Field Survey of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Tsunami

Survey Report: Field Survey of the Tsunami Caused by the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of December 26, 2004 and the Restoration

of Impacted Inland Water Bodies in Sri Lanka

£ £

Anil C. Wijeyewickrema £1, Shusaku Inoue 2, Priyantha Gunaratna 3, £

Manoj Madurapperuma £1, Hiroyuki Matsumoto 4, £ Hiroyuki Miura £5, and Toru Sekiguchi 6

£1Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan E-mail: [email protected]

£2Department of Built Environment, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

£3Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

£4Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Japan

£5Center for Urban Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

£6Department of Architecture and Building Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan [Received May 31, 2006; accepted July 10, 2006]

The magnitude 9.0 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake on December 26, 2004, was one of the world’s largest since 1900. The devastating tsunami resulting from it caused more casualties than any previously reported tsunami. This paper describes two field visits to assess tsunami damage in Sri Lanka by a team of Japanese and Sri Lankan researchers and environ- mental restoration plans for tsunami-impacted inland water bodies. The first field visit, Dec. 30, 2004-Jan. 04, 2005, covered western, southwestern and southern Sri Lanka and included the cities of Beruwala, Pere- liya, Hikkaduwa, Galle, Talpe, Matara, and Hamban- tota. The second field visit, March 10-18, 2005, cov- ered northeastern, eastern, southeastern and southern Sri Lanka and included Trincomalee, Kuchchaveli, Pasikkudah, Batticaloa, Arugam Bay, Yala (National Park), and Kirinda. Eyewitness information on wave arrival times is also discussed.

Keywords: damage, field survey, Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, Sri Lanka, tsunami Fig. 1. Epicenter of Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and sur- rounding countries. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thai- land were most seriously affected. 1. Introduction

The facts of the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake are as or missing in Indonesia alone. Other countries reporting follows: magnitude: 9.0; time: 00:58:53 (Coordinated large numbers of dead or missing due to the tsunami were

Universal Time), December 26, 2004; local time at the Sri Lanka, with 35,322; India, with 18,045; and Thailand, Æ

epicenter: 07:58:53, December 26, 2004; location: 33 N with 8,212 (UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Æ

99 E; depth: 33km; region: off the west coast of North- Recovery, 2006). The location of the epicenter and sur-

ern Sumatra (USGS, 2004). Earthquakes since 1900 with rounding countries are shown in Fig. 1. magnitudes 9 0 include the 1960 Great Chilean earth- Field visit routes and main cities covered are shown quake, magnitude 9.5; the 1964 Prince William Sound, in Fig. 2. The first visit, from Dec. 30, 2004, to Jan. Alaska earthquake, 9.2; and the 1952 Kamchatka earth- 04, 2005, covered western, southwestern and southern quake, 9.0 (USGS, 2006). The tsunami generated by the Sri Lanka and included the cities of Beruwala, Pere- Sumatra-Andaman earthquake resulted in more casual- liya, Hikkaduwa, Galle, Talpe, Matara, and Hambantota. ties than any previous tsunami Ð 167,736 people killed The second visit, from March 10 to 18, 2005, covered

Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 123 Wijeyewickrema, A. C. et al.

Route 1 Route 2

Kuchchaveli Punkadimalai Nilaveli Trincomalee

Pasikkudah Navatkuda East Batticaloa Kalmunai Akkaraipattu Komari Colombo Arugam Bay

Beruwala Yala Pereliya Palatupana Hikkaduwa Talpe Kirinda Galle Hambantota Matara

Fig. 2. Field visit routes. Route 1: Colombo, Beruwala, Pereliya, Hikkaduwa, Galle, Talpe, Matara, and Hambantota. Route 2: Colombo, Trincomalee, Kuchchaveli, Pasikkudah, Batticaloa, Arugam Bay, Yala (National Park), and Kirinda.

