Professional REflection: Theory and practice

Part 1: Believing X ! Believing, belonging and behaving: some considerations when ? teaching about 3 Jenny Berglund and Bill Gent

Even for teachers who have acquired specialised knowledge about religions, teaching about particular traditions can be daunting: I don’t think I know enough. What happens if I get things ‘wrong’? Am I up to date? What if some students know more than me? In this article, which is the first of two articles on Dr Jenny Berglund is an Associate this subject, a Swedish and a British researcher into Professor at the department of the Study of Religions, Södertörn University, Islam offer some guidance. Stockholm, and a Visiting Associate Professor at the Warwick Religions and Religion, representation and This notion of religion as being Education Research Unit (WRERU), the the ‘three Bs’ primarily about ‘key beliefs’ can be University of Warwick. Email As teachers of RE, it is important that we challenged, however, and it needs to be [email protected] are aware that the concept of ‘religion’ acknowledged that this way of viewing is itself complex and open to historical ‘religion’ – and, indeed, the very concept Dr Bill Gent, former editor of REsource/ fashion. For many people brought up in of ‘religion’ itself – is rooted in Christian Professional REflection, is an Associate the secular west, the concept immediately tradition. But, more than this, the idea Fellow at the Warwick Religions and conjures up notions of ‘key beliefs’ and of religion as being primarily about Education Research Unit (WRERU), ‘faith’: indeed, the words ‘faith’ and beliefs and faith can make us blind to the the University of Warwick. Email ‘religion’ have sometimes been used many-dimensioned daily reality of ‘lived [email protected] interchangeably. religion’ in many people’s lives.1 In order

