A Study on Coconut Production and Marketing in Tamil Nadu with Special Reference to Pollachi South Block

A STUDY ON COCONUT PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN TAMIL NADU WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO POLLACHI SOUTH BLOCK

Thesis submitted to Bharathidasan University for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics

By A.MUBARAK ALI (Ref. No. 037127/Ph.D2/ Economics /PT/April 2009)

Under the Guidance of

Dr.P.N.P. MOHAMED SAHAPUTHEEN

P.G. & RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS JAMAL MOHAMED COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS) (NATIONALLY ACCREDITED AT FIVE STAR STATUS BY NAAC) TIRUCHIRAPPALLI, TAMIL NADU, INDIA – 620 020 JUNE 2012

P.G and Research Department of Economics Jamal Mohamed College (Autonomous) Tiruchirappalli – 620 020.

Dr.P.N.P Mohamed Sahaputheen, Office : 0091-431-23312235 Reader, Head & Research Advisor Resi. : 0091-431-242155 Mobile : +919443272683 e-mail : [email protected]

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitle “A Study on Coconut Production and Marketing in Tamil Nadu with Special Reference to Pollachi South Block” submitted by A. Mubarak Ali, (Ref. No. 037127/Ph.D2 / Eco/ PT/April 2009) is a bonafide record of research work done by him under my guidance in the Department of Economics, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli and that the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award to the candidate of any degree or any other similar title. The thesis is the outcome of personal research work done by candidate under my overall supervision.

Station : Tiruchirappalli (Dr. P.N.P Mohamed Sahaputheen)

Date :

Declaration

I hereby declare that the thesis entitle, “A Study on Coconut Production and Marketing in Tamil Nadu with Special Reference to Pollachi South Block” submitted by me for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is the record of work carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. P.N.P Mohamed Sahaputheen, Research Advisor, Department of Economics, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli and had not formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship, titles in this or any other university and other similar institution of higher learning.

Place: Tiruchirappalli (A.Mubarak Ali)

Date :

Acknowledgement

First, I thank God Almighty for having bestowed me to complete their research work successfully.

It is my indebtness to express my sincere gratitude to my respected guide Dr. P.N.P Mohamed Sahaputheen, Reader, Head & Research Advisor, P.G and Research Department of Economics, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli, for his concrete encouragement and support to complete the thesis in the present form.

I am thankful to the Dr.R.Kadar Mydeen, M.com. M.Phil., Ph.D., Principal and the Secretary, Management committee for having granted me permission to do Ph.D. (Part-Time) programme in Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli.

I especially thank the members of my Doctoral Committee Dr. G.Gnana Sekaren, Associate Professor, Department of Economics, St. Joseph‟s College, Tiruchirappalli and Dr.V.Mathiazhahan, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics. National College, Tiruchirappalli, for their co-operation all through my Ph.D work. They gave enough time at crucial junctures in spite of their busy schedule.

With great pleasure, I place on record my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.A. Saleem Batcha, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli. I am very fortunate to have a humanitarian and an eminent academician as my counselor who helped a lot, particularly for applying statistical tools. I have benefited much from intellectual advice provided by him.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to all the faculty members of the Department of Economics, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli, for their encouragement and support during the course of my research.

I hearty thanks to Prof. M.Abdul Hakeem M.A., M.Phil. Associate professor, (Retd.) Department of English, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli.

I express my acknowledgement to the management of Tirukoilur College of Arts and Science, Principal and Staff for their co-operation in completing my thesis as fast as possible.

No word would be sufficient to express my deep gratitude to S. Visu, M.C.A., M.Phil.,Lecturer, Tirukkoilur College of Arts and Science,Tirukkoilur, A.Prabu, M.C.A., M.Phil., Lecturer, Tirukkoilur College of Arts and Science, Tirukkoilur, K.Ravindar, M.Sc., M.Phil.,Lecturer, Tirukkoilur College of Arts and Science, Tirukkoilur, A.Antony Paulraj, M.Sc., M.Phil., Lecturer, Tirukkoilur College of Arts and Science, Tirukkoilur, K.Loganathan M.Sc.,M.Phil.,Lecturer, Tirukkoilur college of Arts and Science and Mr. S. Suresh, M.C.A.,M.Phil.,B.Ed., CSC Computer Education, Tirukkoilur, for their timely help and valuable suggestions for the successful completion of this work.

My sincere gratitude and thanks to all the respondents in the village of Pollachi South Block, for their valuable information and co- operation.

I convey my hearty thanks to My Parents, A.K. Abusali and A.Mumthaj, My wife M. Sakila Banu B.Com., My sons Mr. M.Mohamed Sameer, Mr. M. Shahid Rahman and Mr. M. Mohamed Safique, My brother Mr. A. Kizzer Mohamed B.B.M., My sister A. Vahetha Banu, My Father-in- law Mr. A.Kadar Mydeen and My brother –in –laws Mr. K.Abdul wahab and K. Umar Mukthar B.E., for their moral support to complete my research work successfully.

(A.MUBARAK ALI)

LIST OF TABLES

S. NO. List of Tables PAGE NO.

2.1 Performance of Coconut Varieties 52

3.1 Top Ten Coconut Producing Countries in the World 96

3.2 Shares of States in Total Coconut Production in India 100

3.3 State – Wise Area, Production and Productivity of Coconut in 102 India

3.4 India’s Coconut Exports 104

3.5 Coconut Cultivation in Tamil Nadu 120

3.6 Coir Industry in Tamil Nadu 122

3.7 Country – Wise Export of Fresh Coconut From India 130

5.1 Age-Wise Distribution of Respondents 145

5.2 Sex-Wise Distribution of Respondents 146

5.3 Educational Status of the Respondents 147

5.4 Nature of Land Holding of Respondents 148

5.5 Size of Land Holding of Respondents 149

5.6 Area Under Coconut Cultivated as Reported by the 150 Respondents

5.7 Nature of the Soil as Reported by the Respondents 151

5.8 Mode of Irrigation Used as Reported by the Respondents 152

5.9 Varieties of Coconut Palm Cultivated as Reported by the 153 Respondents

5.10 Number of Coconut Palm Cultivated as Reported by the 154 Respondents

5.11 Age of Coconut Palm as Reported by the Respondents 155

5.12 Fertilizers Used as Reported by the Respondents 156

5.13 Number of Times Apply Fertilizers as Reported by the 157 Respondents

5.14 Frequency of Irrigation to Coconut Palm as Reported by the 158 Respondents 5.15 Number of Times Harvest (Per Year) as Reported by the 159 Respondents

5.16 Purpose of Harvest as Reported by the Respondents 160

5.17 Type of Harvest Practiced as Reported by the Respondents 162

5.18 Problems as Reported by the Respondents in Connection with 163 the production/ Harvest 5.19 Productivity of Coconut Palm(Per Palm/Per Year) as 165 Reported by the Respondents 5.20 Causes of High Yield/Productivity of Coconut Palm as 166 Reported by the Respondents 5.21 Nature of Diseases/Pests as Reported by the Respondents 167

5.22 Number of Coconut Palm Affected in the Coconut Grove as 168 Reported by the Respondents (Per Acre) 5.23 Number of Coconut Nuts Affected (Per 1000 Nuts / Per 169 Harvest) as Reported by the Respondents 5.24 Protection Measures Taken as Reported by the Respondents 170

