Documentation of Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Measures of Small Farmers in Central Visayas, Philippines

DOCUMENTATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION MEASURES OF SMALL FARMERS IN CENTRAL VISAYAS, PHILIPPINES

Sibol ng Agham at Teknolohiya (SIBAT), Inc.

In collaboration with Pesticide Action Network Asia and the Pacific

April 2011

PAN AP CLIMATE CHANGE AND RICE REPORTS

Documentation of Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Measures of Small Farmers in Bohol Province, Central Visayas, Philippines

Research Organization: Sibol ng Agham at Teknolohiya (SIBAT), Inc.

Publisher: Pesticide Action Network, Asia and Pacific PO Box 1170, 10850 Penang, Malaysia www.panap.net

Editor: Peter Gillespie

Proofreading and Layout: Brigette DePape

Enquiries may be directed to: Ms Victoria Lopez, Sibol ng Agham at Teknolohiya (SIBAT), Inc., at [email protected] or [email protected].

This study was part of a regional project conducted by the Save Our Rice Campaign of PAN AP in collaboration with sixteen network partner organizations. The aim was to assess the level of vulnerability and adaptive capacities of rice-growing communities in the Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh by documenting the impacts of climate change on the communities and their adaptation practices. The longer-term goal was to identify ways to improve the adaptive capacities of these and other vulnerable communities. From 2009 to March 2011, twenty studies were carried out.

This publication may be reproduced in full or in part as long as the research organization and publisher are properly acknowledged as the sources and PAN AP is furnished with copies of the final work where the reproduction appears.

April 2011

List of Contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The Study: Bohol Province, Central Visayas 2 1.2 Study Sites 2 1.3 Study Site One: Sitio Panaghuisa, Brigy. San Vincente, Trinidad, 3 Bohol 1.3.1 Agricultural profile and farming system 5 1.3.1.1 Rice farming 5 1.3.1.2 Corn farming 6 1.3.1.3 Vegetable growing for food and cash 6 1.3.1.4 Palm oil 7 1.3.1.5 Inadequate government social services 7 1.3.2 Impact of climate change in Panaghiusa 8 1.3.3 Adaptive practices and recommendations for Panaghiusa 13 1.3.3.1 Sustainable agriculture practices 13 1.3.3.2 Recommendations 15 1.4 Study Site Two: Barangay Pangpang, Ubay, Bohol 17 1.4.1 General profile 17 1.4.2 Agricultural profile and farming system 19 1.4.2.1 Farming system 19 1.4.2.2 Fishing 21 1.4.2.3 Livestock 21 1.4.2.4 Paid labor 21 1.4.2.5 Inadequate government social services 21 1.4.3 Impact of climate change on farmers and fisherfolk 22 1.4.4 Adaptive practices and recommendations for Pangpang 28 1.4.4.1 Sustainable agriculture practices 28 1.4.4.2 Recommendations 29 2.0 SUMMARY: CLIMATE CHANGE AND VULNERABILITY IN 30 PANAGHISUA AND PANGPANG

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Brgy. Trinidad 3 Figure 2 Spot map of Sitio Panaghiusa 4 Figure 3 Seasonal calendar of Barangay San Vicente (1980‟s to 1990‟s) 10 Figure 4 Seasonal calendar of Barangay San Vicente (year 2000 - 2010) 10 Figure 5 Map of Ubay Bohol, Brgy. Pangpang 17 Figure 6 Spot map of Pangpang 18 Figure 7 Historical transect map of agriculture in Pangpang 20 Figure 8 Seasonal calendar of Barangay Pangpang (year 1970 - 2000) 26 Figure 9 Seasonal calendar of Barangay Pangpang (year 2000 - 2010) 27

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Philippines is highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change due to its geographical location and its reliance on climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture and water resources. Central Visayas is among the regions at risk to the projected and growing impacts of climate change. The provinces in the region are important in the country‟s food security efforts since they make a significant contribution to the country‟s total rice production. A number of the rural poor whose livelihoods depend on farming and fishing constitute the sector in the region that is most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

The effects of changing climatic patterns were discussed in June 2007 by NGO and People‟s Organization (PO) partners of SIBAT in sustainable agriculture projects in Central Visayas. At that time, the immediate problem was prolonged drought followed by torrential rains resulting in poor crop yields for consecutive seasons, and the failure of cropping and seed development initiatives in the PO communal projects.

The persistence of this pattern poses a threat to the productivity of small rice and corn producers and their efforts to improve their work. It was recognized that this threat can only be addressed through collaborative efforts of various players in the rural farming sector.

Research on community vulnerability to climate change was conducted in varying agricultural typologies in Visayas and Mindanao during 2008 to 2010. Research was conducted in six indigenous people‟s sites in Mindanao, and in two upland sites in the Visayas.

The two research initiatives in this study are on lowland and coastal rice farming typologies undertaken with the support and guidance of Pesticide Action Network, Asia Pacific (PAN AP). These initiatives aim to contribute to the studies being conducted by PAN AP in the Asia Pacific region.

This Vulnerability and Adaptation Research project aims to understand the vulnerability to climate change and methods of adaptation of small farmers in the context of their rural poor conditions. Vulnerability is understood as an inherent weakness in the agro- ecological system and economic life of farmers that diminishes their ability to cope with stresses brought about by changing climate patterns, variability and extremes. Adaptation is understood as a process in which strategies to avoid, moderate, cope with and/or take advantage of the consequences of climate change are developed, enhanced and implemented.1 The solutions documented and proposed here are collectively termed „adaptation strategies‟.2

The research objective was to identify and document the impacts of climate change and community adaptation strategies as practiced by rice-growing communities in two study

1 UNFCCC. 2 This research therefore does not cover mitigation: measures added to reduce, prevent or correct the impact of climate change that are basically anthropogenic measures to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases or enhance their sinks. [UNFCCC]

sites; in other words, to understand the reality of the effects of climate change on small farmers, and the formulation of action plans to address these problems.

1.1 The Study: Bohol Province, Central Visayas

Methodology

The study team conducted Household Interviews (HI), Focused Group Discussions (FGD) and Key Informant Interviews (KII). Instruments were prepared for each method. The clusters of information or data categories sought and methodology are shown below:

Data Categories Methodologies Tools Macro climate Plotting and statistical analysis of Computer plotting and studies to recognize climate data statistical tools and identify the climate changes, Secondary literature review variability and extremes

Biophysical changes FGD, KII, HI, ocular observation, Questionnaire, seasonality attributed to climate climate change historical mapping calendars, transect, matrix change or trending, resource mapping, and ranking tools photos, transect, matrix and ranking Agricultural or FGD, KII, HI, resource maps, Questionnaire, seasonality farming systems transect, matrix and ranking calendars, transect, matrix and ranking tools Socio-economic FGD, KII, HI Questionnaire, case changes documentation outline

The formulation of recommendations for multi-stakeholder and community planning was conducted through discussions with partners. Historical trending and comparative analysis were used to substantiate evidence of changes.

1.2 Study Sites

The three target sites and their basic typologies are listed below:

Research Sites Basic Features Sitio Panaghiusa, Brgy. San Vicente, Agricultural plains with rain fed and irrigated Trinidad, Bohol systems, mainly rice growing (rice granary of Bohol province)

Brgy. Pangpang, Ubay, Bohol Coastal and rain fed agricultural ecosystem, mainly rice growing and fishing

1.3 Study Site One: Sitio Panaghuisa, Brigy. San Vincente, Trinidad, Bohol Panaghiusa is one of the sitios of Barangay San Vicente of the town of Trinidad. The sitio is three kilometers from the town and is bounded on the east by Brgy. Kinan-onan, on the west by Brgy. Lauswahan, and on the north by Brgy. San Roque. The sitio is accessible mostly by habal-habal transport through a rough road network from the town center.