61 Professional REflection: Theory and practice

to remind themselves of this, many people can be tracked across a range of different Much could be said, of course, about each find it helpful to think of religions (and words, is a feature of classic .) In of these ‘articles of faith’, and there will non-religious worldviews) in terms of three this case, the sequence is ‘S-L-M’ which, in be reference to elements of them in what intertwined and overlapping dimensions: Arabic, carries the root meaning of ‘peace’. follows, but in the context of this article, Believing, Belonging and Behaving.2 Thus, the argument runs, the essence two useful points can be made. First, of ISLaM is connected with ‘peace’, most the traditional source of this grouping It must be noted at this stage that, fundamentally in the sense that following of six fundamental beliefs goes back to although the ‘three Bs’ are a useful the ‘straight path’ of Islam leads a person the Prophet (pbuh) himself, mnemonic for both understanding and towards peace and fulfilment, both in this the evidence being a – a report of teaching, the different dimensions should world and the next. As such, a MuSLiM is a what Muhammad (pbuh) said. The use not be separated too rigidly. To begin with, person who seeks peace through submitting and value of since the early days they are intertwined in the sense that they his or her life to . Again, in everyday of Islam has been immense, for reasons merge into and affect each other.3 Second, life, the traditional greeting of one Muslim connected to the key Muslim belief that the emphasis on each of the different to another (of whatever nationality) begins sent messengers and prophets to all elements varies between different religious with the Arabic waSaLaaM aleikum – ‘peace communities but that the final prophet and non-religious traditions. This has long be upon you’. was Muhammad (pbuh) (570–632 CE), been recognised, scholars4 sometimes through whom the final message in the categorising different religious traditions In the second sense, often point out Arabic language was revealed during the as having an emphasis on orthodoxy (right that there is no Arabic word which can be last 23 years of his life, traditionally by the belief) or orthopraxy (right practice), both directly translated as ‘religion’. Rather, the Jibril (). Muhammad (pbuh) Judaism and Islam being placed in the word that is most commonly used is deen, then recited7 the words to others who, in latter category. which means ‘way of life’. Understanding turn, memorised and recited them to others, this point demonstrates how thinking of thus beginning a chain of transmission This article will begin by looking at the Islam predominantly in terms of ‘faith’ and that continues to this day. Some years term ‘Islam’ itself. It will then comment on ‘key beliefs’ can be misleading: particularly after Muhammad’s (pbuh) death, these aspects of Islam through the lens of the for pious Muslims, being Muslim might remembered words were brought together first of the ‘three Bs’, believing, highlighting affect daily life to such an extent that a to form the written Qur’an (though the diversity along the way. distinction between ‘religious’ and ‘non- primary experience that Muslims have had, religious’ aspects becomes problematic. So, and continue to have, of the Qur’an is that The second part of the article (to be yes, a pious Muslim they hear it recited). published in September) will look at would want to belonging and behaving, and will also take time to pray ... a Muslim is a person As the final prophet include two brief case studies – one on at five set times through whom the ‘learning to be Muslim’, the other on daily and to fast who seeks peace Qur’an was revealed, ‘Muslim attitudes to music’. It will end with during the month through submitting it is not difficult to some comments on evolution and change of (two understand why within Islam. of the so-called Five his or her life to God. Muhammad (pbuh) is so Pillars of Islam) and revered by Muslims and The word ‘Islam’ so on, but ‘being why both his words and Islam is a broad and diverse religious Muslim’ might also affect how one dresses, actions were of such significance. For, as tradition which, like all religious and what and how one eats and drinks, how the ‘walking, living Qur’an’, as Muhammad secular non-religious traditions, has to be one greets (see above), how one washes (pbuh) is sometimes styled, he was taken on its own terms: in other words, and cleans one’s teeth, how one goes to the believed to embody the truth and spirit of each has its own particular dynamic and toilet, how one responds to or looks at other the Qur’an. In other words, if you want to characteristics. Muslims themselves often people and so on. The reasons for this will be know how to live the Muslim life, then you claim that Islam should be understood developed in the rest of this article. can do no better than look at the example less as a religion and more as a way of of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). life. Now, there are a number of senses Islam and … believing in which this claim can be understood, Though in school RE there is usually clear From an early time, then, Muslims began but let’s briefly explore two, in both cases reference to the , there to share and then collate hadiths of what with reference to the Arabic language, is probably less focus on the traditional Muhammad (pbuh) had said and done: the language of the Qur’an, believed by ‘six articles of faith’, usually listed as the answers he gave to questions (such Muslims to be the actual words of God.5 belief in: Allah (an Arabic word meaning as ‘What are the fundamental beliefs a God),⁶ , the books revealed by Allah Muslim should hold?’ – see above), how In the first sense, the three consonants (notably, the Qur’an), the prophets sent by he reacted and related to other people, within the word ISLAM are highlighted. Allah, belief in the Day of Judgment and the judgements he made about troubling (The occurrence of three consonants, which predestination. or contentious issues, what he wore and