5.25 Insurance Status as Reported by the Respondents 172

5.26 Nature Subsidies Availed as Reported by the Respondents 173

5.27 Price Intelligence Available as Reported by the Respondents 174

5.28 Channels of Marketing (Buyer) of Coconut Products as 176 Reported by the Respondents 5.29 Marketing (Buyer) of Matured Coconut as Reported by the 177 Respondents 5.30 Marketing (Buyer) of Tender Coconut as Reported by the 179 Respondents 5.31 Marketing (Buyer) of Copra as Reported by the Respondents 180

5.32 Marketing (Buyer) of Jaggery as Reported by the 181 Respondents 5.33 Marketing (Buyer) of Coconut Husk as Reported by the 182 Respondents

5.34 Expenditure on Land Maintenance (Per Acre/Per Year) as 183 Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees)

5.35 Expenditure on Wages (Per Acre/Per Year) as Reported by 184 the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.36 Expenditure on Fertilizers (Per Acre / Per Year) as Reported 186 by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.37 Expenditure on Controlling Diseases (Per Acre / Per Year) as 188 Reported by the Respondents (in Rupees) 5.38 Expenditure on Transport (Per Acre / Per Year) as Reported 189 by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.39 Expenditure on Marketing (Per Acre / Per Year) as Reported 191 by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.40 Expenditure on Insurance (Per Acre / Per Year) as Reported 192 by the Respondents (in Rupees) 5.41 Income from Matured Coconut Producers Earned by the 193 Respondent (in Rupees) (Per Acre/Per Year) 5.42 Income From Tender Coconut Producers Earned as Reported by 194 the Respondents (in Rupees) (Per Acre/Per Year) 5.43 Income From Copra Producers Earned as Reported by the 195 Respondents (in Rupees) (Per Acre/Per Year) 5.44 Income From Jaggery Producers Earned as Reported by the 196 Respondents (in Rupees) (Per Acre/Per Year) 5.45 Average Expenditure on Various Coconut Cultivators(in Rupees) 199

5.46 Average Profit of Various Channels of Marketing(in Rupees) 201

5.47 ANOVA Table 201

LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO. TITLE OF FIGURES PAGE NO.

Age- Wise Distribution of Respondents 145a 5.1 Sex -Wise Distribution of Respondents 146a 5.2 Educational Status of the Respondents 147a 5.3 Nature of Land Holding of Respondents 148a 5.4 Size of Land Holding of Respondents 149a 5.5 Area Under Coconut Cultivated 150a 5.6 Mode of Irrigation Used by the Respondents 152a 5.8 Varieties of Coconut Palm Cultivated by the Respondents 153a 5.9 Number of Coconut Palm Cultivated 154a 5.10 Fertilizers Used by the Respondents 156a 5.12 Purposes of Harvest by the Respondents 161a 5.16 Problems as Reported by the Respondents in Connection 164a 5.18 with the production/Harvest of Coconut Cultivation Productivity of Coconut Palm (Per Palm/ Per Year) as 165a 5.19 Reported by the Respondents Causes of High Productivity/ yield of Coconut Palm 166a 5.20 Nature of Diseases/Pests Affected by the Respondents 167a 5.21 Protection Measures Taken by the Respondents 171a 5.24 Subsidies Availed by the Respondents 173a 5.26 Price Intelligence Available to Respondents 175a 5.27 Channels of Marketing (Buyer) of Coconut Products 176a 5.28 Marketing (Buyer) of Matured Coconut as Reported by 178a 5.29 the Respondents Marketing (Buyer) of Tender Coconut as Reported by the 179a 5.30 Respondents 5.31 Marketing (Buyer)of Copra as Reported by the 180a

Respondents

5.33 Marketing (Buyer) of Coconut Husk as Reported by the 182a Respondents 5.34 Expenditure on Land Maintenance (Per Acre/Per Year) 183a as Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.35 Expenditure on Wages (Per Acre/Per Year) as Reported 184a by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.36 Expenditure on Fertilizers (Per Acre/Per Year)as 187a Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.37 Expenditure on Controlling Diseases/Pests (Per Acre/Per 188a Year) as Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.38 Expenditure on Transport (Per Acre/Per Year) as 190a Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.39 Expenditure on Marketing (Per Acre/Per Pear) as 191a Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees) 5.41 Income from Matured Coconut Producers Earned as 193a Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees)(Per acre/Per Year) 5.42 Income from Tender Coconut Producers Earned as 194a Reported by the Respondents(in Rupees)(Per Acre/Per Year) 5.43 Income from Copra Producers Earned as Reported by 195a the Respondents (in Rupees)(Per Acre/Per Year)

LIST OF CHARTS

3.1 Consumption and Utilization Pattern of Coconut in 109 India

3.2 Marketing Channels of Coconut and Coconut 127 Products

CHAPTER – I 1 INTRODUCTION The importance of agriculture in the Indian economy is evident. In spite of the globalization of the Indian economy and the accelerated development in the secondary and tertiary sectors, agriculture continues to be the largest and the most important industry in the country. Many of the industries in the country are agro-based and they depend on agriculture for the supply of raw materials and also as a market for their finished products.

Agricultural growth and instability continue to be the subject of intense debate in India. The need for increasing agricultural production is obvious. But the increasing instability in agricultural production is considered adverse for several reasons. It raises the risk involved in farm production and affects farmers‟ income. It affects price stability and the consumers and it increases the vulnerability of low-income households to market.1

With the advent of globalization and liberalization and the opening of the Indian market to foreign competitors, there has arisen an urgent need to commercialize Indian agriculture and pay special attention to cultivating those commercial crops in which the country has a special advantage. It is in this context that coconut cultivation has assumed special significance.

2 The coconut having originated in South East Asia including Australia appears to have dispersed eastwards towards the Pacific and further in to America. It moved to India and Madagascar over the calm tropical waters. The most eminent countries exploiting coconut palms for commercial production are located in Asia, Oceana, West Indies, Central and South America and East and West Africa. Among the Asian and Pacific Coconut Committee (APCC) mainly six countries namely, Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Malaysia together accounted for 80.65 per cent of the total area under coconut cultivation and about 82 per cent of World production. 2

Coconut occupies a place of significance in the Indian economy due to its dominant role as a horticultural crop of food and livelihood security as well as its socio-religious importance. It is also an oil seed crop of a tree origin and fruit crop, which gives a nourishing drink. Though coconut and its products have extensive uses and a consistent demand substantial part of its production is accounted for by the four peninsular States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. They produce nearly 90 per cent of the total output. The other States like Goa, Orissa, West Bengal, Tiripura and Assam account for the balance 10 per cent. Several new technologies of coconut cultivation and various models of coconut crop based farming system have been evolved in recent years. The development of the coconut industry in India used to be primarily domestic market driven till 1995. The industry was protected from market-induced uncertainities.

However, consequent to India becoming a signatory to the World Trade Organization (WTO) on January 1, 1995 the domestic coconut market was thrown open to international market players. Globalization has

3 posed multiple challenges to the future of the coconut industry in India. The entry into WTO has given rise to liberalization of trade, lowering of tariffs and growing domestic access to other countries. Free Trade Agreement with countries of SAARC and South East Asian countries has given rise to great deal of anxiety about increased imports and consequent fall in price.