Fig. 3. Pereliya: Although this area is about 200 m inland from the coast, an express train was washed away by the tsunami and about 1,000 people died. the northeastern, eastern, southeastern and southern Sri of Hikkaduwa on the southwest coast, where a train Lanka and included Trincomalee, Kuchchaveli, Pasikku- stopped between stations was swept off the tracks when dah, Batticaloa, Arugam Bay, Yala (National Park), and the tsunami struck, taking the lives of about 1,000 peo- Kirinda. The objectives of the field visits were to investi- ple (Fig. 3). Most low-cost masonry houses located in gate damage caused by the tsunami and to obtain eyewit- the coastal region were completely destroyed, while some ness information about wave arrival times. two-story buildings with concrete columns and beams Section 2 covers tsunami damage and tsunami ar- sustained less damage. Fig. 4 shows destroyed masonry rival times. Section 3 discusses restoration of tsunami- houses near the Hambantota coast. Damage observed in impacted inland water bodies. Yala National Park and Palatupana on the second field trip is shown in Figs. 5 and 6. More photographs of tsunami damage taken during the field visits are provided by Wi- 2. Tsunami Damage and Tsunami Arrival jeyewickrema et al. (2005) [8] and Wijeyewickrema et Times al. (2006) [9]. The numbers of dead, missing, and dam- aged houses in the affected districts are given in Appendix On the first field trip to the west, southwest and south, A. damage caused by the tsunami was generally severest Arrival times of the first and maximum waves are in the regions between Galle and Hambantota and ex- shown in Fig. 7. The first wave arrived at the eastern tended several hundred meters inward from the coast. coast between 08:20 and 09:00, the southern coast be- One of the most tragic events occurred at Pereliya north tween 09:00 and 09:22, and the western coast between

124 Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 Field Survey of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Tsunami

Fig. 4. Hambantota: Masonry houses located within a few hundred meters of the coast were completely destroyed, but some two-story buildings with concrete columns and beams sustained less damage.

Fig. 5. Yala National Park: Many tourists lost their lives at this location.

Fig. 6. Yala Safari Hotel in Palatupana: This tourist hotel was completely destroyed.

Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 125 Wijeyewickrema, A. C. et al.

(a) (b) Fig. 7. (a) Arrival time of the first wave. (b) Arrival time of the maximum wave. Missing numbers shown by dashes indicate that data was unavailable.

Fig. 8. Tide-gauge record from Colombo Fisheries Harbor: (a) Dec. 25, 2004-Jan. 01, 2005, and (b) 09:00-20:00, Dec. 26, 2004. Dotted lines in (b) indicate tide was not properly recorded. Arrow A indicates the first arrival recorded at 09:48 and arrow B the probable arrival of the maximum wave at about 12:00.

09:30 and 09:55. The maximum wave arrived at the east- waves preceded the maximum wave. The wave period on

ern coast between 08:35 and 09:23, the southern coast be- the western coast was
30 min and on the eastern coast

tween 09:13 and 09:50, and the western coast between  30 min. Before the maximum wave, the sea retreated 09:55 and 12:00. The velocity of the maximum wave for several hundred meters in some locations. along the western coast is observed to be slower than that Data from the tidal observation station of the National of the first wave. Most likely at most locations one or two Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency

126 Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 Field Survey of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Tsunami

Fig. 9. Karagan Lewaya in Hambantota District.