Figure 1: Map of Brgy. Trinidad3

Panaghiusa has a population of 232 households with 1,320 individuals. The average household size is six.

The main organization of farmers in Panaghiusa is the Trinidad-Talibon Integrated Farmers Association (TTIFA), created in 1989 to wage a struggle for land in the Bohol Cattle Ranch from the feudal hold of large landlords. The struggle to occupy the lands was successful in 1990.

TTIFA was subsequently able to secure a mother Certificate of Land Ownership Award (CLOA) and individual CLOAs as tenurial instruments for the 1000 hectares of land occupied by the farmers. The individual CLOA, however, means a relative or temporary tenurial security over the land, where true security depends on meeting yearly amortization payments. Threat of dispossession therefore comes from the inability to pay amortization, the surrender of the instrument as collateral for a loan, or through a Voluntary Offer to sell to another party.

3 http://www.ppdobohol.lgu.ph/AllRoadsImages/Trinidad%20Map%20A3%20Layout.pdf

The organization has been successful in developing economic, health and literacy projects for the welfare of Panaghiusa community. TTIFA together with other peoples‟ organizations in Bohol protested the entry of the oil palm industry which divested 50 farmers of their lands in the palm oil production arrangement with a private company that did not return enough for them to recover their land as collateral.

Land area, topography and land use. Panaghiusa has a total land area of 1,346 hectares. About 40% of the topography is characteristically plains and about 30% is gentle slope. The remaining 30%, farther interior to the west, is hilly to mountainous. The plain cultivated areas are largely devoted to rice and corn intercropped with root crops (sweet potatoes and cassava). The hilly to mountainous parts are generally cogonal areas. Grown on the slopes are palm oil, banana, coconut, fruit trees such as mango and jackfruit. Residential areas, schools, health centers and assembly areas occupy about 10% of the total area. Fruit trees and bushes and a few palm crops are found in the periphery.

Figure 2: Spot map of Sitio Panaghiusa

1.3.1 Agricultural profile and farming system

Rain fed rice farming is the main livelihood in Panaghiusa. Rice is the major crop while secondary crops are corn, banana, root crops, coconuts and vegetables. Rice, corn and root crops are grown for home consumption, while bananas, vegetables and rootcrops are sold for cash. Each household has poultry (chickens) and livestock (native hogs) mostly for emergency cash. For cash during off-season, farmers go out for odd jobs or off-farm wages or drive habal-habal.

The average farm size per household is 2.44 hectares on plain and sloping lands. On average, a total of 1.5 is cultivated (0.5 hectare for rice; about one hectare planted to root crops particularly camote and cassava). About one hectare is left idle or used for pasture and coconuts. Farmers are unable to till the total land due to the lack of implements, draft animals and irrigation. The labor force is family-based and supported by farm implements and draft animals.

1.3.1.1 Rice farming

Rice is cultivated in two crops per year: from July to September for the first crop (panuig) and from October to February (pangamihan) for the second crop. Rice growing is rain fed (i.e., there is no irrigation system in Panaghiusa) and is supported by small sources and water impounding. Inadequate water even to support the half-hectare of rice is an expressed problem among respondents interviewed.

Conventional methods were mostly used since the 1980‟s until the introduction of organic agriculture in 2007. A mix of conventional and organic farming methods are practiced today in the community. The seeds now predominantly used are RC-10 improved, ala-18, 82, baybay 13, tsupoy, lubang, magaya red and G2, which are basically traditional varieties. The G varieties such as G1, G2, G3 and G5 are being used for both organic and conventional farming.

Production costs for rice amount to about Php 3,850 per hectare per cropping, and farmers usually borrow from informal local lenders. Production costs are broken down as follows:

Production Costs: 3 bags of urea at PhP800/bag/hectare = Php 2,400.00 Herbicide (Argroxon, 250 ml) = Php 800.00 Harrowing at Php100/day for 2pax/2 days = Php 400.00 Pesticide (karate) = Php 150.00

For an average season, harvest is 24 sacks of palay for panuig (first cropping) and 22 sacks of palay for pangamihan, or a total of 46 sacks of palay per half hectare annually. In the dry land conditions of Panaghiusa, rains are not sufficient for the first cropping and hence there is little difference between two seasonal croppings.4

4 The average harvest per cropping season was obtained through individual interview of 25% of active TTIFA members. From the raw data obtained, we identified the number of sacks harvested over the total land area used for rice cropping. Computation of panuig and pangulilang harvests

The rice harvest commonly goes to paying production loans, sold for cash and kept as family food stock over a three-month period.

Based on information from respondents, there are five lean months on average for rice which is substituted by the corn crop.

1.3.1.2 Corn farming

Corn is also cultivated in two croppings. The first crop is planted in May-June and harvested in July or August; the second crop is planted in November and harvested in January. Corn production uses two methods, conventional (using pioneer hybrid) and traditional (which uses takuro and tinigib traditional varieties).

Corn is grown for both home consumption and cash. Production expenses are usually borrowed from local creditors. Costs amount to Php 8,500 for 1.5 hectares for the following:

Corn Production Costs: Rental of tractor = Php 1,500.00 5 bags of urea = Php 4,000.00 Seeds = Php 2,000.00 Planting = Php 800.00 Plowing = Php 200.00

Harvest of 70 sacks per hectare amounts to 20 sacks corn kernels or 15 sacks milled corn. Corn kernels are sold at Php 6.00/kg in Trinidad. The harvest is subdivided for loan payments, for selling and for consumption. About 5 sacks remain to tide the households over during lean months of rice.

1.3.1.3 Vegetable growing for food and cash

Women‟s tasks in the farm include planting, weeding, harvesting, threshing and winnowing. They tend the livestock and gardens in the backyards. Backyard gardens grow squash, bottle gourd and eggplants for home consumption.

The vegetables commonly sold in the market are squash, eggplants, sweet potato and cassava. The farmers sell the root crops in the town center about 7 or 8 times a month. A farmer who sells two sacks per delivery of sweet potato earns about Php 60.00. This net income is utilized for the purchase of the basic needs such as salt, soap, cooking oil, kerosene for wick lamps, matches and tobacco. In instances when there is good supply of sweet potatoes, farmers trade them for dried or fresh fish.

Computation of panuig and pangulilang harvests was made separately. The HH survey was then part of the baseline conducted by SIBAT and FARDEC. The data was validated through focus group discussion (FGD).

Rice weeding is usually done by women in Panaghiusa

1.3.1.4 Palm oil

Oil palm was introduced in early 2002 through contract growing for PALM Incorporated.5 50 members of TTIFA were lured into subcontracting with the promise of windfall profits. The farmers‟ CLOAs6 were taken as collateral and for inputs. The farmers were promised payment when fruits are harvested after three years, but this did not happen due to deficits in production. About 15 % of rain fed irrigated rice paddies in Brgy. San Vicente has now been replaced by oil palm plantations. Many of the CARP beneficiaries who entered into contract with the company using their CLOA as collateral ultimately lost their land.

The production of palm oil (after 3 years of harvest) showed a deficit as follows:

Production cost at 14% interest = Php 60,000.00 Gross sales = Php 20,000.00

Deficit = Php 40,000.00

1.3.1.5 Inadequate government social services

Some 70% of the population had reached elementary grades in Panaghiusa. Some 25% had completed elementary level and 5% reached high school and college levels. There is one primary school in the sitio established by TTFA. Students go to the higher elementary schools in San Roque and to the town center of Trinidad for high school.