India contributes about 15.46 per cent in area and 21 per cent in the production of coconut in the World. It has the comparative advantage of having the crop grown under varied agro-climatic conditions. The crop adaptability to varied agro-climatic conditions obviously made possible an uninterrupted supply of nuts according to the domestic requirement. The crop is currently grown in 18 States and 3 Union Territories covering an area of 1.935 million hectares with a production of 12.833 million nuts (2004-06). The productivity of coconut in the country is considered to be the highest among the major coconut growing countries in the World. 3

There are about 5 million coconut holdings in the country of which 70 per cent belong to Kerala. Patel (1938) reported that the average size of a coconut holding in the West Coast of the country was less than two acres. Menon and Pandalin (1960) were of the opinion that the average size of coconut holding for the country as a whole was less than an acre. Thampan (1981) estimated the average size for the country to be less than one hectare. Coconut is essentially a small holder‟s crop. Most of the coconut holdings in the country are maintained under rain-fed management.

The domestic consumption of coconut in India comprises natural milk for ordinary and confectionary preparation, oil for edible and non-edible application and tender coconut as natural beverage. India

4 consumes almost the entire coconut output in the country. Only a very small quantity is exported. The upward trend in domestic consumption is likely to continue in the near future too. The country can hope to increase its export only when the production of other vegetables shows a substantial increase.

The area under coconut cultivation in the country which was 1830.9 thousand hectares in 1995-96 has increased to 1954.8 thousand hectares in 2007 -08. The productivity per hectare, which showed a fluctuating trend, has shown a steady increase from 2003-04. It has increased from 6,298 nuts per hectare to 8,265 nuts per hectare. The coconut industry provides livelihood to nearly 10 million people. It contributes nearly Rs. 7,000 crores to the G.D.P and accounts for a foreign exchange earning of Rs. 250 crores per year.4

The performance of multi-storeyed cropping with a combination of coconut, black pepper, cocoa and pineapple has shown that the gross earning could be as high as Rs.26, 900 per hectare per year as against Rs. 12,400 per hectare per year from a rain-fed mono coconut crop. It has been estimated that mono cropping of coconut leaves about three -fourths of the soil area unutilized. Due to light shade cast by the palms and their specific sorting pattern several crop species can be planted in between the palms. This high density cropping system diversifies the small holder‟s income and would materially improve profit and employment.

Coconut palm is considered as the benevolent and benign tree, which provides food, drink and shelter to mankind. Coconut oil is an important raw material for many industrial products such as toilet soap, liquid soap, natural

5 shampoo and shaving cream. The tender coconut water is a base for many ayurvedic preparations.

In terms of productivity India ranks number one among the coconut growing countries in the World. The average productivity of coconut in the country is 6,898 nuts per hectare. Among the four major coconuts growing States in the country, Tamil Nadu has the highest productivity (11,620 nuts/per hectare) followed by Andhra Pradesh (8,296 nuts/per hectare), Kerala (5,893 nuts/per hectare) and Karnataka (5,214 nuts/per hectare) in that order.

Coconut crops are susceptible to various diseases and pests attacks. The major pests, which attack coconuts in India, are the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, leaf-eating caterpillar and rats. The major diseases prevalent in the country are root wilt, bud rot, leaf rot, stem bleeding and crown choking. Of these, root wilt prevalent in Kerala is century old. Effective control measures are yet to be developed for these diseases.

In short, coconut is a crop with unique features. Owing to its multifarious uses the demand for its products has been on the increase. The crop is spreading fast even to the interior tracts and North and Northeastern parts of the country there by giving the crop a national importance. Coconut is an eco friendly crop, which permits the existence of multi-species crops. It enriches soil fertility in association with other crops and is quite amendable to organic farming if appropriate intercrops are grown in interring spaces.5

The growth of the coconut industry in India is primarily domestic market driven. Till 1995, the industry was enjoying the privileges of

6 a closed economy and was well protected from market induced uncertainities. However, consequent to India becoming a signatory to the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 1st January 1995, the domestic coconut market has been thrown open to international market players. As a result, the prices of coconut and coconut products have come to be determined by the market forces. The indiscriminate flow of cheap coconut products and their substitute from foreign markets is likely to affect the domestic market and thereby the coconut farmers.

With the onset of global recession, the international commodity prices with respect to food, fats and oil fell from $1224 per metric ton in 2008 to $725 per metric ton in 2009. So too was the price of copra which fell from $816 per metric ton to $480 per metric ton. As the country‟s export of coconut products was insignificant, coconut cultivators were not very much affected. However the prices of coconut oil and copra declined due to the crash in the World prices and the Government had to initiate appropriate remedial measures.

Indian coconut products are rated as premium quality products in the World. Its coconut oil sale has a huge potential in the Gulf countries, Europe and America. Activated carbon has been increasing its share in the bio-energy segment and the demand from U.S.A, UK, Germany, France and Japan has been increasing. Processed and packaged tender coconut water has an increasing demand in the Gulf countries. Russia and China are emerging as major markets for coconut oil. Handy crafts, ice cream cups and spoons made of coconut shell are increasingly being exported to European countries and they hold good potential.

7 According to a study done by the Central Crop Plantation Institute at Kasargode, the country‟s coconut production reached an all-time high of 14,379 million nuts in 2006-07. Higher productivity in Tamil Nadu was the main reason for this record production. In spite of this, there are even today several challenges facing the Indian coconut industry in production, processing and marketing such as the size of the holding, prevalence of pests and diseases, unscientific management, high cost of production due to high wage rate and lack of economies of scale of production. 6 In the light of there constraints the present study was undertaken in a region in Tamil Nadu known for its enterprising, innovative and industrious on farmers who have made their native region famous for coconut palm in the State of Tamil Nadu.

Statement of the Problem:

A pilot study of production and marketing practices of coconut farmers in Pollachi Taluk of Coimbatore District in Tamil Nadu has thrown light upon the problems of coconut industry in this region. The growing domination of small sized operational and holding, high incidence of senile and unproductive palms, indiscriminate planting of trees, high cost of cultivation, absence of scientific price determining system, constraints in area of marketing and lack of adequate institutional finance for coconut industry are some of the problems that came to light during the pilot study. In this context an extensive study of production and marketing of coconut palm appeared worthwhile.

Objectives of the Study:

8 The principal objective of the study is to highlight the economics of production and marketing of coconuts and their byproducts in the context of an area in Tamil Nadu, which truly represents the various dimensions of the coconut industry in the State. Pollachi is one of the leaders of the industry in the State. The other objectives are:

 To highlight the types of coconut farmers and their status as owners

or lease holders.

 To evaluate the production as well as productivity of coconut in the

area.

 To assess the expenditure pattern in respect of traditional and

hybrid coconut palms.

 To evaluate the income of coconut farmers derived from traditional

and hybrid coconut palms.

 To analyze the types of coconut products marketed and their

channels of marketing.

 To highlight the problems of coconut farmers in general and to put

forward solutions.

Hypotheses: Based on the above objectives, the following hypotheses are formulated.

9  There is no considerable difference in the profitability between

farmers cultivating traditional and hybrid varieties of coconut in the

study area.

 Expenditure on wage constitutes a major portion of total

expenditure incurred by coconut farmers.

 The profit is not significantly varies with the channels of

marketing.

Methods of Survey and Analysis:

The study is about coconut industry in Tamil Nadu with reference to a region, which truly represents the industry in all its facets. Pollachi Taluk of Coimbatore District in Tamil Nadu in one of the very well developed regions agriculturally and industrially. A reason for selecting Pollachi Taluk is because it is the highest coconut producing Taluk in the District as well as in Tamil Nadu. Its farmers are known for their progressive and enterprising attitude and innovative outlook. There are four community development blocks in Pollachi Taluk. They are: Anaimalai Block, Pollachi South Block, Pollachi North Block and Kinathukadavu Block. Of these Pollachi South Block is known for its agricultural development. It is the leading region in the Taluk in the production of coconut. It was selected as the area of the present study. There are altogether 29 villages in this block.