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looked like, and so on. The significance of Further reading 3 In his first 2016 Reith Lecture, for example grasping this is that down the ages the Bushill-Matthews, L. (2008), Welcome – see note 1 above – Kwame Anthony shape of Muslim life, despite its many to Islam: A convert’s tale (London: Appiah illustrates how belief and practice diverse forms (influenced by other factors Continuum). inform each other. such as nationality, culture, custom, age, ethnicity and fashion), has been profoundly Gilliat-Ray, S. (2010), Muslims in Britain: 4 The famous Canadian scholar Wilfred influenced, not only by the principles An Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge Cantwell-Smith (1916–2000), employed espoused in the Holy Qur’an but also by University Press). this distinction in his famous and very the practical examples given in the many readable book, The Meaning and End hadiths that were collected together8: how Janmohamed, S.J. (2009), Love in a of Religion (first published in 1963). to relate to others, what counts as modest Headscarf: Muslim woman seeks the one clothing, at what times the five daily set (London: Aurum). 5 Though the global Muslim community is prayers (salat) should take place, what marked by great diversity, it has certain positions should be adopted in such prayer Malik, K. (2014), ‘Is there something about vital common elements, including the and so on. Islam?’, Pandaemonium. Available at: reverence paid to, and use made of, the www.eurozine.com/articles/2014-08-14- classic Arabic language, even though the To return to the six articles of faith, it must malik-en.html majority of Muslims in the world do not be noted that diversity in belief can be have Arabic as their first language. found here too. So, for instance, Twelver Roy, O. (2007), ‘Islam in Europe’, Transit. Shi’a Muslims9 uphold what they term Available at: www.eurozine.com/ 6 Note that living in Arab- the ‘five principles of belief’, namely: articles/2007-05-03-roy-en.html speaking cultures might well use the the Oneness of Allah, divine justice, word ’Allah’ when speaking of God. prophethood, divinely chosen leaders Scourfield, J., Gilliat-Ray, S., Khan, A. and (imamah) and the Day of Judgment. Otri, S. (2013), Muslim Childhood: Religious 7 The word ‘Qur’an’ itself derives from As can be seen, there is a clear overlap Nurture in a European Context (Oxford: the Arabic word iqra meaning ‘recite’, between the two groups, the distinctive Oxford University Press). traditionally the first word of the first feature of Shi’a Islam being imamah – the revelation to Muhammad (pbuh) (Qur’an belief that Allah chose Imams10 after the Notes and references 94). Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) to protect 1 The first lecture in the 2016 BBC Reith the message and make authoritative Lectures by Kwame Anthony Appiah on 8 A huge number of hadiths were collected interpretations of the message. ‘Mistaken identities: creed’ – in which he together and graded by Muslim scholars states that though ‘we’ve been taught according to how reliable they were In the second part of this article, we will to think of religion principally as a thought to be. The process of using them to explore two more fundamentally important matter of beliefs … religion is not, in help form judgements on particular issues dimensions as a way of understanding the first instance, a matter of belief’ – is related to Muslim life, however, was made Islam: belonging, because religious well worth reading/listening to as a more difficult because hadiths sometimes adherents do not usually live in isolation background to this article (www.bbc. appeared to contradict each other. but are brought up within communities of co.uk/programmes/b07z43ds). believers, and behaving, where it has to be 9 In the early years of historical Islam, a recognised that, as in any community, there 2 There are other ways of approaching violent dispute took place over the issue of will be differences between people’s levels religion and non-religious worldviews, who should have taken over the leadership of commitment to inherited beliefs and of course. The authors of this article, of the burgeoning Muslim community ways of life. for instance, have been influenced by after Muhammad’s (pbuh) death. Some ethnographic ways of understanding favoured , while others claimed it Acknowledgement religion (that is, by going out into the should have been , the cousin and son- The authors would like to acknowledge field and observing, talking to and in-law of the Prophet (pbuh). The former the debt they owe to Dr Emin Poljarevic of listening to participants in particular group were known, from then on, as Sunni Uppsala University, Sweden, who made religious traditions) and by the Muslims (the majority of Muslims in the valuable comments on an early draft of ‘interpretative’ approach to RE that was world today), the latter as Shi’a Muslims this article. (Dr Poljarevic, as an aside, developed at the Warwick Religions and (forming about 20 per cent of the world’s remarked that he disliked the taste of Education Research Unit at the Muslims today). haggis, whether halal or otherwise!) University of Warwick. The latter acknowledges three dynamic dimensions 10 The Shi’a Muslim use of the word Imam of religion: the ongoing historical must be differentiated from the universal tradition, the community to which Muslim use of the word imam to mean adherents belong and the life experiences the ‘professional’ who leads community of adherents themselves. prayers daily in a or elsewhere.

63 Professional REflection: Theory and practice

Part 2: belonging and behaving 3 ?

Believing, belonging and behaving: some ! considerations when teaching about Islam Jenny Berglund and Bill Gent

Even for teachers who have acquired specialised knowledge about religions, teaching Doctor Jenny Berglund is an Associate about particular traditions can be daunting: I Professor at the department of the Study of Religions, Södertörn University, Stockholm, don’t think I know enough, what happens if I and a Visiting Associate Professor at the get things ‘wrong’, am I up to date, what about Warwick Religions and Education Research Unit (WRERU), University of Warwick. if some students know more than me? In this [email protected] second part of a series of contributions in which Doctor Bill Gent, former editor of REsource/ experienced religious educators suggest ways Professional REflection, is an Associate into particular religious traditions, researchers Fellow at the WRERU, University of into Islam offer some guidance. Warwick. [email protected]