There is no health center or clinic in the community, thus there is no periodic health check-ups or immunizations. TTFA has a health committee which provides basic health services and alterative or herbal treatments. TTFA had influenced the municipal health center to provide priority services to TTFA members. Serious cases are brought to a hospital in Trinidad.

5 Trinidad is one of the original 11 towns with some 45,000 hectares targeted for oil palm growing. The target area for the oil palm plantation is bigger than the land area currently being planted to palay in Bohol. 6 Certificate of Land Ownership Award (CLOA).

There are two water sources (gravity-fed servicing 30 HH, one artesian well and individual open dug wells). Potable water is available but very inadequate for the needs of farming households.

1.3.2 Impact of climate change in Panaghiusa

The respondents in Sitio Panaghiusa regard typhoons with heavy flooding, as well as drought periods, as the main extreme events that increasingly batter their community and agriculture.

Sitio Panaghiusa is a flood prone area. The farm areas have no water drainage system, waterways or natural land contours to drain the water from the mountains to the sea. One day of rain can create waterlogged conditions in different parts of the village which can remain for days or weeks. Increasing rates of amoebiasis is experienced by residents, especially in the month of December after continuous rains and as water sources become contaminated.

TYPHOONS

Typhoon Nitang of strength no.47 occurred in early 1984 and destroyed crops and houses. Severe flooding destroyed the rice crop. There was no production in four months due to flooding and army worms.

Some 90% of the population was affected by hunger for four months. They coped by eating baang (pith of palm tree), wild root crops (kot and bot, and ube yam found along the streams). The root crops had to be carefully prepared to remove the toxic substances.

Health records indicate that about 30 % of the population, especially children, suffered from diarrhea attributed to contaminated water. The respondents remembered the epidemic scale of skin disease called kurikong and sore eyes or piskat in the aftermath of the floods. The cows were afflicted with kalambre or hemorrhagic septicemia.

Typhoon Ruping (Signal #3) came in the same year. While the devastation was not equal to Nitang, most coconut and banana trees were felled by very strong winds.

DROUGHT AND FLOODING

Bohol also suffered from extreme weather events. The three drought El Niño events from 1993 to 1998, as well as floods during the typhoon months and La Niña, adversely affected crop production.

Since 1973, El Nino or drought events resulted in the drying up of crops and vegetation in the lowland farms of Bohol. Typhoons submerged rice paddies in Trinidad and in other lowland municipalities for an average of two days. The rice plants survived but productivity failed due to logging. The pattern of rainfall and dry periods has become very variable and farmers say that their crops are almost always hit by either drought or flood during their reproductive stages.

7 Signal number 4 is one level up from the maximum intensity level of 3 that is considered normal or common every year.

The El Niño event in 1973 dried up all the water sources and vegetation in lowland farms. After the long dry spell, when the farmers cultivated their rain fed rice, army worms attacked and wiped out the fields. The local government distributed chemical pesticides to farmers to control the pests but their crops had already been damaged. The typhoons in 1984 (Nitang and Ruping) flooded the whole community and destroyed crops for months. The 1997-98 El Niño event was the worst drought experienced in the memory of Tuboran farmers.

During the El Niño phenomenon in 1997, we experienced extreme drought where all the vegetation dried up. Everywhere we looked was all brown. Our families endured food shortage; we did not have any to feed our livestock. Grasses and other vegetation were all brown, our carabaos would not eat the dried up, brown leaves. We devised a way to make the animals eat: we made the carabaos wear green tinted shades so that the carabaos would see green when they looked at the grass, and then could eat.

-- Antonio Boniel, Farmer

CHANGE IN THE CROPPING SEASONS

Before the 1980s, farmers planted rice three times a year. The first cropping season used to be from June to September; the second cropping used to begin in November and harvested in February. For the third cropping (pang-ang-ang), planting used to start in March and harvesting in the first week of June. Early maturing varieties were used for pang-ang-ang which was needed to shorten the period of lean months. Erratic changes in weather were observed by the farmers in the cropping seasons of 2000.

Panaghiusa farmers have difficulty following their old season of planting and some farmers began cultivating in the months of May until August for the first cropping. In this situation, harvesting then falls on December to January. This has resulted in a reduced number of cropping periods (from three to two or one) in Panaghiusa. Some farmers able to plant two cropping of rain fed rice said that the performance of the next crop is poor. The variability of rainfall has created an un-coordinated pattern of cropping in the community.

Figure 3: Seasonal calendar of Barangay San Vicente (1980‟s to 1990‟s)

Figure 4: Seasonal calendar of Barangay San Vicente (year 2000 - 2010)

The above figures indicate the change in rainfall and dry months, characterized by unequal distribution of rain and dry season. The cropping calendar changed in early 2000 as farmers began to experience unequal distribution of rainfall and dry season characterized by too much rainfall and/or lengthy droughts.

The erratic distribution of rainfall and dry periods resulted in crop losses for farmers, mostly due to pest infestation. Farmers estimated the decrease in yield of rain fed rice from the early 1980s compared to the present. The difference is around 20 sacks of 35- 40kg/sack. This translates to longer lean periods and lack of stock for households between harvests. They need to plant more root crops (sweet potato or cassava) and

10 leguminous high protein crops like mung beans for additional income and food as a coping mechanism during long drought periods.

The FGD and individual key informant interviews yielded specific descriptions of the changes observed in the 1970s and in recent times, on climate patterns, farming systems, production, pest infestation and control, production income and expenses.

1970-1990 2000- 2010 Climate  During 1980‟s, the climate  Referring to the calendar, the pattern pattern was stable and no years 2000-2010 were generally drastic weather changes dry. This is supported by data occurred. that longest drought occurred  It‟s also natural for them to during 2008-2010. experience “habagat” during  According to FGD respondents, August and September. the climate pattern today is very  The hottest months were March unstable. When it rains for 1 and April, the coldest months day, it will be dry for the whole were November and month and vice versa. December.  Farmers are unable to plant rice  In mid-1980, strong typhoons during this period, thus some of wrought severe damage, them went into the difficult and destroying farming and other unreliable activity of gold livelihood sources causing panning. hunger in every household.  According to the respondents, September is the typhoon season during these years.

Farming  The farmers had 2 cropping  Farmers still able to plant two system seasons; the “Panuig” and the crops of rice in a year. “pangulilang”.  Aside from rice, they plant some  Panuig starts May and ends vegetables and root crops year October and November. round.  During panuig, August is the  Due to unstable weather pattern month for weeding. and the events of extreme  September is the planting drought and flooding, few season for corn. farmers were able to plant rice  Pangulilang started December recently and some of them were and ended March or April not able to harvest their crops.  January is usually the planting  During land preparation some season of mung bean. farmers still use plow and carabao but some use “turtle” or mechanical tractor.