There are 3118 cultivators of different types cultivating coconut as mono crops. The present survey, which is based on proportional

10 sampling, covers all the 29 villages. Altogether 300 respondents were selected on the basis of proportional sampling. The respondents were selected on the basis of lottery method. Particulars of the selection are given in Annexure I.

A provisional interview schedule covering various aspects of the production and marketing of coconuts was prepared and a study was conducted in Twenty-Nine villages to test its validity. Based on the results of the study the interview schedule was finalized.

The survey was done on the basis of personal interview system. The respondents were interviewed at a time and a place convenient to them. The data furnished by them were properly documented and read out to them to get their confirmation. The study relates to the period 2009 to 2011.

The data collected were classified and tabulated for the purpose of analysis and interpretation. Statistical tools such as frequency tables, percentile analysis, „t‟ test and „F‟ test were used in the interpretation of data.

Limitations of the Study:

The study is based on proportional sampling and in that sense suffers from the limitations of that sampling method. The study is a micro one and the findings cannot be applied at the macro level where all sorts of differences creep in. The study relates to a particular period and the findings lack universal application. Apart from these limitations there is the usual limitation of reservation on the part of the respondents to give factual information. In spite of these limitations, a true attempt has been made to

11 highlight the problems of the production and distribution of coconuts as mentioned by the respondents.

CHAPTERISATION

There are altogether six chapters in this thesis.

Chapter I is the introductory chapter and it deals with the objectives of the study and the statistical tools used for collection and analysis of data.

Chapter II deals with definition of concepts and a review of literature on the subject.

Chapter III gives an account of coconut industry in India with special reference to Tamil Nadu and it deals with production and marketing practices of coconut farmers.

Chapter IV provides a profile of the area of the present study.

Chapter V focuses on an analysis and interpretation of primary data collected during the survey.

Chapter VI is the concluding chapter wherein the findings of the study and suggestions for policy makers and researchers find a place.

With this bird‟s eye view of the problem to be studied, an attempt is made in the next chapter to review the previous studies and findings relevant to the present study.

12 REFERENCES

1. Ramesh Chand and S.S. Raju, (2009), Instability in Indian Agriculture During Different Phases of Technology and Policy, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 64, No.2, pp. 187-206.

2. Elain S, (2007), Evaluation of Coconut Hybrid for suitability as Tender nut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 20-22.

3. M. Thomas Mathew, (2007), Indian Coconut Industry the way forward, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 7- 10

4. CPCRI, (2009), Annual Report, Kasaragod, Kerala, pp. 54-59.

5. V.T. Markose, (2010), Coconut in India, Indian Coconut Journal, Kochi, pp. 1-2

6. Coconut Industry in India: Overview, EXIM Bank, Agri Export Advantage, March 2010, Vol. XIV issue II, pp. 15-18.

13 CHAPTER-II

DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The economics of coconut cultivation has drawn the attention of researchers all over the World. Coconut is an exotic plant with multiple facets. Several studies have been conducted covering the production and marketing aspects of coconut cultivation. The definition of some of the concepts used in the present study is appropriate, as it will provide a theoretical backdrop to the study.

COCONUT PALM- PROFILE:

Coconut palm is one of the most versatile plants and is apparently utilizing wholly, coconut fruit, when ripe, is brown in colour with husk as fibre surrounding a large seed. It has a high economic value because of its numerous uses. Several other products are deriving from the coconut palm and they too are use in many applications.

The fruit is even popular in vast number of cuisines. It also has religious and cultural significance, especially in Southeast Asia, where it forms a part of the mythology and is consider auspicious in various ceremonies. For all these reasons, coconut tree is ranked among one of the ten most useful trees of the World and is often termed as the „tree of life‟.

14 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PALM: Trunk:

The trunk has a swollen base having erect cylindrical and pillar-like stem, marked by scars of old leaf bases and is topped by a massive crown of pinnate leaves. It is smooth in appearance attaining a height of 20 to 25 metres. In the first few years, it increases the thickness rapidly and grows at a relatively rapid rate, till the palm commences to bear and thereafter the girth is maintained at a steady level under good management or become tapering under environment stress conditions. The thickness of the trunk depends upon the vigour of the palm, hereditary constitution, fertility of the soil, moisture status and the management conditions.

Crown:

The crown is the only growing part of the palm. The palm has only one terminal bud without any continuous cambium layer. It carries large number of peripinnate leaves, inflorescences and bunches of nuts. The ideal crown shape in the palm approximated either to the semi-spherical or spherical type, having high rate of leaf and spathe production and large retention of leaves.

Plant Type:

The shape of the crown and the canopy identified could indicate the yield potential of the palm. Four canopy shapes can be distinguished viz;

 Vertical – leaves make an acute angle with the stem, yielding poorly;  Drooping - older leaves drooping, yielding very poorly, due to heavy buckling losses;  Semi – spherical – leaves oriented at right angles of the stem, good yielder; bunches are well-supported;  Spherical – like a fully opened umbrella, associated with high yield potential.

The semi-spherical and spherical types of canopy possess greater number of leaves, varying from 35 to 50, with more yields (100 to 400 nuts per palm per year).

Leaf Orientation:

In adult palm, the crown comprises 30 to 40 open leaves in various stages of development, which have been categorized into four sets:

 The first set is counted from the oldest (8 to 10) leaves in which branches from the axils either harvested or being ready for harvest;  The second set consists of similar number of leaves (8 to 10) which are supporting fruit bunches in different stages of maturity;  The third set consists of another (6 to 8) opened leaves in the axils of which fruiting primorda (spadices) in various stages of development are formed;  The last set includes unopened leaves in the cabbage in which only the outermost ones are at unfurling stages and the rest being in compact form.

The different sets of leaves occupy about 2.5 metres of the trunk in an ascending spiral. Leaf Development:

At the apex of the trunk, the numbers of leaves are produced in the crown, which varies depending on the prevailing condition, inherent genetic factors, solar radiation etc.

There is long progression from the bud to the adult leaf, which takes several months to accomplish. The leaf development may be described in three phases:

 A juvenile phase,  A phase of rapid elongation,  An adult phase.

 The juvenile phase constitutes the longest duration of about two years;

 The phase of rapid elongation of a group of cabbage leaves clustered together before separating, which lasts from 4 to 8 months, depending upon the season;

 The adult phase includes all the opened leaves up to senescence or death of the leaf, which lasts 2 to 2.5 years.

The adult phase of the leaves can be divided into 3 stages:

 Only 5 to 6 young leaves in the axils of which accompanying inflorescences are not differentiated;

17  15 to 20 leaves each carrying in their axils differentiated inflorescence or fruit branch in different stages of development;  5 to 10 leaves from whose axils, the nuts have been gathered.

Leaf Shape and Leaflets:

A leaf consists of a long and strong central rachis upto 6 metres long and over 200metres or more narrow and tapering leaflets of 0.6 metres to 1.2 metres inserted on it. These leaflets are borne in equidistant linear and tapering manner. Each leaflet is folded into a V-shaped at its proximal end, with its point towards the external face, which is thickened to provide a very firm attachment to the main stem. They are flexible with a midrib and glossy on their upper surface.