58 Professional REflection: Theory and practice

Islam and belonging visceral feeling. This sense of being part In understanding Islam, the dimension of of an imagined worldwide community is belonging is very important for a number demonstrated during the daily set prayer, of interrelated reasons. a time when all Muslims face in the same direction (Qiblah) – towards the Ka’aba To begin with, religious adherents do not in the Saudi Arabian city of Makkah. The usually live in isolation but are brought sense of belonging to a worldwide Muslim up within communities of believers. (Not community – in which people are ‘Muslim’ forgetting, of course, that there are many irrespective of colour, race and ethnicity – converts1 to Islam who will not have been is often one of the great insights realised brought up in a particular Muslim family, by Muslims on pilgrimage to Makkah community or tradition. This fact will have (the ). implications for their lives and the style or X form of Islam that they choose to adopt.) Case study 1: Muslim But for younger Muslims living in the West, supplementary education Clearly, people’s identities will be even though their family heritage might Religious nurture, particularly of children, profoundly affected by a whole range belong to contexts such as these, additional is important for the continuity of any of factors: the family or group born into, factors have to be taken into account: in religious or secular tradition. Much of geographical and historical location, particular the impact of globalisation and this will take place through ‘absorption’ genetic dispositions, local and group modern technology (including the use of ideas, practices and customs related traditions, race and ethnicity, personal of social media). The role of traditional to believing, belonging and behaving: choice, age and gender, social mores and Muslim scholars (ulama), who would through watching and copying what expectations, and so on. be approached for a judgement (fatwa) adults do and say, through hearing stories on a particular issue related to living the (particularly those related to the life of the As such, in order to understand how Muslim life, is being challenged in many Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)) and so on. Islam is lived out in a particular context, modern contexts in which the young and Within a Muslim family, to take a particular it is important to take into account the others can turn to the worldwide web in example, Muslim children will hear and many variables that might apply. For order to find answers to their questions. then begin to use those familiar phrases the majority of Muslims of South Asian Within Muslim families within the West, and asides that tend to pepper everyday heritage, for example, the classic school there has sometimes been the phenomenon discourse between Muslims: phrases such of Islamic law2 that is followed in order to of older people becoming the ‘keepers’ or as Alhamdulillah (‘all praise to God’) and judge issues that might arise in daily life ‘guardians’ of traditional Muslim culture (‘God willing’). is the Hanafi. Within traditional Pakistani whilst a generation gap develops between society, there is also great emphasis older and younger members. To take an But, overall, knowledge and learning placed on the family group (biradari) and example from a recent interview conducted have a very definite and significant place family honour (izzat). Urdu (which uses by one of the writers, a teenage Muslim within the Muslim tradition: so much so the Arabic script) is the language of the boy living in England said that he and his that acquiring them has the status of duty. well-educated. In East African and Somali siblings were being drawn more towards In order to provide Muslim children with a culture, by contrast, the Shafi’i legal the Salafi approach to Islam, believing thorough knowledge and understanding of school has dominated, with great influence that many of the things that his parents the Muslim way of life, then, many Muslim historically coming from Sufism3 and, more associated with Islam were more to do with children, as well as attending secular state recently, from the Salafi approach to Islam, Pakistani ‘culture’4. school, will also take part in additional and a literalist approach to the Islamic (‘supplementary’) educational activities source texts that originated on the Nevertheless, despite the great variety organised within the Muslim community and emphasises going found within Muslim communities, there itself. This might take the form of having back to the supposedly more ‘pure’ days is also a strong sense that all Muslims lessons at home or, as in the case of many of early Islam. belong to the one community of Islam thousands of British Muslim children, (the Ummah), which some non-Muslims attending classes at a local mosque, often have observed as seeming to be an almost on each weekday evening.