(NARA) located in the Colombo Fisheries Harbor is tota town. The term “Lewaya” means “saltern,” indicating shown in Fig. 8. The unusual water-surface elevation its past use for salt extraction. The lagoon covers an area recorded on Dec. 26 is due to the tsunami and contin- of 8.35 km2 and is 3.5 km long and 1.2 km wide. The ued until Dec. 29. The detailed tidal record of Dec. 26 average depth is about 0.9 m. Karagan Lewaya is consid- is shown in Fig. 8(b). The first wave of the tsunami ered one of the best birdlife habitats in Sri Lanka and is is recorded at 09:48 with a water-surface elevation of an area of special ecological interest. 2.6 m. Unfortunately, this tidal record does not contain the The 58 km2 undulating catchment of Karagan Lewaya full time history and two time intervals are not properly includes dry zone scrub woodland, numerous village recorded. It is possible that the maximum wave arrived at tanks, associated paddies, vegetable and forest planta- about 12:00 consistent with eyewitness data. More details tions, a substantial part of Hambantota urban area, and of arrival times are discussed in Inoue et al. (2006) [3]. a strip of coastal sand dunes to the south. Fronting the dunes is a wide beach about 3 km long contained between rocky headlands. The Bombuwetiya sea outlet canal just 3. Environmental Restoration of Tsunami- to the northeast of Hambantota town is the only connec- Impacted Inland Water Bodies tion between the lagoon and the sea, terminating in a gated control structure. This outlet is mostly blocked due to the Inland water bodies seriously affected by the tsunami accumulation of beach sand. It has been reported that in must be restored. Here we focus on the Karagan Lewaya the high flood years of 1957 and 1969, this sand bar had coastal lagoon on the southern coast (Fig. 9). The prob- to be breached to drain lagoon water. lems associated with this site are typical of the impact of the tsunami on inland water bodies in Sri Lanka as de- 3.2. Impact of Tsunami tailed in Gunaratna (2006) [2]. The resulting environmen- Karagan Lewaya was severely affected by seawater in- tal damage in water and sediment quality, spread of alien trusion following the tsunami. About 5-6 m tsunami plant species, debris accumulation, water stagnation and waves hit the Hambantota area, causing massive de- destruction to physical infrastructure is assessed. struction of the densely populated area of Hambantota town. The resulting debris, vehicles, and more than 1,000 dead bodies were swept away by seawater into Kara- 3.1. Pre-Tsunami Status gan Lewya, necessitating a massive clearance effort. The Karagan Lewaya is a seasonally hyper-saline coastal la- Bombuwetiya sea outlet canal was badly affected and the goon situated in the Hambantota district of the Southern outlet structure was damaged and detached from abutting Province of Sri Lanka immediately northwest of Hamban- high ground.

Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 127 Wijeyewickrema, A. C. et al.

