Biological Determination of Mental Disorders: a Discussion Based on Recent Hypotheses from Neuroscience

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Biological Determination of Mental Disorders: a Discussion Based on Recent Hypotheses from Neuroscience ENSAIO ESSAY 1 A determinação biológica dos transtornos mentais: uma discussão a partir de teses neurocientíficas recentes Biological determination of mental disorders: a discussion based on recent hypotheses from neuroscience La determinación biológica de los trastornos mentales: una discusión a partir de tesis neurocientíficas recientes Luna Rodrigues Freitas-Silva 1 Francisco Ortega 2 Resumo A compreensão dos processos de formação dos transtornos mentais vem 1 Universidade Federal Rural Correspondência do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, L. R. Freitas-Silva se mostrando desafiadora desde a fundação do campo psiquiátrico. O de- Brasil. Universidade Federal Rural senvolvimento das neurociências proporcionou novo fôlego à expectativa 2 Instituto de Medicina Social, do Rio de Janeiro. Universidade do Estado do BR-465, Km 7, Seropédica, RJ de encontrar estritamente no funcionamento biológico a explicação para Rio de Janeiro, 23897-000, Brasil. o surgimento dos transtornos mentais. No entanto, tal objetivo não vem Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. [email protected] sendo alcançado com a esperada facilidade, de modo que novas hipóteses começam a se destacar nas pesquisas neurocientíficas. Neste artigo, iden- tificamos as noções de epigenética, neurodesenvolvimento e plasticidade como os principais indicativos de um novo modo de compreender a bio- logia dos fenômenos mentais. A complexidade genética, o papel formativo do ambiente e as variações que caracterizam a vulnerabilidade implicam importantes modificações nas principais teses sobre a determinação bio- lógica dos transtornos mentais, sugerindo uma reconfiguração dos limites entre o “social” e o “biológico” nas pesquisas em neurociências. Psiquiatria Biológica; Neurociências; Saúde Mental http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00168115 Cad. Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, 32(8):e00168115, ago, 2016 2 Freitas-Silva LR, Ortega F Introdução (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Di- sorders), em 1980, é entendida como um marco A compreensão dos processos de formação dos do processo de transformação da psiquiatria e, transtornos mentais vem se mostrando desafia- principalmente, da mudança na fundamentação dora desde a fundação do campo psiquiátrico. conceitual que servia de alicerce para o conheci- A busca por determinantes somáticos, que pu- mento e a prática psiquiátrica. Ainda que o DSM- dessem caracterizar em termos biológicos tais III tenha sido elaborado com base em uma su- fenômenos, conferindo legitimidade não somen- posta neutralidade objetiva, exatamente em con- te às categorias patológicas, mas consequente- traposição ao excesso de teoria psicodinâmica mente à própria psiquiatria, esteve presente co- que teria predominado nas versões anteriores, mo objetivo em diversos momentos da história as descrições objetivas e universais do manual da disciplina 1,2. O esclarecimento da etiologia representaram mais um passo em direção à pre- dos transtornos mentais seria, idealmente, uma valência de uma compreensão organicista dos etapa fundamental para a elaboração de práti- transtornos no campo da saúde mental 9. Desse cas diagnósticas, terapêuticas e preventivas mais modo, a orientação sintomatológica do DSM-III eficazes. No entanto, a despeito dos esforços em- contribuiu para consolidar a visão biológica das preendidos, das diversas teses elaboradas e das doenças mentais e, assim, enfatizar os discursos disputas que mobilizam o campo, seguimos co- neurocientíficos e as estratégias psicofarmacoló- nhecendo muito pouco sobre os caminhos que gicas como formas científicas e válidas de expli- conduzem à formação das doenças. cação e tratamento das doenças. Nas últimas décadas, observamos a ascen- A defesa das hipóteses biológicas sobre a de- dência das hipóteses biológicas sobre a forma- terminação dos transtornos mentais foi acom- ção dos transtornos. A partir dos anos 1970, no panhada pelo enfraquecimento dos demais dis- contexto da chamada “segunda psiquiatria bio- cursos dirigidos ao entendimento da patologia lógica” 1, as investigações destinadas a identificar mental. Até então, predominavam no campo possíveis determinantes orgânicos e a elabora- psiquiátrico explicações psicológicas e ambien- ção de uma classificação diagnóstica objetiva das talistas sobre a formação dos transtornos, com patologias mentais passaram a predominar no pouca ou nenhuma referência aos determinan- cenário psiquiátrico. Com os avanços proporcio- tes biológicos. A psicanálise, a psiquiatria social nados pelas tecnologias de pesquisa médica, es- e demais teorias psicológicas e sociológicas que pecialmente aqueles conquistados no campo das vigoraram como