Rice and  Farm products in 1980‟s are  Harvests at present are rice, marine only rice, corn, mung bean and vegetables and root crops produce some root crops such as  Rice is harvested every cassava and sweet potato. September to November for  Rice was abundant during Panuig and April for

harvest season (Oct – Nov for Pangulilang panuig) and Mar-April for  Rice harvest was generally pangulilang. higher in 1980‟s compared to  Corn and other root crops were today. harvested December and  Some farmers use traditional January drought resistant rice varieties  Rice harvests during 1980‟s are to respond to the changing generally higher than present climate patterns. years.  Vegetables and root crops are harvested year round and no specific months because it depends on the weather. Crop pest &  Not a serious problem in the  Present crop pests and diseases control 1980‟s. Farmers experienced are rice black bug (“pyangaw”), methods few insect pest occurrences. golden snail (“kuhol”) and rat  There were pest outbreaks of (“ilaga”) infestations and tungro army worms after typhoons to name a few. Ruping, Nitang that affect the  Farmers use chemical fertilizers rice fields. and pesticides extensively  Few farmers used chemical compared to 1980. They use 6-7 fertilizers and pesticides, the sacks of mixed complete and rest using cultural, mechanical urea compared with 5-10 kilos and preventive control during 1980‟s. For pesticides, measures to control pests and farmers still use karate, aquatin rice diseases. and other pesticides. Income  Household income was higher  Income is usually higher during during harvest season; October harvest season. to November for panuig and  Due to loans and high cost of March to April for pangulilang. farm production, farmers suffer  Income was much higher sometimes negative cash during 1980‟s compared with incomes 2010.  Root crops and vegetables are  Farmers have more farm usually for home consumption products in 1980‟s and only. additional income to support basic needs. Farm  Farm expenditures were high  Farm expenditures are generally Expenditures during land preparation and higher during land preparation harvesting because of the labor among other production stages expenses. due to labor expenses.  Generally, there were less  Some farmers have higher expenses during 1980‟s expenses due to extensive use of because chemical fertilizers chemical fertilizers and and pesticides were not used pesticides. extensively.  Generally farm expenditures are  Also, basic goods were not higher in 2000-2010 than 1980‟s. very expensive.  Household expenses are higher at present.

1.3.3 Adaptive practices and recommendations for Panaghiusa

Sustainable agriculture was introduced to TTIFA members in 2007 through collaboration with TTIFA, FARDEC (Farmers Development Center) and SIBAT. Ten years earlier, when conventional farming was the dominant method of rice production, three organic seed varieties were introduced by the San Vicente diocese to farmers to encourage organic rice production. Farmers planted these seeds without chemical fertilizers and pesticides, but because other elements were lacking, the practice did not flourish. One variety is still found in the community and is currently used in organic production efforts.

About 70% of farmers have now adopted organic agriculture practices. Only about 20% still use chemical sprays on rice and vegetables. Some 80% percent of farmers grow vegetables organically with others on LEISA said to be due to market demand.

Sustainable agriculture has helped the TTIFA farmers to increase farm productivity with lower production costs. They learned to make and use organic fertilizers and other organic methods of controlling pests. The following comparison of production costs and yield was provided in the Focused Group Discussion and interviews conducted in Panaghiusa.

Cost of rice chemical farming per hectare for chemical fertilizers and labour): Php 10,000

Harvest from rice chemical farming (panuig): 40 sacks

Cost of rice organic farming per hectare (for 7 pax at Php150 per day for plowing and planting + food expenses): Php 5,000

Harvest from organic farming (panuig): 50 sacks

The drought in 2008-2009 and flooding in early 2011, affected rice crops but there is an observed improvement in resilience since 2008 in comparison to the past. This is perceived by respondents as due to changes in farming practices with the adoption of sustainable agriculture. The collection and planting of traditional rice varieties helped farmers adapt to changing weather patterns. Additional types of vegetable planted in every household provide other sources of food whenever a rice crop failure occurs. The use of organic biosprays is now a conscious practice to control severe insect pest infestations such as army worms.

1.3.3.1 Sustainable agriculture practices

The following sustainable agriculture practices and adaptive measures to climate change have so far been introduced and practiced in Panaghiusa.

Varietal adaptability trials and Crop adaptability trials (VAT and CAT) Varietal trials are approaches to collecting and adapting new varieties in the community for rice and corn (VAT) and vegetables (CAT). These are effective ways to improve the seed system within the community by providing adapted and quality collection of seeds that undergo study by farmers.

The trials are done through community-based efforts and are meant to improve seed security especially during difficult times. In sustainable agriculture, VAT and CAT are seed production systems that promote adaptation to local conditions, integrated cropping and are farmer-controlled. The adaptive seeds are also exchanged with other farmers and communities, a way of supporting the local seed system. Such exchanges encourage participatory learning on crop improvement and related technologies.

There are a total of 27 traditional rice varieties undergoing VAT through the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) currently. Seven traditional rice varieties showed good results and are now being distributed to individual cooperators for further adaptation trials. These are also being shared with PO partners in the nearby areas in Calanggaman, Pangpang and Dagohoy in Ubay. Several types of vegetables are also in the process of crop adaptability trials in the area.

 Loren (a TTFA farmer): “I prefer using traditional varieties vs. hybrid because traditional varieties can withstand adverse climatic changes and pest outbreaks. G2 can withstand floods, Maligaya variety cannot be affected by strong winds”. 

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) System of Rice Intensification (SRI) was adopted by TTFA members as a means to adapt to changes in climate.

SRI is a system to improve rice production which promotes a set of appropriate technologies that exhibit adaptive resistance to biotic (living factors such as insect pests) and abiotic (non-living factors) such as stresses that affect the living organisms. SRI is a system of production to address climate change which is becoming an increasing problem, but also ensures higher yields, lower cost of production, reduced water requirements, and less environmental impact.

SRI experiments began in 2010 in combination with or use of adaptive seeds that have undergone varietal adaptability trials (VAT) for several croppings. The experiments so far exhibited very positive results in terms of yield. While the work is continuing, many farmers in the sitio have already joined the process. SRI technology is an opportunity for farmers to learn other ways of rice farming. Farmers in the sitio have become interested in SRI because it is not expensive, does not require expensive chemical fertilizers, and they can save on seeds. Some 45% of farmers in Panaghiusa have shifted to SRI at present.

Improvement of fertility management through composting and vermiculture Farmers in San Vicente address the poor fertility of the soil through vermicomposting, traditional composting and through the use of carbonized rice hull. Traditional composting (placing biodegrables such as leaves, rice hays, etc. in a compost pit) was practiced previously, but farmers observed that it was a long process. Vermicomposting was introduced in 2009 as an appropriate technology that expedites the process of composting. A vermiculture plant established at the communal farm now yields an average of 10 sacks of vermicast every harvest. Some farmers are also vermicomposting at present. Carbonized rice hull are also used by farmers for soil fertilization as well as golden snail control. Vermicomposting has proven effective in rice farming.

Crop management. The practice of intercropping and rotation has helped maximize land use for different crops, and has improved soil fertility and water absorption. This practice also provides some insurance from crop failures due to pest infestation. Crop rotation and intercropping are natural pest management techniques to control pest infestations. It also enhances farmer‟s knowledge in cultivating different types of vegetables with different uses.

Low-External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA). The current practice of Low-External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) of some farmers is one adaptation to cope with the increasing prices of external inputs. Trained farmers have started to minimize their chemical inputs by using liquid fertilizers and biosprays. The program should guide the farmers to convert to organic agriculture.

Water impounding and construction of a new gravity system (in 2007) has improved water conservation and had decreased the possibility of water stress during crop growth.

The practice of traditional cooperativism or alayon in almost all activities in the communal farm such as vermicomposting, all stages in VAT and CAT trials, and vegetable production has enabled farmers to establish a communal farm for collective demonstration and learning, and enabled them to produce income for community and organizational purposes. Alayon activities also expand to individual farms of TTIFA members, to help reduce labor expenses in rice production.