The top leaflet takes 4 to 5 months to completely emerge out and then gradually pushed to one side to provide space for the younger ones. It takes about three years from the emergence to its dried up stage.

Phylotaxy of Leaf:

The leaves on the crown are so arranged that each leaf get the maximum amount of light. The leaves are placed in 5 whorls of a spiral, which run in either of the left-handed or right –handed direction. By this alternate phylotaxy, each leaf intersects as much light as possible. The phylotaxy of each spiral is nearly two-fifths, since the successive leaves being separated by an angle of about 140o. This means to traverse two turns of the spiral before arriving at „leaf No.6‟, underneath „leaf No.1‟, thus having 5 turns of spiral.

18 Rate of Leaf Production:

This is influenced by the age, vigour, soil fertility, cultural practices and particularly by the seasonal effects. Greater rate of leaf production influences better yield. The rate of growth of leaves varies with the variety and management practices. It is observed that the high yielding palms have significantly more number of leaves than the low yielding ones. The leaves of good yielder are longer and have a life span of 36 to 42 months.

The interval between the openings of two successive leaves is influenced by genetically make up, soil fertility and seasonal conditions. During Northeast monsoon period (September to November), the leaves open at shorter interval and this period appears to be the best. A high yielding West Coast Tall (WCT) palm generally possesses 35 to 40 leaves, producing 10-12 leaves in a year at an interval of about 35 days.

Age of Bearing:

A Tall palm comes to bearing after 7 years, while a Hybrid starts bearing within 3 to 4 years and a Dwarf takes around 3 years only.

Spadix of Inflorescence:

In a bearing palm, each leaf axil produces a spadix. In a regular bearer, the annual production of spadices coincides with the number of leaves produced i.e., 10-12 per annum for most of the palms; however in Dwarf types, about 18 spaths are produced; while the super yielder produce 13 to 15 leaves and the same number of bunches also.

19. Development of Spadix:

Near the growing point of young rudimentary leaves, the initiation of the inflorescence is observed in the axils. When the spadix is fully formed in the inner spathe becomes more cylindrical and exerts greater pressure on the inner wall of the spathe and eventually the inflorescence emerges out, which takes about 24 hours to complete. The whole inflorescence consists of a central axis, and the rachilla arises in spiral succession, which bears male flowers in the axils of tertiary bracts and female flowers at their base. The inflorescence consists of many flower-bearing spike lets situated on a peduncle. After the spathe is formed and completely envelop to the growing point of the inflorescence, the cone gives rise to secondary bracts. The absence of a spadix in the axil of a leaf must be due to the abortion of the young spadix at an early stage in its development.

Abortion of Spadices:

On dissection of the crown, it is found that every tender leaf possesses one primordial spadix; but when all the leaves are fully opened, less number of spadices is seen in the axils, indicating their abortion.

The young palm upto 15-20 year-old is susceptible to abortion of spadices more frequently. As such, the abortion takes place at an early stage in its development, resulting in numerous short and under – developed inflorescences.

The abortion of spadices mostly takes place during the rainy season from June to October and about 50% spadix of the palm are aborted

20 during August-September and the highest being in July (75%). This might be due to lack of pollination, the pollen getting washed off in the heavy rains. However, during the dry season (January to March), practically there is no abortion of spadices.

The causes of abortion during rainy months have been closely observed. The only other important factor is the drought at the time of their formation, about 16 months prior to the opening of the spathe. Menon and Pandalai (1958) explained the abortion of spadices in relation to time of opening.

Inflorescence:

The coconut palm has the inherent ability to produce one inflorescence in every leaf axils of a regular bearer. The coconut being a monoecious plant produces both male and female flowers separately on the same palm. It is observed that in the young palms during the first time of production of spadix, there is a tendency to produce only male inflorescences. When the palms are grown up, inflorescences are formed in the axils of every leaf with the male and female flowers, under favourable conditions; however, only 35% of the WCT palms have the inherent ability to produce inflorescence in every leaf axils. It also happens that when an inflorescence completes its flowering phase, the next one might emerge. Balakrishnan et. al.,(1988) observed that the intervals between the emergence of successive inflorescences are relatively larger in January-February (55.9, 54.3 days respectively) and shorter in April-May (21.5 and 24.3 days respectively).The whole flower cluster consists of a peduncle and the rachilla bear male flowers in the tertiary bracts and female flowers at their bases.

21 Male Flower:

The production of male flowers in spadix varies from a few hundreds to thousands. Each male flower has six yellow perianth lobes arranged alternately in two whorls three in each, accompanied by 6 hammer- shaped stamens, which produce large quantities of powdery yellow pollen. In the centre, a rudimentary pistilode remains with three teeth, each bearing a nectar gland to attract bees, ants and other insects, which serve as pollinating agents. Most of the male flowers bloom from 8 to 10 a.m., opening from the apex to the spike downwards. Within the petals, 6 stamens develop, differentiating into the anthers and filaments.

Most of the male flowers open by 15th day after opening the spaths and the period of male phase extends upto 18 days depending upon the season, shortest during summer months i.e., February to April. When the anthers are fully mature, the pollen sacs develop two longitudinal slits and shed abundant pollen.

Female Flowers:

The female flowers are comparatively fewer in number as compared to male flowers in each spadix. However, they may vary from 0 to 200 in each inflorescence, depending upon:

 The genetic nature of the palm,  Nutritional and moisture status of the soil,  Cultivation practices and  Season and age of bearing.

Dwarf palm generally bear a larger number of female flowers than the Tall palms. Further, Jack and Sands (1929) estimated that there is a distinct variation in female flower production between different petiole colour variants of Dwarfs; the green dwarf recorded the highest (i.e., 21.4) numbers of female flowers per spadix, followed by yellow coloured (13.6) and the lowest for orange or red (10.6). Under the favourable agro-climatic condition and good management, the female flower production is found to be the highest with maximum retention. Number of female flowers produced is also found to be high in summer months from March to May; the highest being in May and the lowest during November –December. The female flower production can be significantly increasing by proper cultivation, regular manuring and irrigation. It is interesting to note that the poor bearers respond the maximum under well – managed condition, recording 30 per cent more in female flowers production; while in the medium yielder, it is 20 per cent and the highest yielder only around 6 per cent.

In the female flowers, six floral leaves of equal size are tightly folded over the minor parts of the flowers, completely enveloping the pistil. In addition, two more lobes exist just at the point of attachment of the flowers to the stalk, which are termed as bracteoles.

When the female flowers are receptive, three segments are formed as three teeth and exposed to receive the pollen for fertilization. After fertilization, these teeth which constitute the stigma, turns brown and forms a small black area at the apex of the developing fruit. At the point of attachment, six floral leaves increase in size and form the whorl as perianth leaves, which persist till the nut matures.

23 There is a difference in the production of female flowers among the inflorescences of the same palm. It is reported that a good yielder carries 120 to 400 female flowers, medium yielder from 70 to 260 and the poor yielder from 30 to 150.

Female Phase:

Female phase is much shorter than the male phase, extending 5 to 7 days in Tall palms and 10 to 16 days in Dwarfs. The duration of female phase depends on the season, nature of the palm and the location where it grows. The female flowers commence to open first at the top of the spadix and then to downwards. The female flowers become receptive about 20 days after the opening of the spathe and the last male flower sheds within 18 days after the opening of the inflorescence. The period of receptivity is from one to three days. It is observed that the interval between the end of male phase and the commencement of the female phase is only 2.6 days, on an average, which may vary from month to month, the lowest from September to November and fairly high from January to May – June.

