other spaces which transcend the necessity of institutions and appeals to a more fundamentallevel of identity, that of being Japanese.In this respect,Togi's activities resonate with the paradigm of sound and identity (Stokes 1994).As in any country which has lost much through a rapid process of modernisation,identity, and more importantlysymbols of that identity, take on a fictitious aspect as they go through a constant process of reformulation. Worldmusic or Japanese 35

The Nihonjinronof the 1970s, where Japanologistsand quasilapanologists in Japan endeavoured to determine social and behavioural patterns unique to the Japanese, falls within this paradigm of identity construction. Nihonjinronalso received much attention, often critical,by scholars outside Japanin the 1980s who counteredby emphasising the place of the individual in Japanesesociety. Neverthe- less, Nikonjinronis 'the interesting story' in Japanese studies and gets its post- mortem examinationas recently as 1999 in Henshall's Dimensionsof JapaneseSociety (Henshall 1999).Similarly, Pecore examines its influence on formulatingmusic education policy in Japan in terms of a rediscovery and emphasis on Japanese traditional music as a means of introducing young students to instruments which reflect,in the thinking of some, the essence of what it is to be Japanese.She quotes a music teacher, Mr Sugimoto, who explains that it is important to teach the shamisenbecause it 'has passed through the blood of our ancestors'(Pecore 2000, p. 127). To what extent Nihonjinronand the fictions that it engendered influenced general thinking in Japanis debatable.For Mouer's and Sugimoto's 'averageJapanese', the thirty-five-year-oldhousewife, one suspects that the influence was non-existent and that subscribersto such thinking were a minority of middle-aged males search- ing for some proof of valued self-identitythrough being uniquely Japanese.Never- theless, there are echoes of the music teacher Sugimoto in Togi's own writings on gagaku.Togi aims to re-awakena latent and long-lost appreciationof the sounds of gagaku,which, he suggests, is inherent in the nature of being Japanese.In a news- paper article,he is quoted as saying:

Gagakuincorporated the astrology of onyodo[the way of the yin/yang]of the Heian era. It is a music which matches the laws of nature of the universe. The human body is also like the universe. The sensitivitiesof the Heian period have been put to sleep [by the modernworld?] in the cells of our [the Japanese]bodies. The sounds of my hichirikican perhaps shake up these cells. (Takechi2000, p.l)

This thinking is elaborated even further in his explanatorynotes for his CD gagakuwhere he details an approach to listening to, or rather,feeling gagaku.The sounds of gagaku:

. . .like breathingnaturally enter us through our mouth, nose and the roots of our hair and then tickle our cells. In 'we Japanese',it seems there is a JapaneseDNA. If, as DNA, music and the arts of ancient times, or the way of feeling nature, have been passed on down to modern man, this DNA yearns [to be released].I believe that, in our modern heads, this has just been forgotten and that this sense/feeling in our cells has not been lost. (Togi 2000, GagakuTen Chi SoraSennen no Yuga)

As if to confirm such sentiments, a fan, appropriatingTogi's language, similarly remarks,in an e-mail response to a Togi concert, 'as Togi has already said in his thoughts about the classical,. . .there is embedded within me a JapaneseDNA. I felt a strange sense of nostalgia [on hearing your music]' (Hisumiko2000). In such contexts, through the constructionof such unscientificfiction, the concertshave, in part become musical events, which construct fictive senses of collective identity (Stokes 1994, pp. 1-27). But, in reality, the world of gagakuis distant, for it is only from the gagaku practitionerand gagakuscholar, both Japaneseand foreign alike, that cries for authenticity are heard and expressions of disdain for Togi's new compositions made.ll 36 TerenceLancashire

In contrast,a mix of both traditionalgagaku forms and the new meets with a benign response from many listeners in Japan who are sufficiently removed from the gagakuworld to be concerned with any musical tampering.12To the uninitiated individual, the remotenessof gagakuis made accessiblethrough Togi's own compositions dressed in sonorities (synthesizerharmonies) familiar to those whose music sensibilities are more Western derived than Eastern.Yet a certain degree of exoticism, intrinsic in the sounds of the gagakuinstruments themselves, is retained and this exoticism routes Togi's music into the spaces designated to the other exoticisms that make up the 'world music' department in the Japanese CD store. The real exoticism of the gagakuoriginals is softened in Togi's own 'easy listening' compositions (a category also occasionally applied to his music). These softened versions, combined with an interest born from the Western-derivedsupercultural discourse of 'world music', serve as a bridge enabling people in Japan to enter or, perhaps, return to the early sonorities of the East.