59 Professional REflection: Theory and practice

Though such Muslim supplementary Islam and behaving To show just how subtle this process can education will be organised in a variety Though there are clear common patterns be, we will take the case of music. The of ways by different Muslim groups, there of religious practices among Muslims, it following case study also illustrates why will also be a number of common features would be both wrong and inaccurate not to there is no simple or single answer to or imperatives: the need to learn to read recognise the great diversity that is found questions like: can Muslims perform and/ classic Arabic so that the Qur’an can be among Muslims. Furthermore, it has to be or listen to music and, if so, what kind of read and recited properly5; learning stories recognised that, as in any community, there music is permitted and where? about the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), will be differences within commitment and other key male and female members to inherited beliefs and ways of life. At Case study 2: the issue of music of the early Muslim community; learning one extreme, there will be those whose Neither the Arabic word for ‘music’ nor good habits of living (adaab), such as whole way of living is profoundly shaped much that could pass for direction on the humility and patience, and rules of conduct by a strong commitment to the way of permissibility or otherwise of music is directly (akhlaq), such as how to relate to teachers Islam, often reinforced by membership mentioned in the Qur’an. As such, diverse and older people; and how to perform the of a particular group or tradition that attitudes and opinions on this matter various rites and rituals associated with espouses such strong commitment. At the often seek support from one or another being a Muslim (such as preparing for set other extreme, there will be those who, hadith. And, as might be expected, there prayer and the physical positions to be though accepting that being ‘Muslim’ is are hadiths that are interpreted to uphold adopted during set prayer itself). Learning part of their inherited identity, have little the use of music as well as those that are Arabic and then parts (or the whole) of the commitment to the beliefs and behaviour interpreted as prohibiting it. This, of course, Qur’an by heart also creates a very strong traditionally associated with Muslim living. has led to an immense spectrum of Muslim sense of belonging since, in whatever part In some cases, it might make sense to talk perspectives on the role of music. Between of the world, the Qur’an is read and recited about non-practising Muslims. Muslims of diverse cultural backgrounds, in Arabic. this spectrum can range from absolute But there is another factor that helps prohibition at the one end to unrestricted to account for diversity within Islam: allowance at the other. the subtle way in which Muslim law developed. To begin with, Islamic law Muslims who advocate the use of music traditionally has not simply differentiated often rely upon the argument that what between actions that are ‘right’ and those is not clearly forbidden in the established that are ‘wrong’. Instead, it has identified sources should be allowed until proved a gradation of five positions with regard unacceptable. These individuals argue to an action: obligatory, recommended, that since there is no negative reference to permitted, disapproved and forbidden. music in the Qur’an and since the hadiths There will be differences between the are ambiguous, being subject to opposing different schools of law about where to interpretations, there is no justification for place particular actions (such as smoking). prohibiting music, which should therefore Different experts in Islamic law, too, when be allowed. But there are also Islamic asked to give a ruling on a troubling issue, scholars who claim that it is not musicality are also at liberty to decide what that itself that is the problem, but rather what ruling should be. (There is no one central a song says and/or where it is performed – authority with the power to make one lyrics, for example, that make reference to ruling applicable to all Muslims.) prohibited sexual behaviour performed in a X place that serves intoxicating drinks.