When the stigmas are receptive, a clear sweet fluid (nectar) is profusely secreted at the base of stigmas and also at three pores on the pericarp towards the top of the ovary, which have interred capillary canals.

Pollination:

In coconut palm, the female flowers attain receptivity later than completion of anthesis period of male flowers and thus it is essentially a cross – pollinated plant, pollinated through the agency of wind and insects. Wind

24 carries very little pollen and various insects chiefly effect pollination, particularly by honeybees, black ant, the dipterans etc. The ants play a prominent role in the transporting of pollen as many as 40 pollen grains at a time, from one inflorescence to another in the same palm, when the emergence of inflorescences overlapped. They visit at the peak hours between 10 to 12 noon and carry germinated pollen on their body, and pollinate the female flowers.

Self –pollination also occurs in certain seasons, particularly in April through overlapping of spadices. The chances of inter-spadix pollination are, over 20 percentage of the total number of spadices open in a year; maximum being from March to May and minimum from July to November. Inter-spadix self –pollination is common in the Dwarf palms which evolutionarily represent the inbred derivatives of the Tall palms and hence more homozygous.

Pollen Germination:

Each male flower carries millions of pollen grains as high as 250 millions; however, 25% of them are unfertile. The fertile ones remain viable only upto the sixth day and loose their viability by the ninth day after storage. It is possible to obtain best germination of pollen in 10% cane sugar plus 2% gelatin. Coconut pollen can be stored for 3 months or more after lyophilized in sealed vials.

Development of Fruit:

25 After fertilization, the button develops and the embryo sac increases in size, leaving a large vacuole at the centre. The monocarp increases in thickness while the exocorp remains hard. The embryo sac elongates and widens at maturity. The fruit of the coconut, particularly the „meat‟ consists internally of the cellular endospermous kernel with the embryo embedded in it and externally protected by the pericarp, which consists of three distinct regions viz; the hard exocorp, the fibrous monocarp and the nutty endocarp shell. There are three eyes at the stalk end of the shell, out of which only one is functional and has a depression, below which the embryo is located.

The outermost region is known as exocorp which consists of a tough and smooth fibrous skin with various shades viz; green, yellow, bronze and red. The thickness of the region varies from 2 to 15cm. Before the fibrous covering is the endocarp, which develops into the shell with a wall of 60mm in thickness, which is well, adopted to preserve the seed in adverse conditions. Immediately below this is the fleshy endosperm, which is called „meat‟, the sweet and edible portion of the fruit. Within the kernel, there is a cavity, completely filled with the liquid, known as „Coconut Water‟. In the tender nut, this water remains full and as the fruit develops and ripens, this water gets reduced gradually and at the same time, the thickness of the kernel increase till its maturity. It is estimated that the coconut fruit consists of 15% husk, 12% shell, 28% meat and 25% of water.7

Variability of Coconuts:

Coconuts are mainly known as types or considered to be cultivars, rather than varieties; generally divided into two natural

26 morphological forms and recognized groups, namely the Tall and Dwarfs, according to their nature of growth as well as the age of fruiting. The Tall constitute about 98% of the population, generally identified by the location of cultivation or collection. The classifications of different types are broadly based on:

 Size of the palm: Tall, Dwarf and Semi -Dwarf.

 Productivity: Low (40), Medium (40-80) and High (80 & above) nuts per palm/per year.

 Colour of husk: Green, Orange, Yellow and Red.

 Husk and Shell thickness: Thick, Medium and Thin

 Shape of nut: Globular, Triangular, Spindle-shaped and Elongated

 Size of nut: Micro (below 6000 nuts) and Macro (above 6000 nuts) per ton of Copra

 Age of maturity: Early, Medium and Late.

 Colour of leaf and spathe: Green, Orange and Red.

Characteristics of the Varieties:

The coconut cultivars are usually identified on the basis of colour, shape and size of nuts and the status of the palms in case of Dwarf. There is no comprehensive standardized terminology to describe

27 the highly variable characters of the coconut varieties or types. Because of its highly out-crossing nature, several types differ in colour, size, shape and quality of the nuts in different regions. Besides distinct nut characters, the varieties or types differ from each other in their morphological characters.

Tall Variety:

The Tall variety is a common type, known as „typica‟, which is most extensively grown on a plantation scale in all the coconut tracts of the World. It tolerates diverse soil and climatic conditions, also successfully grown under rain-fed conditions. It is fairly resistant to diseases and pests. It begins to bear in 6 to 7 years from planting, attain steady bearing in about 12 to 15 years; lives upto an age of 80 to 90 years.

It is selected for commercial planting because of medium sized nuts, good quality and quantity of copra production and its high oil content (68-75%). The nuts matured within 12 months after pollination. Different cultivators grown in different locations are designated by the locations where they are grown, like West Coast Tall, African Tall, Jamaica Tall etc.,

Dwarf Variety:

The Dwarf types are short in stature with attractive colour of nuts in their distinct forms according to colour of inflorescence and fruit viz., green, orange and yellow. The palm grow rapidly and it is clearly bearing in about 3 to 3 ½ years after planting and attain steady bearing in 9 to 10 years. It is susceptible to drought and has a tendency for

28 irregular bearing; copra is softer, leathery and thus of poor quality. Hence, it is often harvested in the tender nut stage for the sweet water as a refreshing drink. The copra content is 85g per nut with 65% oil content. The economic life of Dwarf is only 30 to 40 years.

Hybridization:

Coconut palm is a naturally cross-pollinated plant, male flowers opening ahead of female flowers on an inflorescence, so that the female flowers are pollinated by pollen from another inflorescence occasionally coming from another palm.

In coconut, controlled pollination is found possible to make Hybrids. Patel (1937) was the first to report the manifestation of Hybrid vigour in coconut, combining the high yield and early bearing habit of Tall and Dwarf cultivars, respectively through hybridization. He made an attempted to cross West Coast Tall as female parent with Chowghat Dwarf as male parent. Subsequently, Harland (1957) had formulated a sound breeding programme and policy and other workers, confirming heterotic effects in “inter-varietals” and “intra-varietals” crosses.

The “paired-cross” method of tree breeding, using both the known parents, has found to be most practical method for hybridization in coconut. Harland (1957) also indicated the necessity of determining the proponent per cent maternal transmitters according to dominant yield factors so as to ensure the performance of their off springs. Based on Harland‟s suggestion, it is possible to identify proponent palms based on progeny performance in the nursery. Sathyabalan, Nampoothiri

29 and Mathew (1975) reported on the possibility of identifying the proponent palms based on certain seedling characters in the nursery (collar girth and leaf production) from fifth month after germination.