The ecosystem following the tsunami attack was the absence of Sri Lankan standards for ambient water and markedly changed due to the sudden change in salinity sediment quality, environmental monitoring will be based levels and bacterial decomposition. Bottom sediments on internationally acceptable ANZECC (2000) [1] stan- were considerably agitated with changes in anoxic and dards. The performance of landfills will also be monitored oxic layers releasing contaminants. Data collected by for a minimum of six months with reference to groundwa- the University of Moratuwa (UOM) in early April 2005 ter contamination by leachate through sampling of obser- revealed that fecal contamination was very high. High vation wells. This will ensure that the quality of water and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) also indicated organic sediment of the lagoon approaches acceptable standards pollution. The uncleared debris is either partly or totally and landfills perform as designed. buried in bottom sediments or in the form of floating ma- terial and scum. Nutrient pollution in stagnant water pools due to the presence of algae was evident. Dissolved oxy- 3.4. Implementation Arrangements gen levels already low before the tsunami declined further The proposed restoration plans will be implemented at due to the heavy load of debris, especially biodegradable a district level with funding channeled through District matter. Several cases of skin diseases were reported, indi- Secretaries to institutions directly involved in the execu- cating indiscriminate growth of disease-causing microor- tion of work. The CEA under the direction of a National ganisms. Coordinator for Post Tsunami Environmental Rehabilita- tion will coordinate the work with active participation of regional office staff. 3.3. Environmental Restoration Following emergency clean up operations, which in- volved mainly the recovery of human corpses, vehicles, 4. Conclusions and large volumes of debris from the water, no further ac- tion was taken to restore the Karagan Lewaya ecosystem One of the main objectives of the field surveys was until late 2005. The problems of fecal contamination, de- to interview people who had witnessed the tsunami and pletion of dissolved oxygen, and the spread of pathogenic record their observations before they forget details such microorganisms intensified with time. Another important as arrival times. The eyewitness accounts of arrival times aspect of tsunami damage was the decrease in flood con- are not necessarily accurate because some witnesses did trol capacity of the lagoon due to the deposition of large not have watches and others did not see all of the waves. quantities of sediments brought in by the seawater. It is most likely that there were one or two waves before Based on the observed status of environmental dam- the biggest wave, with wave period of about 30 minutes. age to Karagan Lewaya and its surroundings by October Before the biggest wave arrived, water receded for several 2005, an Action Plan was developed for its restoration. hundred meters in some locations. In line with this Action Plan, UOM with financial assis- Problems with internal water bodies and associated tance from Sri Lanka Red Cross commenced investiga- infrastructure impacted by the tsunami were identified tions and designs for environmental restoration. In the in- through detailed assessment of present conditions ascer- vestigation phase, field data was collected and laboratory tained mainly through field inspections. While certain analysis conducted to identify areas to be dredged, debris issues can be expected to be rectified through natural to be removed, disposal sites, and methods of disposal. restoration over time, the development of well formulated Fieldwork involved water, bed sediment, and core sedi- site-specific Action Plans are essential prerequisites for ment sampling and the identification and classification of restoring pre-tsunami conditions. debris. A lagoon bed contour survey was strongly rec- The team from Tokyo Institute of Technology that ar- ommended and would be undertaken during dry weather. rived in Sri Lanka in December was the first international Water and sediment samples are presently being analyzed team of scientists to visit Sri Lanka to gather data about to determine quality parameters. the effects of the tsunami. Internationally accepted classification for immobilized waste set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the Victoria Environmental Protec- Acknowledgements tion Agency, Australia (EPA Victoria), are to be used in We thank Prof. Tatsuo Ohmachi, COE Program Leader of Cen- the classification of debris. Disposal areas will be iden- ter for Urban Earthquake Engineering (CUEE), Tokyo Institute of tified duly considering surface and groundwater drainage Technology, and Prof. Kohji Tokimatsu, COE Program Sub-leader patterns. It is envisaged that removal of the contaminated of CUEE, for their advice and support. Financial support for the soil layer would involve about 300,000 m3 of dredging. tsunami field surveys in Sri Lanka from CUEE is gratefully ac- knowledged. S. Inoue and H. Matsumoto acknowledge financial Restoration of the sea outlet canal and outlet structure is support for the second field visit, from the Special Coordination also another activity pending implementation. Funds for Promoting Science and Technology from the Ministry After substantial dredging and debris removal, water of Education, Sports, Culture, Science and Technology (MEXT). and sediment quality will be inspected monthly under the We thank the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Sri supervision of UOM and Central Environmental Author- Lanka, and the Central Environmental Authority of Sri Lanka for ity (CEA) of Sri Lanka, for a minimum of six months. In assistance in collecting necessary information.

128 Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 Field Survey of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Tsunami

References: [1] ANZECC, “Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Name: Marine Water Quality,” Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, 2000. Anil C. Wijeyewickrema

[2] P. P. Gunaratna, “Environmental Restoration of Tsunami Impacted Affiliation: Inland Water Bodies in Sri Lanka,” Proceedings of the Third Inter- Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Insti- national Conference on Urban Earthquake Engineering, March 6-7, tute of Technology Tokyo, Japan, pp. 211-218, 2006.

[3] S. Inoue, A. C. Wijeyewickrema, H. Matsumoto, H. Miura, P. Gu- naratna, M. Madurapperuma, and T. Sekiguchi, “Tsunami Arrival Time in Sri Lanka Due to the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake,” Proceed- ings of the Third International Conference on Urban Earthquake Engineering, March 6-7, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 231-236, 2006. Address: M1-19, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan [4] National Disaster Management Center, “Summary Report on Brief Career: Tsunami Disaster Ð Sri Lanka,” 2005. 1988-1994 Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA http://www.lankalibrary.com/news/summary.htm 1994-1999 Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand 1999- Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan [5] UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery, 2006. http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp Selected Publications:

¯ “Dispersion effects of extensional waves in pre-stressed imperfectly [6] USGS, “Magnitude 9.0 Ð Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake,” bonded incompressible elastic layered composites,” Wave Motion, Vol.38, 2004. pp. 311-325.