1.3.3.2 Recommendations

1. Further develop the current SA in the community development plan that has contributed in helping farmers convert from chemically-based agriculture to organic farming. These appropriate technologies have brought positive results in productivity and improvements in the agro-physical environment. Application of the SA framework and principles will contribute to climate change adaptive measures that are built on the strengths of the community and the environment.

Below are some of the adaptation measures recommended for improvement:

a. Crop and varietal diversification to improve the range of resistance to climate change. Improvement of crop agro-biodiversity through varietal and crop adaptation for rice and vegetables. This practice produced more food sources and products, and thus has improved farm productivity and income for farmers (they are able to sell more vegetables to the market), some resistance to pest infestation, and water-holding capacity of the soil due to diverse vegetative cover.

b. Alternative pest management techniques to shift farmers away from the use of chemical pesticides and high production costs. This will break the dependency on pesticides that pollute water ways and decrease soil fertility and harm the health of farmers. (With respect to the problem of golden snails, it is recommended to lengthen the maturity of seeds to be transplanted. Transplant tougher three-week old seedlings instead of succulent two-week old seedlings that are attractive to golden snails.)

2. Wider adoption of vermiculture to supplement biomass use for alternative soil fertility management. This will decrease dependency on chemical fertilizers, farm hazards from chemicals and the high cost of production.

3. Sustain and widen the SRI method in rice production. This will ensure:

a. Water management Field drying at mid-tillering and at two weeks before harvest as against continuous flooding, is a water management technique that allows soil aeration beneficial to plants. This also helps in the management of golden snails, eases harvesting, and promotes the potential reduction in methane (estimated at approximately 180 kg GHG/ha/season).

b. Decrease in GHG emissions from rice production. The magnitude and pattern of GHG emissions from rice fields are determined mainly by the water regime and organic inputs. GHG abatement measures in SRI rice production are made through proper integration of crop, soil and water management.

4. Expand work on uncultivated lands. From the survey, there is about one hectare of uncultivated land per household. In the focused group discussion, several assumptions were made to indicate there could be enough labor force for one hectare (2 persons and one carabao for 8 to 10 days work), but only if water and farm implements are available.

5. Enhance water supply and efficiency through the use of drip irrigation, mulching, improved irrigation practices, and water impounding and drainage canals. These will improve hydrology, promote better management of irrigation water in case of drought, and is a mitigation measure from flooding during heavy rains. Increase in water supply will certainly improve crop productivity and farm income.

6. Sustain the alayon. The increased labor demanded by crop diversification and rotation-intercropping, as well as water impounding, has been met by the alayon which is still strongly practiced by the community. The alayon could be tapped to develop the uncultivated lands.

7. Promote awareness of farmers on climate variability and change, and improve monitoring and forecasting systems for floods and droughts.

8. Promote agro-forestry systems. Agroforestry has an important role in climate change adaptation especially in smallholder farming communities. Agro-forestry offers a means to diversify production systems and increases the sustainability of smallholder farming systems because tree-based systems improve soil conditions (porosity), improve hydrology and also provide additional income to households.8

The gains achieved by farmers in acquiring ownership of the land they till should include plans for the comprehensive socio-economic development of the community, addressing all aspects with food production anchored in sustainable agriculture. This should include raising the capacity of farmers to design their individual and collective farm development (from production to postharvest phases) including climate change adaptation and mitigation plans.

8 Jaranilla-Sanchez, P.A. and others, 2007.

1.4 Study Site Two: Barangay Pangpang, Ubay, Bohol

1.4.1 General profile

Pangpang is a coastal barangay located in the northern part of Ubay municipality in the province of Bohol. It is bounded on the east by Barangay Humay-Humay, on the west and north by the Camotes Sea, and in the south by Soom River.

Pangpang has 186 households with approximately 962 individuals. The population is distributed in seven smallest administrative units called purok (headed by kagawad or councilor of the barangay) and two sitios or villages. Population size varies in each village. The average household size is ten.

Figure 5: Map of Ubay Bohol, Brgy. Pangpang9

Pangpang is 12 kilometers from the municipality of Ubay and 5 kilometers from the national highway. The main barangay road (earth and gravel) connects the sitios and purok. Pangpang is accessible year-round through the four-wheeled motocycle known as habal-habal.

The main farmer‟s organization is the Pangpang Fishermen and Farmers Association (PAFFO) established on April 27, 2008 to pursue land security through collective struggle, raise member‟s level of awareness on various socio-economic and political issues, and to collectively address their needs and problems. PAFFO was guided by HUMABOL (Hugpong sa Mag-uumang Bol-anon) during its establishment.

Pangpang is known for a rock formation along the northern part of the barangay facing the Camotes Sea, said to be the landmark of the first inhabitants who fished in the area. The

9 http://ppdobohol.lgu.ph/AllRoadsImages/Ubay%20Map%20A3%20Layout.pdf

17 sea is known for its abundant species of fish, shells and other marine resources, providing marine life to local people and to the neighboring communities since the pre-Spanish time. Pangpang is described as once a forested area where species of hardwood such as narra, molave and hambabawod in the uplands and pagatpat and kabakhaw an (belonging to the mangrove family) were abundantly grown. Wild animals were found in the area such as monkeys and wild chickens among others. It was officially made a barangay in1962, named after its landmark Pangpang.

Land area, topography and land use. The total land area of Pangpang is approximately 150 hectares and comprised of flat plains and lowlands from the national highway up to the shoreline. These plains are suitable for rice, bananas, root crops, coconuts and mango. The sea provides fishing and seaweed as a source of livelihood.

Of the 150 hectares land area of Pangpang, about 135 hectares are devoted to agriculture production. Several meters from the shoreline is a built-up area of approximately 10 hectares devoted to settlement, institutional and economic infrastructure. Here can be found the barangay hall, health and day care centers, small neighborhood stores selling basic commodities, solar drier, school building and school site, and a chapel. Agricultural facilities are generally located in residential houses or lots. The residents in this community tend to locate their houses within their agricultural farmlands.

Figure 6: Spot map of Pangpang

1.4.2 Agricultural profile and farming system

The major sources of livelihood for residents in Pangpang are farming and fishing. There are 195 households with dual livelihood sources. Only 20 households rely mainly on fishing.

1.4.2.1 Farming system

Rice is the dominant crop in Pangpang and is traditionally cultivated twice a year - from the months of May to September for first cropping (called panuig) and from November to March for second cropping (called pangamihan). Secondary crops are root crops and coconuts and bananas harvested year round. Residents also grow vegetables and root crops in their backyard year round for home consumption without chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The majority of rice farmers have ¼ to ½ hectares to till. Today, rice farming largely uses conventional methods (called the broadcast method) characterized by mono- cropping and rampant use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. The practice started in the 1980‟s and the number of farmers who shifted to this has increased. The amount of chemical inputs has increased due to serious pest infestations. About 2 to 3 sacks of seeds and 6 to 7 sacks of fertilizers are required today per hectare per cropping. The shift from traditional to conventional farming took place in the 1990s when some farmers made the shift to the bundak or the broadcast or direct seeding method. (see Figure 5, transect map). Before this, farmers practiced the tirik-tirik or transplanting method. Almost 50% of seed can be saved using transplanting compared to the broadcast method. Carabaos were the traditional means to plow but most farmers have shifted to mechanical tractors for land preparation. Threshing used to be done manually (known as giok) but today mechanical threshers are used. Fuel and rental of mechanical equipment add to the production costs incurred by Pangpang farmers.