Many Hybrid combinations involving different cultivars of Tall and Dwarf types have been evolved. In crossbreeding of coconuts, the following combinations have been attempt:

♂ Dwarf X Dwarf (D X D) Dwarf X Tall (D X T) Tall X Tall (T X T) Tall X Dwarf (T X D) ♂ = Male

= Female

Hybrid Combination: The promising Hybrid combinations have been classified under two distinct groups: T X D and D X T. In the T X D Hybrids Tall cultivar is the female parent, while in D X T; the Dwarf is the female parent. In inter-varietals crosses, the seedlings exhibit Hybrid vigour in the nursery itself, manifesting of vegetative characters such as height, girth at collar, rapid rate of leaf production, more number of leaves, early splitting of leaflets etc, and later exhibiting shorter pre-bearing period, high bearing capacity and economic nut yield. Both T X D and D X T Hybrids require good management conditions to express their full

30 potential. A stable form of Hybrid ensuring sound economic advantage should be emphasized in coconut breeding. The inter varietals Hybrids are aiming at exploiting the Hybrid vigour for higher yields with good quality and disease resistance. Dwarf Orange X Tall, Tall X Dwarf Orange and Tall X Gangabondam have yielded, respectively 113%, 50% and 40% more copra than the West Coast Tall (Bavappa, 1975).

Tall X Dwarf Hybrid (T X D):

In this Hybrid, the selected ordinary Tall is the female parent and Dwarf of any colour is the male parent. The inclusion of Dwarf is to hasten the early expression of early splitting of leaflets of Hybrid seedlings at nursery stage, higher initial setting percentage and production of more nuts. T X D comes to bearing in about 4 to 5 years; produces about 100 nuts/per palm/ per year with copra content of 173-185 g/nut and oil content about 68 per cent. Among the Dwarfs, Dwarf Orange is found to be superior to Dwarf Green, since the Hybrids with Dwarf Orange are vigorous in growth and exhibit other economic characters. The Hybrid nuts resemble those of the Tall varieties in size of kernel and outturn of copra; However, T X D Hybrid production has certain disadvantages.

 They fail to maintain consistency in yield in later years.

 They are easily susceptible to soil moisture fluctuations, resulting in shedding of more buttons and drooping of leaves.

 The difficulties involved in mass production of T X D Hybrids because trained climbers are required to climb up the Tall mother palm for

emasculation and hand pollination. Thus, the production of T X D Hybrids requires considerable technical skill and expertise.

 Mother palm being Tall, all the progenies are likely to be green or bronze colour, which would be dominant over the orange or red colour of the Dwarf pollen donor. Thus, there is a danger of passing the illegitimates as Hybrids because of the absence of a genetic marker to separate out such types from the true T X D Hybrids.

In the survey on the performance of T X D Hybrids in Kerala during 1978-79, it was noticed that:

 Full expression of yield potential of T X D is observed only under very favourable management conditions;

 Palm to palm variation in T X D very pronounced;

 Alternate bearing, bunch buckling, leaf drooping and immature nut fall are more widespread in T X D and

 Decline in yield of root (wilt) diseased palms is more rapid than D X T Hybrids and Tall. (Annon, 1979)

Dwarf X Tall Hybrid (D X T): In this Hybrid, the Dwarf is the female parent and ordinary Tall is the pollen parent. In most, D X T Hybrids, Choughat Orange Dwarf (COD) is used as female and West Coast Tall (WCT) used as male parent. Low recovery in production of D X T Hybrids using Choughat Orange

32 Dwarf as female parent was encountered. It has now been possible to identify specific combinations in which high recovery of Hybrids is recorded.

Satyabalan (1956) reported that the „Natural Cross of Dwarf‟ (NCD) showed consistently reddish brown petiole colour and were early and prolific bearers. These „off-type‟ progenies were superior to both Tall and T X D Hybrids in bunch production, yield of nuts as well as copra outturn. These „off-types‟ were later conformed as the D X T Hybrids. The D X T Hybrid, involving Malayan Yellow Dwarf (MYD) has been found to inherit capacity for higher yield. Advantages of D X T Hybrid production are:

 The Dwarf Orange female carries a genetically marker, which helps to isolate pure Dwarf Hybrid seedlings easily in the nursery and thus the illegitimate seedlings could be easily called out on the basis of the based on colour. As the mother palm is Dwarf, all the seedlings showing increased vigour comparable to that of Tall can be selected as Hybrids.

 D X T could be produced on a large scale by regularly emasculating male flowers of the Dwarf mother palms by any unskilled person, thereby permitting free natural crossing with the pollen from Tall palms standing nearby.

 For this purpose, selected cultivars of Dwarf and Tall varieties are planted in alternate or in the proportion of 2:1 for natural pollination in a seed garden. In another type of seed garden, only selected Dwarfs are planted for subsequent assisted pollination with the pollen collection from selected Tall growing elsewhere. In pure Dwarf garden, hand

 pollination of emasculated. Dwarf on daily inspection is required, which is less tedious because of short stature of Dwarf palms. Pure Dwarf gardens, hand pollination of emasculated.

 Production of D X T Hybrids involves less technical skill and is comparatively more feasible and easier than T X D.

 D X T is better in productivity in terms of number of nuts per palm and copra content per nut. It is also more uniform in bearing than T X D.

 Among the two types of Hybrids, D X T gives higher yield and is found definitely superior to T X D.

 Palm to palm variation of D X T is not as pronounced as in T X D.

Disadvantages:

Usually 25 to 30 per cent of the seedlings in the nursery turn out to be off-types.8

Water Requirements and Irrigation Management:

If the available water resources are to be used efficiently in nut production, an integrated approach is needed involving many agencies. Coconut palms require adequate soil moisture during their establishment period of three to five years for the normal growth and later production of nuts. This should be maintained in the surface of 1 m depth of soil when it is

34 depleted to about 60 to 75 per cent of availability. This will amount to irrigations at 8 to 12 days‟ intervals during rainless period in a tropical climate.

It is desirable to irrigate coconut gardens at proper intervals particularly in sandy or sandy-loam soils during dry months. The effect of summer irrigation becomes visible from second year onwards. Bhaskaran and Leela (1977) observed that within a period of 11 years, the increase in mean yield of nuts was 74 per cent over that of the controls, mainly due to a specific increase in the production of more female flowers and in the high setting of buttons, which were 29 to 40 per cent, respectively over those of control.

In sandy-loam soil, pre-bearing young plants of four years produced largest number of leaves when irrigated with 20 litres of water on every fourth day during the summer months. In the Philippines, the water requirement of the palm has been estimated at 16 litres/ per day. (Espino and Julians 1924).

Soil Moisture Content:

The pore space of the soil is filled with water and air, depending on the amount of moisture present. Moisture is the limiting factor in successful cultivation of the coconut palms. Copeland (1931) found that about 28 to 74 litres as the daily loss of water from a mature palm maintaining number of active leaves. The rate of water absorption is controlled by the rate of transpiration; it is also regulated by distribution of roots, soil temperature, soil moisture content, aeration etc. It is the root system, which can strongly

35 influence the uptake of water. All the three processes viz; absorption, translocation and transpiration which effect on growth and yield of palm, need regulation to achieve the maximum water use efficiency.

The retention of moisture in the soil profile depends on the capacity of different soils. Israelson and Hansen (1962) estimated the available soil water contents in sandy, sandy-loam; loam and clay-loam soils are, on an average, about 8, 12, 17 and 19 cm per meter depth. The effectiveness of stored water may be as high as 90 per cent or as low as 40 per cent, depending on soil type, weather and other factors. However, to meet the water demand of the coconut palm, adequate quantity of water needs to be supplied at regular intervals. The amount of water required at each irrigation will depend on the soil type, root zone depth, nutrient status and the water deficit before irrigation.

Soil Moisture Conservation:

Soil moisture conservation is an important factor to overcome the drought effect. Husk burial @150 numbers\ per palm in the basin of the palm and green manuring /mulching the basin can combat the moisture deficit to some extent by improving soil moisture conservation, particularly in sandy-loam soils.