Conclusion Togi's mix of the traditional and the modern is a feature common to many music examples which are located in the 'world music' spectrum. Likewise, Togi's music raises issues that resonate with the dynamics operating behind other musics similarly classified, and issues particular to Togi's own situation. By virtue of being Japanese,Togi's activities occur within the dominant positions which Japan occupies in Appadural's finanscape, mediascape and technoscape. In such contexts, dialogues on appropriation,inequalities of power, the user and the used are irrelevant. However, this does not mean that Togi's activities are devoid of conflict and controversy. Three interrelated issues are of particular interest here. The first is that Togi has come from the inside, from the Imperial Music Division of the Imperial Household Agency to reach outwards and introduce gagaku to a wider public. But in doing so, he has become the outsider, forced to resign his position as gagakushiand shunned by an inner circle of gagakumusicians who believe they possess inalienable rights to the transmission of that tradition. Togi has, in other words, come up against the politics of preservation where any intrinsic artistic merit in the music is subordinated to the value of that music as a historical, cultural symbol, and the process of preservationbecomes an end in itself. Secondly, in addition to an educative role, Togi has, through his own compositions, brought gagaWkuinto the popular domain and, in so doing, has destroyed the almost sacrosanct aura which surrounds gagaku. Instruments manufactured and used for the performance of one genre and one genre of music only have now become sound tools for expressing 'Hey Jude' and 'Yesterday'. Finally, despite Togi's attempt to revitalise a uniquely Japanese 'biological' proximity to gagaku,the reality of the distance between the traditionaland the present allows for an uncriticalacceptance c)f Togi's music whether the tunes be new or old. Perceptionsof music identity in Japantoday are dominated, not by discourses internally derived, but by those originating from Western contexts. This permits Togi to become the unrepresentativerepresentative of the gagakutradition, which, because of this distance, has become the music of the other - one example of 'world music' in Japan. Worldmusic or Japanese 37