Rice is rain fed due to lack of irrigation and this poses a problem for conventional farming. Hybrid and inbred varieties normally require more water during germination up to reproductive stages. The lack of irrigation is identified as a main cause of low productivity. Even if Pangpang receives good rain during the year, water easily evaporates due to the wind that blows over the land rendering Pangpang warmer than other areas.

Soils in Pangpang are clay to sandy and cannot hold water for long periods, especially in dry months. The seepage is such that moisture is gone in two continuous warm days. The hardening of clay soil in the hot climate makes the rooting of plants and absorption of nutrients very difficult.

The intrusion of Green Revolution farming techniques and the rampant use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is said to have greatly affected the fertility of the soil. Poor soil management and the practice of burning rice straw deprive the soil of potential organic matter. HYVs have completely replaced traditional varieties in the area. The 30-year historical transect (from 1970 to 2000) prepared by Pangpang farmers (Figure 6) show the changes over time to the traditional farming system.

Figure 7: Historical transect map of agriculture in Pangpang

Today, farmers harvest only 20-30 sacks per hectare compared to about 60 to 70 sacks during the 1970‟s. The increasing production costs result in very little income or barely enough to pay for production loans from local credit sources in the area called Taytay sa Kauswagan, Dungganon. These are local usurers who impose very high interest rates and collect repayments through monthly cash payments or sacks of harvested palay every cropping season and are approached by residents for production loans and emergencies. Due to this, there is lack of food for 6 to 7 months of the year. The transect map (Figure 6) shows the continuing decrease in income of farmers.

The unpredictable change in the weather is identified by farmers as a main cause of low or no production, especially in the past three years. Strong rains and flooding, dry periods that extend up to nine months, and pests, take a mounting toll on the fruits of their labor on the land. Pangpang residents find it increasingly difficult to recover from poverty and disasters.

1.4.2.2 Fishing

Fishing is a major year round activity in Pangpang. Different species of fish, shells, crabs, squids and shrimps were abundant until the 1990‟s. After that, the fish catch dwindled because of the rampant use of illegal means, including dynamite fishing. Traditional fishing gear such as panggal, pasol, and fishing nets for crabs are still being used by many fisherfolk but there are some who lack capital and equipment. More and more fishermen use fishpens to increase their catch. The congestion of fish pens and fish cages results in degradation of water quality and eventually causes fish kills.

The community is now engaged in seaweed culture as a main source of income especially when there is little income from rice production. Seaweed culture can be done year round. During long drought periods, however, a disease called iceice occurs and damages the seaweed. During rainy or windy seasons, a common problem is the rotting of seaweed which can still be sold although at a cheaper price.

Traders buy produce at very low prices. Fisherfolk are able to sell their catch about once a week. They use the cash to buy rice and other basic household needs. They go hungry during typhoon seasons when they cannot go out to fish and the rice crop fails.

To augment income from fishing, some fishermen practice Illegal fishing methods such as “tira” “liba-liba”, “bating”, “kuskos” and “dinamita”. During the 1960‟s to late 1990‟s, the use of dynamite was widespread. In 2000, with the implementation of Bantay Dagat by the LGU, the practice has been reduced.The program also had raised awareness of fishermen on the hazards of illegal fishing. (See transect map in Figure 6).

1.4.2.3 Livestock

Households in Pangpang commonly raise chickens, goats and ducks in their backyards. These are tended year round and are either sold for emergency needs or consumed on special occasions by the household or community. Other domesticated animals are cows which are usually sold for profit and carabaos utilized as draft animals. Most of the farmers own carabaos, while cows and pigs are either owned or shared in a scheme called baton with other members of the community.

1.4.2.4 Paid labor

Paid labor is the most common source of non-farm income. Some households have members working outside the community as housemaids or sales ladies in the nearby cities or in Cebu and Manila. A few are engaged in small retail businesses, mostly sari- sari stores. Others make a living in construction work, carpentry or driving habal-habal.

Due to very limited food sources and income (especially after typhoons and long drought events), people in the community are forced to do more off-farm work outside the community for small cash wages. Seaweed farming involving family members has become an important source of remuneration for the farmers-fisherfolk of Pangpang.

1.4.2.5 Inadequate government social services

The barangay has a health center but lacks medical facilities and medicines to meet common ailments (coughs, cold and fever, rheumatism and arthritis in adults). A common

21 practice of community members is to go to the traditional healers or hilot, albularyo and mananabang, while some buy commercial medicines. For serious cases, residents borrow money from credit sources to take the sick to the district hospitals or to Tagbilaran City.

A midwife visits the community once a month while health workers are based in sitios to attend the basic medical needs, such as maternal and child health, family planning and immunization. Monthly weight monitoring is being undertaken by the midwives assisted by health workers to determine child malnutrition cases in the community. Visits by medical doctors and dental staff are infrequent.

Water for drinking and domestic use is inadequate in Pangpang. A main source of water for domestic use is the Sum River that traverses the barangay in its southern part. There are 37 wells scattered around the barangay that are either privately owned by the residents or installed by local government. Some 5 out of 7 puroks rely mainly on dug wells for potable and domestic uses. Those living along the seashore rely on dug wells for household needs and buy commercial mineral water for drinking. Some dug wells dry up during long summer months of El Nino occurrences.

Only about half of adults in Pangpang had reached primary level of education, while most children have attained elementary education, due to the presence of the elementary school in the area. Five out of ten children who graduate from the elementary school are able to attend secondary school located in Barangay Kamambugan, five kilometers from Pangpang. Those unable to send their children to high school say that aside from the distance, they cannot afford to send their children. Only a few households could afford to send their children to college.

There is livelihood assistance through loans by the local government for the purchase of farm inputs, animal dispersal projects and for seaweed culture. Pangpang residents regard this assistance as very limited in scope (in relation to their needs), level of funding and beneficiaries. Those who have used government credit facilities are women and the peasant organizations.

1.4.3 Impact of climate change on farmers and fisherfolk

Brgy. Pangpang has not experienced disastrous flooding and tsunamis. Drought and typhoons are the most common occurrences, and are considered catastrophic by local residents.

TYPHOONS

Typhoons used to hit Pangpang during the months of November and December. Farmers suffer heavy agricultural losses during this period. Local people recalled Typhoon Nitang (strength no.4)10 which occurred in early 1984. People recounted the near complete devastation of rice fields and other crops, including fruit trees. Houses and rooftops were blown off or damaged. About a fourth of the fishing population lost their pump boats and fishing gear. The estimated damage of agriculture was about 70%.

10 Signal number 4 is one level up from the maximum intensity level of 3 that is considered normal or common every year.

People survived on bang and ubod, the pith of native palm and coconut trees. There was also little that could be taken for the sea. There was no rice production in four months due to flooding followed by an invasion of army worms. (Army worms (Spodotera frugiperda) are caterpillars in their life cycle. It is a serious pest in rice that can devastate rice fields if not controlled. Army worms will eat everything in an area and once the food supply is exhausted the entire "army" will move to the next available food source.11

Historical records indicated that 70% of the population, especially children, suffered from diarrhea and cows were ill with hemorrhagic septicemia. These illnesses were attributed to contaminated water.

Typhoon Ruping (Signal #3) came on the heels of Nitang, affecting 50% of the rice crops. There was considerable damage to fishing boats and gear. Another typhoon in 2002, Typhoon Kaloy, felled fruit trees due to very strong winds.