referência primordial para a pesquisas genéticas, e o surgimento de diversas explicação da doença mental até os anos 1980 possibilidades de investigação do cérebro, uma foram intensamente questionadas a partir da verdadeira revolução no que se refere ao entendi- ascensão das primeiras teorias neurocientíficas. mento dos transtornos mentais estaria em curso. No entanto, importa destacar que, no contexto Nesse contexto, as neurociências ocupariam de elaboração do conhecimento médico-psi- um papel central no campo da saúde mental, co- quiátrico da segunda metade do século XX, am- mo fonte de conhecimento válido, científico e bas as vertentes de explicação do adoecimen- objetivo, capaz de revelar os nexos causais que to mental apresentavam-se como justificativas conduzem à formação dos transtornos mentais. únicas e antagônicas, desfavorecendo qualquer As pesquisas em neurociências tinham como um possibilidade de compreensão que articulasse de seus principais objetivos encontrar a determi- de forma complementar os campos biológico nação biológica dos mais variados fenômenos, e psicossocial. entre os quais, os transtornos mentais. Com o Desse modo, o predomínio de um modelo desenvolvimento das pesquisas, as patologias biológico de explicação dos transtornos mentais mentais passam a ser entendidas e investigadas tenderia a influenciar significativamente as pos- como transtornos neurológicos 3,4,5,6,7,8, e a he- sibilidades terapêuticas ofertadas na atenção à rança genética e a fisiologia cerebral são tomadas saúde mental, privilegiando intervenções medi- como cerne das doenças. Segue-se a isso um pe- camentosas e objetivas, e esvaziando as demais ríodo de intenso investimento em investigações possibilidades de cuidado. O alcance da chama- sobre a genética dos transtornos mentais, que da remedicalização da psiquiatria e da ascensão buscavam identificar o gene responsável por ca- do conhecimento neurocientífico não se limitou da transtorno e sobre o funcionamento cerebral, ao campo da saúde mental, mas foi difundido buscando correlacioná-lo a sinais e sintomas amplamente no imaginário cultural, tonando-se de doenças. referência para explicar os mais variados fenô- No âmbito da classificação diagnóstica, a pu- menos humanos, justificar condutas, fundamen- blicação da terceira versão do Manual Diagnós- tar argumentos políticos e servir como suporte tico e Estatístico de Transtornos Mentais, o DSM para narrativas pessoais 6,8. Cad. Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, 32(8):e00168115, ago, 2016 DETERMINAÇÃO BIOLÓGICA DOS TRANSTORNOS MENTAIS 3 No entanto, a despeito do relevante impacto terminado transtorno mental tornou-se factível. técnico, social e subjetivo das explicações bioló- No bojo do projeto de mapeamento do genoma gicas mais objetivas e diretas sobre os fenômenos humano, pretendia-se analisar a arquitetura ge- mentais, novas hipóteses vêm se destacando no nética do corpo humano de modo a identificar campo da pesquisa biomédica. Para as patolo- os nexos causais entre a herança genética e o sur- gias ditas complexas, como a grande maioria gimento de doenças, propiciando a construção das doenças crônicas, e para as que envolvem de intervenções terapêuticas e preventivas mais distúrbios comportamentais, como os transtor- eficazes. Nesse contexto, diversas pesquisas de- nos mentais, as hipóteses deterministas mais dicaram-se a buscar o gene responsável pelo sur- simples vêm se mostrando insuficientes. Gra- gimento da esquizofrenia, do transtorno bipolar, dativamente, a partir dos anos 2000, começou a do autismo etc. se construir a percepção de que os processos de No entanto, tal resultado, que equivaleria a saúde-doença não podem ser adequadamente finalmente revelar a fundamentação biológica descritos com base em modelos lineares, funda- dos transtornos mentais, não foi alcançado. Os mentados em uma causalidade unidirecional e resultados apresentados com base nas primei- na lógica da previsibilidade. Trata-se de um pro- ras pesquisas genéticas dos transtornos mentais cesso de modificação dos modelos de conheci- não revelaram relações significativas entre os ge- mento biomédico que caracterizaram o entendi- nes e as doenças investigadas 19. Tais pesquisas mento das doenças ao longo de todo o século XX analisavam o material genético de famílias de e que tendem a ser superados a partir do século portadores de transtorno mental em busca do XXI 10,11,12,13,14. gene determinante da doença. Sem resultados No campo neurocientífico, notamos uma conclusivos, as amostras foram continuamen- transformação semelhante. Nesse contexto, ob- te expandidas para reunir centenas de famílias, serva-se o surgimento de modelos de investi- adotando a mesma estratégia de buscar um de- gação nos quais a biologia não é tomada como terminado gene que pudesse ser identificado co- linear ou unidirecional 6,15,16,17,18. Em contrapo- mo causa da doença. Algumas associações sig- sição às primeiras
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