Endnotes

1. The term 'world music' was adopted, in 1987, supercultural music symbol for the native or by representativesof independentrecord com- the minority migrant (Feld 1994, p. 273). panies, concertpromoters and the like during 6. The year usually given for the beginning of the a meeting in a North Londonpub, in response Nara period in Japanese dictionaries and to the increasing public demand for African encyclopaedia is AD 710, which is the year music. Philip Sweeney provides the details when the seat of government was established and his story is also quoted in TimothyD. Tay- in Nara (e.g. Kodansha's Japan Illustrated lor's GlobalPop (Sweeney 1991, p. ix; Taylor Encyclopedia 1993, p. 1,051). On artistic 1997,p. 2). grounds, however, the previous Hakuhoperiod 2. Following Japaneseconvention, family names is sometimes included pushing the date back are given first followed by given name. to AD 646 (see Nelson 1962, p. 1,017; or Haig 3. In the introductionto his book JapanPop!, Tim- 1997, p. 1,252), though Japanese scholars avoid othy Craig argues that, in recent years, the this latter convention. impact of Japanese popular culture on the 7. The score here is abstracted from that pro- West has been considerable. He cites, for duced by Shiba Sukehiro in his Gosenfuni yoru example, Japaneseanimation, the film music gagaku sofu (1969) (Gagakuin Westernnotation). of KomuroTetsuya, Nintendo games, karaoke, In this, and the remaining scores, the actual and the Pokemanphenomenon (Craig 2000, p. pitch of the instruments is about a semitone 5). The success of the animationSen to Chihiro lower than written. no Kamilcakushi(Sen and the MysteriousDisap- 8. I used a recording of 'Etenraku' by the pearanceof Chihiroor the Americantitle Spirited Imperial Household Agency on the CD Gagaku Away),which won the best film award in the in the series JapaneseTraditional Music. BerlinInternational Film Festival2002 is, per- 9. The slowest measure obtainable on the metro- haps, an additional example. However, it is nome I used was thirty beats a minute. The debatable whether Nintendo, Pokemon or tempo of the Court version of 'Etenraku' was karaoke, particularly in a Western context, marginally slower than this. convey anything distinctly Japanese and the 10. Owing to difficulties in transcription, the dearthof any form of informationon Japanin chords accompanying melodies B and C the mass media in the West or at least in the shown in the score here are approximations. UK, to which I return for a short while every Nevertheless, reproduced on my computer, year, is more striking and contrastswith the they match reasonably enough Togi's version abundant informationon Europe and North on the CD. Togi himself has published a more America which is available, through the simplified version of his version of 'Etenraku' Japanesemedia, on a daily basis. in Western notation form. The accompaniment 4. Although Japanese popular music has been differs from the CD version, but the chord pro- introduced into a number of Asian markets, gressions used helped to provide a clue to the particularlyTaiwan and Hong Kong, Korea accompaniment of the melody (T6gi 2000s). As had, until 1998, severely limited the import- the melodies are repeated, the accompaniment ation of any form of Japanese art into the changes. The full extent of this is not shown country- a legacy of Second World War ten- here, but the transcription is sufficient to show sions. A relaxation on restrictionson music, how T6gi has reworked 'Etenraku'. films, magazines and the like, encouragedby 11. A T6gi concert given in Hiroshima, to which the joint hosting of the 2002 WorldSoccer, and participants of the 1999 I.C.T.M. conference a change of leadership in Korea, has altered were invited, met with a negative response this situation. However, recent (2001) contro- from those scholars with a particular interest versy over differing historical perceptions of in gagaku. the colonisation of Japan, as depicted in 12. The positive reaction to Togi's music, in con- Japanese school textbooks, has met with trast to the criticisms of the minority of special- furtherreconsideration, on the Koreanpart, of ists, is evidenced in the success that T6gi has culturalexchange. achieved as performer, composer and recently, 5. Steven Feld points to a similar appropriation resulting from his fame, as actor in television of Reggaeoutside the West Indies as an 'oppo- dramas. His music is used for a variety of tele- sitional, roots ethno-pop' by migrants and vision programmes and he appears in tele- indigenes in diverse places around the world. vision commercials playing the hichirikiwhich, 'Reggae'too has, in a similar way become the in a Japanese context, is proof of success. 38 TerenceLancashire