DROUGHT (1975-1999 & 2008-2010)

The 14-month drought of 1975, an event not easily forgotten by the Pangpang people, dried up rice lands, coconut and banana crops. The nine-month drought of 1999 (November-July 1999) is remembered as more severe. Farmers missed two rice crops as water sources dried up. Coconuts and vegetables crops didn‟t survive. There was no water for drinking as many wells dried up. 50 % of the livestock population was decimated. The 1999 drought occurred nine months after the 1998 drought, remembered as equally severe as the 1975 episode but with less rice fields affected.

The hunger that ensued forced people to survive on bang, ubod and kinurot. Child malnutrition rates increased. People survived on fishing which was also reduced by around 20%.

In the prolonged drought of 2008 – 2010, 20 percent of Pangpang farmers experienced reduced harvests for three crops; the remainder had little or no harvest. In 2011, prolonged rains occurred.

ARMY WORM INFESTATION

The outbreak of army worms in 1985 affected all rice areas of Ubay, damaging nearly the entire crop. Army worms completely damaged 98% of the rice fields, while farmers were still recovering from the effects of typhoons Nitang and Ruping. The farmers reported that only two rice fields survived because the plants were at the mature stage.

This worm attack was more severe than that following the drought in 1999 where an estimated of 40% of new rice farms were destroyed. Respondents attributed less crop damage due to intensive chemical spraying. Hunger affected about 60% of the population as a result.

11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_worm

PROLONGED DROUGHTS OF 2008-2010 AND RAINS IN 2011

Prolonged dry and rainy periods characterized climate change in the last decade. The respondents in the group discussion noted the change from the dry and wet seasons that signaled rice cropping seasons. A prolonged three-year drought from 2008 to 2010 was the longest dry period farmers experienced. Only 15 to 20 farmers harvested, and overall production was poor and included pest outbreaks. After the drought, a snail infestation took over. In 2011, prolonged rains occurred in the entire Visayas region, including Bohol. A diarrhea outbreak followed the rains.

CHANGES IN THE SEASONAL CALENDAR SINCE 1970

The seasonal calendar drawn from the respondent recollections from the 1970s indicated changes in climate patterns, farming systems, production, pest control methods, and income and farm expenses. The current situation has made them more vulnerable to climate change. 1970-1990 2000- 2010 Climate  In the 1970‟s, rainy season was  Referring to the calendar, the pattern pronounced during August until year 2000-2010 was generally January, hot months only during dry. March and April.  According to FGD respondents,  Cropping seasons were still the climate today is very supported by the relatively good unstable. When it rains for one climate pattern. In the mid-1980‟s, day, it will be dry for a whole typhoons affected the community, month and vice versa. destroying rice production and other  This is supported by data that the livelihoods. longest drought occurred during  Drought also occurred mid-1970‟s 2008-2010. destroying the cropping pattern and  Farmers unable to plant rice resulted in serious food during this period, thus some insufficiencies. explore gold panning, an unreliable source of cash.  Farmers able to plant 2 crops of rice in a year using conventional methods and the broadcast method. The traditional varieties were slowly replaced by high- yielding varieties with chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Farming  There were only 2 rice cropping  In the 1990s farmers started to system season – the panuig and use “turtle” or mechanical tractor pangamihan. Panuig started in May for land preparation. for land preparation and harvested in  At present, due to unstable October to November. Pangamihan weather and extreme drought began immediately in November and floods, only a few farmers (planting) and ended in April were able to plant rice and some (harvesting) were unable to harvest.  Farmers used traditional rice varieties that took about 4 months from planting to harvest.  Most farmers used traditional tools in farming such as plow, lagaraw (used

in land clearing) and other manual tools.  Before the 1980s, farmers practiced the tirik-tirik method of transplanting. Beginning in the 1980s, farmers shifted to broadcasting “sabod”

method.  Harvest from pangulilang was relatively higher than pangamihan.  Farmers practiced fallowing after pangulilang harvest to allow the land to rest. Rice and  Farm products in 1970s were rice  Harvests at present are rice, marine and very few vegetables, baang vegetables and root crops produce from palm trees are common  Despite changes in seasons, rice alternative source of food especially is still harvested every September during typhoons. to November for panuig and April  Some farmers also harvested for pangamihan. coconut during these years.  Rice harvest is generally higher  Sea products include fish and squid. during 1980‟s compared to today. November to January is the period when fish catch is abundant. This supports food needs and cash incomes during planting season. Crop pest &  During 1970‟s, pest problems and  Among crop pests and diseases control diseases did not significantly affect presently are rice black bug methods produce. Maya infestation was the (pyangaw), golden snail (kuhol) only problem which used to occur rats (ilaga) and tungro. near harvest time and at the seeding  There are some farmers who period of pangamihan. Farmers also already use traditional drought experienced few rat infestations. resistant varieties of rice as a  No chemical control methods were response to changing climate practiced during this period. patterns.  Farmers use chemical fertilizers and pesticides extensively compared to 1980. They use 6-7 sacks of mixed complete and urea compared with 5-10 kilos during 1980‟s. For pesticides, farmers still use karate, aquatin and other pesticides. Income  Farmers earned positive incomes  Income after harvest is used after the harvests from pangulilang mostly to pay for farmers‟ loans; and pangamihan seasons. because of high cost of farm Earnings from rice production could production, net income is usually still pay for most of their basic needs. negative. Farm  The calendar shows that farmers  Expenditures are higher due to Expenditures had year round farm expenses. labor costs Generally increasing when farm  Some Farmers have higher farm preparation and planting is expenses due to extensive use of approaching. chemical inputs  According to farmers, prices for commodities in 1970‟s are not as high as today, and they could afford to buy basic needs.

Figure 8: Seasonal calendar of Barangay Pangpang (year 1970 - 2000)

Figure 9: Seasonal calendar of Barangay Pangpang (year 2000 - 2010)

1.4.4 Adaptive practices and recommendations for Pangpang

1.4.4.1 Sustainable agriculture practices

Sustainable agriculture was introduced in 2010 in Pangpang, through collaboration among PAFFO (Pangpang Fishermen and Farmers Association), FARDEC (Farmers Development Center) and SIBAT. The collaboration focused on food production and responding to production problems brought about by climate change. The projects included Varietal Adaptability Trials (VAT) on rice, the piloting and development of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) method, Crop Adaptability Trials for vegetables to diversify food sources, and soil fertilization management through vermicomposting.

The Varietal Adaptability Trials (VAT) yielded seven traditional rice varieties planted in the communal farm of PAFFO through the SRI method. FARDEC provides the PO with leadership training and guidance, para-legal and other support services that will strengthen the PO to effectively manage the organization. SIBAT continues to provide training to farmer technicians, to empower and support their co-members in organic farming.

Though quite new, farmers have begun to shift from conventional to organic farming and adopt the various methods of soil fertilization. Farmers understand that sustainable agriculture can support their prime objective of land tenure security.

The drought of 2008 and the resulting poor production encouraged farmers to shift their farming methods. Farmers agreed that SRI would become an alternative to the conventional broadcast or the bundak method. In the dryland conditions of Pangpang, conventional methods were deemed as unproductive. Rice production had become very expensive. The conventional method of farming made farmers dependent on usurious loans from local credit facilities.

The pilot experiments on SRI using traditional varieties resulted in better crop resilience during the prolonged drought and ensuing flooding periods in 2011. The SRI approach in rice production required less water. SRI was also able to withstand golden snails or kuhol, unlike the broadcast method during flood days.

Traditional seed varieties also survive drought, through SRI. Today, about 60% of the Pangpang farmers have started to use traditional varieties with the SRI transplanting method. Almost 50% of seeds can be saved using transplanting compared to the broadcasting method.