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqinthenews/2004/usslav/ ¯ “Stress concentration factor and scattering cross-section for plane SH-wave scattering by a circular cavity in a pre-stressed elastic medium,” [7] USGS, “Largest Earthquakes in the World Since 1900,” 2006. Journal of Applied Mechanics, JSCE, Vol.7, pp. 15-20. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/10 largest world.php

¯ “Anti-symmetric waves in pre-stressed imperfectly bonded incompressible elastic layered composites,” International Journal of Solids [8] A. C. Wijeyewickrema, S. Inoue, and T. Sekiguchi, “Tsunami Dam- age in Sri Lanka Due to the Sumatra Earthquake of December 26, and Structures, Vol.41, pp. 6873-6894. 2004 Ð Preliminary Reconnaissance,” Proceedings of the Second Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations:

International Conference on Urban Earthquake Engineering, March ¯ American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)

7-8, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 181-191, 2005. ¯ Japanese Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) [9] A. C. Wijeyewickrema, S. Inoue, H. Matsumoto, H. Miura, P. Gu- naratna, M. Madurapperuma, and T. Sekiguchi, “Report of Two Field Visits to Assess Tsunami Damage in Sri Lanka Due to the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of December 26, 2004,” Proceed- ings of the Third International Conference on Urban Earthquake Engineering, March 6-7, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 219-229, 2006.

Name: Shusaku Inoue

Affiliation: Research Associate, Interdisciplinary Graduate Appendix A. School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo In- stitute of Technology

Table 1. Casualties and housing damage in Sri Lanka. Address: G3-2, 4259 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8502, Japan Partially Destroyed Brief Career: Province District Dead Missing dameged houses 2001- Doctoral Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology houses 2003- Research Associate, Tokyo Institute of Technology Northern Jaffna 2,640 540 6,084 1,114 Killinochchi 560 1 1,250 4,250 Selected Publications:

¯ “Relation Between Rayleigh Waves And Uplift Of The Seabed Due To Mullativu 3,000 552 3,400 600 th Eastern Trincomalee 1,078 337 5,974 10,394 Seismic Faulting,” 13 World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Batticaloa 2,840 1,033 15,939 5,665 Paper No.1359, 2004. Ampara 10,436 876 29,077 — Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations:

Southern Hambantota 4,500 963 2,303 1,744 ¯ Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE)

Matara 1,342 613 2,362 5,659 ¯ The Japanese Geotechnical Society (JGS)

Galle 4,216 554 5,525 5,966 ¯ Institute of Social Safety Science (ISSS) Western Kalutara 256 148 2,572 2,930 ¯ Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering (JAEE) Colombo 79 12 3,398 2,210 ¯ Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) Gampaha 6 5 292 307 North Western Puttalam 4 3 23 72 Total 30,957 5,637 78,199 40,911 Data as of 23/01/05 (National Disaster Management Center, 2005).

Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006 129 Wijeyewickrema, A. C. et al.