References Appadurai,A. 1996.Modernity at LargeCultural Dimensions of Globalization(Minneapolis) Broughton,S., and Ellingham,M. 2000. WorldMusic: The Rough Guide. Volume 2: LatinS NorthAmerica, Caribbean,India, Asia and Pacific(London) Cahoon,K. 1993. 'Popularmusic in Japan',Japan: An IllustratedEncyclopedia (Tokyo), pp. 1,287 Craig,T. (ed.) 2000.Japan Pop! Inside the Worldof JapanesePopular Culture (New York,London) De Launcey,G. 1995. 'Not so big in Japan.Western pop music in the Japanesemarket', Popular Music, 14/2, pp. 203-25 Ewbank, A.J., and Papageorgiou,F. 1997. %i'hoseMaster's Voice? The Developmentof PopularMusic in ThirteenCultures (Westport, CT) Feld, S. 1994. 'Fromschizophonia to schismogenesis:on the discourses and commodificationpractices of 'world music' and 'world beat', in MusicGrooves, ed. C. Keil and S. Feld (Chicagoand London), pp. 257-89 Frith,S. 1991. WorldMusic, Politics and SocialChange: Papers from the International Association for the Study of PopularMusic (Manchester) Fujie,L. 1989.'Popular music', in Handbookof JapanesePopular Culture, ed. R. Powers and HidetoshiKato (Westport,CT), pp. 197-220 2001. 'Popularmusic in Japan',in TheNew GroveDictionary of Musicand Musicians, ed. S. Sadie (second edition, vol. 12), pp. 888 Garfias,R. 1975. Musicof a ThousandAutumns, The Togaku Style of JapaneseCourt Music (Departmentof Music, Universityof California,Los Angeles) Haig, J. 1997. TheNew Nelson,based on the Classic Editionby Andrew N. Nelson (Tokyo) Henshall,K.G. 1999.Dimensions of JapaneseSociety (London) Hisumiko. 2000. http:/ / wwwtoshiba-emi.co . jp / togi/ dengonban/ dengon/ index-j.htm Hosokawa Syuhei. 1994.Japanese Popular Music of the Past twentyYears - Mainstreamand Underground (translatedby LarryRichards) (Tokyo) Keil, C., and Feld, S. 1994.Music Grooves (Chicago and London) Kodansha.1993. Japan Illustrated Encyclopedia (Tokyo) McClure,S. 1998.Nipponpop (Tokyo) Mitsui Toru. 1991.A Guideto PopularMusic in Japan(Japan Branch of the InternationalAssociation for the Study of PopularMusic) 1997. 'The interactionof imported and indigenous musics in Japan:A historicaloverview of popular music and its industry',in %i'hoseMaster's Voice?: The Development of PopularMusic in ThirteenCul- tures,ed. A.J.Ewbank and F. Papageorgiou,pp. 152-74 1998. 'Domesticexoticism: A recent trend in Japanesepopular music', PerkstBeat, 4/3, pp. 1-12 2002. 'Twentieth-centurypopular music in Japan',in EastAsia: China, Japan, and Korea- TheGarland Encyclopediaof WorldMusic, vol. 7, ed. R.C. Provine, Yosihiko Tokumaru and J.L. Witzleben (London),pp. 743-7 Mouer, R., and Sugimoto, Y. 1986. Imagesof JapaneseSociety: a Study in the Structureof SocialReality (London) Nelson, A.N. 1962. TheModern Reader's Japanese-English Dictionary, second revised edition (Tokyo) Nii Ruiji.2000. 'Togi Hideki san gagakushi',ShuScan Yomiuri, 20 February(Tokyo), pp. 12G8 Pecore,J.T. 2000. 'Bridgingcontexts, transforming music: The case of elementaryschool teacherChihara Yoshio', Ethnomusicology,44/1, pp. 120-36 Provine, R.C., TokumaruYoshihiko, and Witzleben,J.L. 2002. EastAsia: China,Japan, and Korea- The GarlandEncyclopedia of WorldMusic, vol. 7 (London) Shiba Sukehiro.1969. Gosenfuni yorugagaku sofu (Tokyo) Slobin, M. 1992. 'Micromusicsof the West:A comparativeapproach', Ethnomusicology, 36/1, pp. 1-87 Stanlaw,J. 1989. 'Not East not West, not old not new: Trends and genres in Japanesepopular music', WorldS I, 4/11, pp. 621-33 Stokes,M. 1994. 'Introduction:Ethnicity, identity and music' in Ethnicity,Identity and Music: The Musical Constructionof Place,ed. M. Stokes (Oxford),pp. 1-27 Sweeney, P. 1991. TheVirgin Directory of WorldMusic (London) TakechiYukinori. 2000. 'GagakushiTogi Hideki',Nihon Keizai Shinbun (evening edition), 31 March,p. 1 Taylor,T.D. 1997.Global Pop 'WorldMusic', World Markets (New York,London) Togi Hideki. 2000A. 'Profile',http://wwwtoshiba-emi.co.jp/togi/profile.index-j.htm 2000B. TogiHideki gakki gasso ni yoru Etenraku(Tokyo) Worldmusic or Japanese 39

Tsuchiya Komei. 2000. 'Fusing gagaku with modern music T6gi Hideki', http://www.jinjapan.org/ nipponia /nipponia61 cover.html 'Shumi no Heya', http://www.toshiba-emi.co.jp/togi/hobby/index-j.htm Tsurumi Shunsuke. 1987. 'Trends in popular songs since the 1960s', A Cultural History of Postwar Japan (London), pp. 70-102

Discography

Togi Hideki. Toshiba EMI TOCT-9340. 1996 Mode Of Rising Sun. Toshiba EMI TOCT-9629. 1996 Gensofu. Toshiba EMI TOCT-9919. 1997 Togism. Toshiba EMI TOCT-10188. 1998 From Asia. Toshiba EMI TOCT-24093. 1999 Gagaku Ten Chi Sora Sennen no Yuga. Toshiba EMI TOCT- 24293. 2000 TOGISM2. Toshiba EMI TOCT-24294. 2000 TOGISM 2001. Toshiba EMI TOCT-24571. 2001 Gagaku:Japanese Traditional Music. King Record Co. Tokyo KICH. 2001

Video

Ten to Chi to Sora Sennen no Yuga. Toshiba EMI Tovf-1343. 2000