60 ! Professional REflection: Theory and practice

This stance is related to the high value Change and evolution But let us end with one image that placed on poetry in Muslim societies of It is a truism to say that we are living in illustrates sharply what Islam within the Arab world. Singing has had a a fast-changing world. As part of this, we an often rapidly changing world historically close relation to poetry, also have to recognise that the different might involve. which has caused some to judge the Muslim communities across Europe, in appropriateness of song on the basis of particular, are changing and evolving. It has, for example, been noted in a text rather than musical style or melody. In Britain, for example, the age profile recent study7 that the characteristics The high value placed on a beautiful of the Muslim community is very young of the Muslim community in Scotland voice6 in various Islamic contexts has also and there are now ‘third’- and ‘fourth’- differ in significant ways from its larger worked in favour of those who advocate generation Muslims growing up in Britain corresponding community in England. the role of music within the tradition. and having to adapt – as their parents Indeed, some have presented a picture of and grandparents did in their own time, the Scottish community overall as being But, the historical issue about the but in different ways – to their various more tolerant and ‘better’ than its English appropriateness of music within Islam identities, which include both being British counterpart at accommodating its large does not stop here. The intention (niyya) and Muslim. The ensuing accommodations population of ‘Scottish Muslims’. This is, of the performer is an important factor in and tensions within the self, within the of course, a simplified and rather idealistic Islamic law when it comes to the passing family group and community, and within picture, but evidence does suggest that of judgement on a particular deed. It is also society at large, will depend very much many younger Scottish Muslims are a factor that helps to understand why on individual and group circumstances. content with that dual nature of their certain forms of singing – such as a But we need to note that this generational lives (that is, feeling at one and the same capella performances that occur during gap between the ‘keepers’ of the religious time both Muslim and Scottish) and, as a religious rites – are widely considered to tradition and the younger generations both consequence, are becoming increasingly be halal (permitted): they are viewed as creates tensions and adds to diversity. The involved in civic activities. If so, what are having been inspired or motivated by younger generation are multiculturally we to make of the fact that there is now an the ‘right intention’. more aware but also creative in how to officially registered ‘Islamic tartan’8 which handle the rapidly changing world in combines the following elements: blue, Finally, it should also be noted that relation to their religious affiliation – where the colour of the Scottish flag; green, the negative attitudes towards particular kinds we can see that minority youth create their traditional colour of Islam; five parallel of music among certain contemporary own sense of identity, entitlement and white threads to represent the Five Pillars scholars have been in reaction to the religious expressions – through fashion, of Islam; six parallel orange threads to cultural imperialism and worldwide music, language and so on. Research on represent the six key beliefs of Islam; and dominance of the West. Because a high young people clearly shows that rapid the use of black to represent the Ka’aba percentage of modern music originates shifts in youth culture are more volatile in Makkah? And what, too, of the butcher from the Western world, attracting a high today due to a range of reasons, not least who hit the newspaper headlines through level of interest among the young (and the effects of our IT age. Such volatility cuts his sale of ‘halal haggis’? not so young), these scholars view it as across beliefs, belonging and behaviour. harmful in the sense that it effectively draws human attention away from God.

3 ? !

61 Professional REflection: Theory and practice

Acknowledgement Notes The authors would like to acknowledge 1 There is a strong traditional belief in the debt owed to Doctor Emin Poljarevic of Islam that all people are born with a Uppsala University, who made valuable divine inclination are thus inherently comments on an early draft of this article. Muslim; that is one who submits to the Doctor Poljarevic, as an aside, remarked one true God but then social realties that he disliked the taste of haggis, whether make them into a Muslim, Hindu or halal or otherwise! whatever. For this reason, those who convert to Islam later in life are termed For further reading ‘reverts’: that is, they revert back to Bonino, S. (2016), Muslims in Scotland: The the original state () in which they Making of Community in a Post-9/11 World were born. A report produced in 2010 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press). estimated that might be as many as 3 100,000 converts to Islam living in Britain Bushill-Matthews, L. (2008), Welcome (see www.faith-matters.org). to Islam: A Convert’s Tale (London: Continuum). 2 There are four main Sunni schools of law: the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i and Hanbali. Gilliat-Ray, S. (2010), Muslims in Britain: An Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge 3  is a form of mystical Islam in University Press). which followers will follow a particular Sufi master. Janmohamed, S.J. (2009), Love in a Headscarf: Muslim Woman Seeks the One 4 This is sometimes called ‘de-culturing (London: Aurum). of Islam’, meaning a striving towards orthodoxy and orthopraxy and Malik, K. (2014), ‘Is there something about supposedly ‘cleaning’ Islam from non- Islam?’ www.eurozine.com/articles/2014- Islamic practices (i.e. those practices 08-14-malik-en.html that were introduced after the first generation of Muslims). See, for example, Roy, O. (2007), ‘Islam in Europe – clash of Olivier Roy (2007). religions or convergence of religiosities?’ www.eurozine.com/articles/2007-05-03- 5 Each unit of set prayer, for example, X roy-en.html includes recitation of the opening chapter of the Qur’an in Arabic. This short portion Scourfield, J. et al. (2013), Muslim of the Qur’an will need to be memorised, Childhood: Religious Nurture in a European though some Muslims go further and set Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press). out to memorise the whole Qur’an.

6 The high value of a beautiful voice is also related to recitation of the Qur’an. The one with the most beautiful voice is the one who is most suitable to encompass the words of God.

7 See Stefano Bonino (2016).

8 See www.islamictartan.com ! ? 62 !