Name: Name: Priyantha Prakum Gunaratna Hiroyuki Matsumoto

Affiliation: Affiliation: Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineer- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and ing, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka Technology

Address: Address: Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, 2-15 Natsushima, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan Moratuwa, Sri Lanka Brief Career: Brief Career: 2001.4- JSPS Research Fellow, Tokyo Institute of Technology 1989-1993, 1994-1999 Senior Research Engineer, Lanka Hydraulic 2001.10- Visiting Researcher, Geodynamics Institute, National Institute, Sri Lanka Observatory of Athens 1993-1994 United Nations Volunteer (UNV) Specialist, Tanzania 2002.4- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology 1999-2004 Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil and Environmental Selected Publications:

Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka ¯ H. Mikada, K. Mitsuzawa, H. Sugioka, T. Baba, K. Hirata, 2004- Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of H. Matsumoto, S. Morita, R. Otsuka, T. Watanabe, E. Araki, and K. Moratuwa, Sri Lanka Suyehiro, “discoveries in dynamics of an M8 earthquake Ð Phenomena and Selected Publications: their implications at the 2003 Tokachi Earthquake using a long term

¯ P. P. Gunaratna, P. Justesen, D. S. Abeysirigunawardena, and monitoring cabled observatory,” Tectonophysics, 421, H.-J. Scheffer, “Application of Mathematical Modelling in Optimizing doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.02.021, 2006. th

Layout of a Large Industrial Fishery Harbour,” 26 International ¯ H. Matsumoto and H. Mikada, “Fault geometry of the 2004 off Conference on Coastal Engineering, Copenhagen, Denmark, June, 1998. Kii-peninsula earthquake inferred from offshore pressure waveforms,”

¯ P. N. Wickremanayake, P. P. Gunaratna, M. M. G. S. Fernando, and Earth Planets Space, 57, pp. 161-166, 2005.

I. Ratnayake, “The Coastal Wave Climate of Sri Lanka: Measurements and ¯ G. A. Papadopoulos, H. Matsumoto, A. Ganas, V. Karastathis, and Modelling,” 6th International Conference on Coastal and Port Engineering S. Pavlides, “Deformation patterns associated with the M5.9 Athens in Developing Countries, Colombo, Sri Lanka, September, 2003. (Greece) earthquake of 7 September 1999,” Journal of Seismology, 8,

¯ P. P. Gunaratna, “Environmental Restoration of Tsunami Impacted pp. 381-394, 2004. Inland Water Bodies In Sri Lanka,” 3rd International Conference on Urban Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations:

Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan, March, ¯ Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE)

2006. ¯ Seismological Society of Japan (SSJ)

Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations: ¯ Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering (JAEE)

¯ Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Name: Name: Manoj Madurapperuma Hiroyuki Miura

Affiliation: Affiliation: Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engi- Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Center for Ur- neering, Tokyo Institute of Technology ban Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Address: Address: Midorigaoka Building No.5, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo G3-3, 4259 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8502, Japan 152-8552, Japan Brief Career: Brief Career: 1999 B. Eng., Tokyo Institute of Technology 2002 B. Eng., University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka 2001 M. Eng., Tokyo Institute of Technology 2005 M. Sc., University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka 2004 Dr. Eng., Tokyo Institute of Technology 2005- Graduate Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology 2004- Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Selected Publications: Selected Publications: ¯ A. C. Wijeyewickrema, S. Inoue, H. Matsumoto, H. Miura, P. Gunaratna, ¯ “Updating GIS Building Inventory Data Using High-Resolution Satellite M. Madurapperuma, and T. Sekiguchi, “Report of Two Field Visits to Images for Earthquake Damage Assessment: Application to Metro Manila, Assess Tsunami Damage in Sri Lanka Due to the Sumatra-Andaman Philippines,” Earthquake Spectra, Vol.22, No.1, pp. 151-168, 2006. Earthquake of December 26, 2004,” Proceedings of the 3 rd International Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations:

Conference on Urban Earthquake Engineering, March 6-7, Tokyo, Japan, ¯ Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)

pp. 219-229, 2006. ¯ Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering (JAEE) ¯

U. G. A. Puswewala and M. A. K. M. Madurapperuma, “Numerical ¯ The Remote Sensing Society of Japan (RSSJ) Implementation of a Constitutive Model for Soil Creep,” Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (16ICSMGE), September 12-16 , Osaka, Japan, Vol.II, pp. 947-950, 2005. Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations:

¯ Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

130 Journal of Disaster Research Vol.1 No.1, 2006