Farmers are interested in organic farming techniques and willing to adopt the technologies. With these, farmers will be better able to cope with the effects of climate changes.

Flood water can be controlled via diverting water through drainage canals that can be linked to impounding structures. Production of vegetable that can withstand dry period adds to the food supply. Since the project was started, eggplant, beans and other varieties of vegetables have been grown and have increased the diet of Pangpang households.

There is a plan to develop a water system from brackish sources for potable and irrigation uses. Impounding water for use during drought is regarded as a critical project for the community.

Expansion of root crop production for additional food survival is included in the plan.

Since 2010, seaweed farming enhances household incomes. Seaweed farming is nearly a year-round source of income. Interviews with farmers indicated that for a 1 hectare seaweed farm, they spend 18,000 pesos (for planting material, labour and supplies). The harvest is bought by traders. Seaweed farming they say is less affected by drought except for the iceice disease. The seaweed can also be affected by diseases, but a healthy environment could produce high quality seaweeds.

1.4.4.2 Recommendations

This study recommends the following sustainable farming techniques to enhance the resilience of Pangpang agriculture to climate change.

1. Sustain and develop of SRI for rice in combination with varietal adaptability trials. The objective is to encourage Pangpang farmers to completely shift from the conventional to sustainable farming system in rice production.

2. Continue projects on sustainable agriculture to diversify food and income sources in a sustainable manner.

3. Improve crop agro-biodiversity through varietal and crop adaptation. This practice will produce more food sources and products, and thus improve farm productivity and income. Agro-biodiversity will increase resistance to pest infestation, increase water- holding capacity of the porous soil through more diverse vegetative cover, and will increase the produce that will add food on the table and goods for the market.

4. Improve the practice of intercropping and rotation which will also help maximize land use for different crops, and improve soil fertility and water absorption. This practice will also provide some insurance from against crop failures due to pest infestation.

5. Promote and develop community-based water supply systems. Introduce water impounding methods to improve water conservation especially during dry periods.

6. Enhance the practice of traditional cooperativism or alayon for vegetable production and other enterprises. Help farmers establish and improve their communal farm for collective demonstration and learning, and to produce income for community and organizational purposes.

7. Continue to strengthen the unity of the farmers on the issue of land tenure. The control and ownership of land will motivate them to improve productivity, and vice- versa.

2.0 SUMMARY: CLIMATE CHANGE AND VULNERABILITY IN PANAGHISUA AND PANGPANG

The vulnerability of farmers in Panaghiusa, a lowland agricultural community, stems from persistent poverty through the lack of security in rice and corn production, and narrow options in sources of food and income. Food production has not been optimized even with household labor. Lands are underutilized due to lack of draft animals and farm implements. Most importantly, the adoption over decades of conventional methods weakened the capacity of Panaghiusa farmers. With conventional methods, rain fed conditions prevent farmers from increasing production. Production expenses are high and place the farmers at the mercy of local money lenders.

The shift from conventional farming that began in 2007 has helped the farmers improve on productivity, seed sources, quality of the soil and water supply. It is the unity among the members of TTFA that enabled them to adapt quickly, establish their communal and individual organic farms, and perform with resilience in experimentations. The SRI experiments have started to renew farmers‟ confidence in meticulously studying rice production and assume control of its development.

Hence, even with the longest drought period experienced in 2008 to 2010 followed by months of rain in 2011, farmers saved their seeds and rice production was not as damaged as in previous extreme events; their recovery, respondents reported, is quicker.

Focus group discussion on vulnerability assessment in Panaghiusa among TTIFA members

The vulnerability of farmers in Pangpang, a coastal and low-lying agricultural community, stems from poverty brought about by extremely poor harvests and lack of alternative sources of income. There are hunger months (the usual lean months have been extended) as prolonged rains and dry periods destroy potential yield per cropping, sometimes for consecutive croppings. The poor soil fertility yields little harvest even with additional inputs. Production expenses are high and significant income goes to pay for the

30 usurious loans incurred from local credit facilities. Fishing provides food during off- typhoon times, but there is little income derived from the low prices paid for the catch by middle traders.

Disasters are looked upon as catastrophic because they bring diseases, the complete non-usability of the farmland, loss of harvests, and thus hunger. In Pangpang, to survive people rely on root crops and pith of palm and coconut trees and on seaweed culture which is unreliable year-round and has low returns.

Pangpang farmers summarized their vulnerabilities in the focused group discussion as inadequate harvest and income from rice production, poor and infertile soil, lack of food sources, high production expenses in rice, lack of traditional seed varieties to help them shift back to traditional farming, and inadequate services from government.

The farmers and fisherfolk have begun to recognize that the basic factor needed to address their problems is to strengthen their own unity. Only then will they be able to collectively address land tenure issues, build sustainable food production, and meet the difficulties caused by changing climate. Even with the long drought period of 2008 to 2010 that caused most farmers to stop growing rice and rely on seaweed culture, some farmers-fisherfolk decided to sustain the SRI experiments and other sustainable agriculture projects.

Focused group discussion with PAFFO members in Pangpang to discuss climate change problems.

In summary, the following are seen to be the factors that had made Bohol rice farmers vulnerable to climate change.

1. The loss of traditional farming potential and the ensuing dependence on chemical- based conventional agriculture have reduced the resilience of traditional Bohol rice agriculture in the face of climate change, namely healthy soil, traditional seeds and agro-biodiversity. Changes in agricultural resource patterns that took place are evidenced in the seasonal calendars and transect maps produced for this study.

a. In this system, conventional seeds used by farmers cannot withstand drought and flooding conditions. In a situation where all traditional varieties have been lost (such as in Pangpang), there had been no alternative but to withdraw from rice production, thus losing the main source of food and livelihood of farmers-fisherfolk.

b. In this system, farmers are compelled to respond by increasing fertilizer applications to nutrient-depleted soil (observed with the decrease in yield wrought by continuous application and effects of flooding and drought). In Panaghiusa, conventional farmers now use 3 bags of urea and 3 bags of complete fertilizer per hectare as required by the hybrid package. Even more fertilizers are applied during rainy season to offset nutrient loss due to leaching. This results in ground water contamination and increased fertilizer expenses.

c. In this system, farmers are compelled to undertake chemical spraying against pests, which in fact is an effect of mono-cropping patterns of production.

2. It is the conventional farming system which traps farmers in a cycle of dependence on loans and external inputs. Loan payments eat up a third of potential income of small farmers in both Pangpang and Panaghiusa.

3. The loss of control of seeds and dependence on seeds that cannot be reused and are susceptible to climate stresses, have reduced the capacity of small Bohol farmers to self-reliantly grow rice.

The decrease in plant diversity (an offshoot of the mono-cropping system) reduces resilience of traditional seed systems to climate change. As can be seen in the historical transect of Pangpang, traditional varieties have been nearly completely lost and will need enormous efforts to collect and conserve them. In Pinaghiusa, farmers who have begun to revive and use traditional seeds improved by varietal trials can see more resilient seeds in their farms.

4. The increased use of fertilizer potentially emits GHG (such as nitrous oxide (N2O) in rice production. Methane (CH) emissions from rice paddies (comprising about 40% of the GHG emission in agriculture) are due mostly to the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, especially in water immersed paddy fields characteristic of conventional rice farming.

5. Insecure land tenure and land dispossession are underlying factors of vulnerability of farmers to poverty and to the problems wrought by climate changes. Land conversion to palm oil dispossessed Panaghiusa farmers of land to a palm oil company, thus losing their main livelihood resource.