Burying of Husk for Moisture Conservation:

Those coconut husks, which are not utilized for the preparation of coir fiber, can be buried in between rows of the coconut palms, at a depth of 30-45 cm inside 2 meters wide of trenches. A layer of dry coconut leaves will be first spread inside the trench and then the husks are

36 spread with the inner fibrous face up. About 500 to 750 husks are required for each palm. Those trenches are then filling up properly with soil.

Those buried husks help in retention of enough moisture, about 6 times their weight of water, which remains for a longer period in the soil and is particularly beneficial for the rain-fed crop, especially under the drought conditions. The potash present in the husk is in soluble form and is easily available to the roots.

Once the husks are buried, the beneficial effect will last about 5 years and a significant increase in coconut yield may be noticed from third year onwards.

Water logging and Drainage System:

Coconut palms fail to thrive under waterlogged conditions and hence where natural drainage is poor, the growth is badly affected and various abnormal symptoms are expressed on the foliage. Wherever possible, drainage facilities should be provided by cutting deep and wide drains between the rows of palms.

Interaction of Manuring and Soil Moisture:

Applied manures and fertilizers are best utilized with irrigation or under high soil moisture situation. The fertilizer application with time and frequency is also governed by the degree of soil moisture availability. Regular cultivation and manuring along with irrigation can double the nut production over cultivation alone. Thus, the integrated use of cultural, manurial and irrigation management has been proved to increase the nut production significantly. Nelliat and Padmaja (1978) observed that higher

37 levels of fertilizers with irrigation yielded 114.5 nuts as compared to 28.4 nuts recorded on the palms, which received the same dose of fertilizers without irrigation. Maximum response is achieved to higher levels of fertilization when combined with irrigation. Mandal and Metha (1984) recorded that the effect of irrigation has become more pronounce in a well-managed garden in Goa, in combination with balanced fertilization. They have recorded that during pre-irrigation period, the nut production was 5,400/hectares, which was increased to 12,400 hectares after regular irrigation and further increased to 18,666 nuts/hectares when both irrigation and balanced fertilization were practiced.

Frequency of Fertilizer Application:

Once the coconut palm started flowering, the production phase continues all through its life. Hence, there is a steady utilization of food material by the palm, resulting in depletion of plant foods from the soil. To compensate the nutrient loss so as to maintain the steady productivity of the palm, regular and judicial manuring is essential, which has to be done annually.

It is observed that split application of the recommended dose of fertilizers, annually twice, increases the production of nuts and also copra content in it substantially. Split application results in significant production of female flowers and high setting percentage.

The proper time for the application of fertilizers is when sufficient moisture is available in the soil. For rain-fed crops, fertilizers should be applied just at the onset of monsoon and at the end of rainy season, at a time when the roots are active, avoiding heavy rainfall period to reduce

38 leaching losses. During the periods of longer spells of dry seasons, manuring may be avoided.

Productivity of Coconut Palm:

The yield of coconut nuts and the unit output of copra in the country are invariably low. The productivity per palm/ per year is estimated to 38 nuts in India; while it is as high as 62 nuts in Western Samoa, 45 nuts in Sri Lanka, 40 nuts in Indonesia and 35 nuts in Philippines. In India, per palm productivity in Karnataka is 54 nuts followed by 46 nuts each in Tamil Nadu and Lakshadweep and only 32 nuts in Kerala.

Similarly it is found that about 5,000 nuts are required to produce one ton of copra in other countries; while in India, about 6,500 to 6,800 nuts are required to get one ton of copra. Likewise, the copra output per unit is also low in India, because of producing small size nuts as compared to other countries.

Causes for Decline in Coconut Productivity:

 Over crowding in existing gardens

 Non- attainment of full-bearing potential of under planted palms.

 Non- removal of senile and unproductive palms.

 Non- adoption of „package of practices‟ and „lack of transfer of technology‟.

 Planting in un-suitable areas.

 Spread of diseases, incidents, rodents and pest problems.

 Vagaries of monsoon, prolonged dry spells and long moisture stress.

 Use of poor quality seedlings, inadequate availability if better seed nuts. 9

Major Insect Pests and Diseases of Coconut Palm in India: A.Major Pests:

The major insect of the coconut palm are the rhinoceros beetle, the eriophid mite, the white gurp, the red palm weevil, the black headed caterpillar and the coreid bug. Adopt suitable remedial measures as and when required. A brief account of the important coconut pests is given.

Rhinoceros Beetle: Symptoms:

 The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and spathes.  Attacked fronds when fully opened show characteristics geometric cuts.

Control measures:

 Hook out the beetle from the attacked palms using beetle hook. As a prophylactic measure, fill up the top most three leaf axils with sevidol 8G and fine sand (200g) thrice in April, September and December.

Red Palms Weevil: Symptoms:  Presence of holes on the stem, oozing out of viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibres through the hole.  Some times the gnawing sound produced by the feeding flubs will be audible.  In the advanced stage of infestation yellowing of the inner whorl of leaves occur.  The crowns falls down or dry up later when palm is dead.

Control measures:

 Practice clean cultivation by cutting and removing palms already damaged and the decaying stumps in the garden. Such palms should be split open and the different stages of pests inside burned off.  Avoid injury to the trunk as the pest laid eggs in these wounds. Wounds if any should be pasted with a mixture of carbaryl / Théoden and soil. While cutting leaves, retain at least 1m of petiole.

Black headed Caterpillar: Symptoms:  Severity of attack is seen during January to May. The caterpillar feeds on green matter from lower leaf surface, remaining within silk and frass galleries. In severe attack all the green matter of the leaves will be eaten up.

Control measures:

 Biological control is very effective against this pest through release of parasitoids like gorriozus nephantidis, elasmus nephantidis and brachimeria nosatoi. In case of severe attack, remove the affected leaves and destroy by burning.

Coreid bug: Symptoms:

 The attacked buttons do not develop resulting in immature nut fall. The nuts if developed may become barren.

Control measures:

 Pesticide application is necessary infection is severe. Spraying has to be done three times a year.  Apply 0.1% carbaryl on the inflorescence after the receptive phase of the female flowers. Destruction of pollinating insects can be avoided if spraying is donned in afternoon hours.  Tying perforated polybags (2 bags/ palm) containing 2.5 g phorate on to the stalk of inflorescence is also effective.

Rats: Symptoms:  Attack tender nuts resulting in immature nut fall.

Control measures:

 Entry of rats on to the trunk can be prevented by fixing mechanical barriers upto 2m height from ground level using 40cm sized G.I. sheets.  Use rat traps.  Poison baiting with zinc phosphate or warfarin.

White Grub: Symptoms:  The Roots affected palms develop sickly pale yellow leaves, exhibits button shedding and tapering of crown region.

Control measures

 Deep ploughing and digging of soil during the post monsoon period.  Destroy adult beetles during peak emergence period in May-June.  Applications of insecticide prorate 10 g @ 100 g. per palm during the same period and September –October.

Eriophyid Mite: Symptoms:  The mite infects the soft coconut by sucking sap from tissues of buttons. Triangular patches close to perianth due to sucking sap.  The mite causes death of meristematic tissues resulting formation of brownish patches on the surface of nuts causing, warding and longitudinal fissures.

43  Prevents growth of nuts, reduction in shell and kernel, affects quality and quantity of fibre content of husk.

Control measures:

 Improve the nutritional status of coconut palm through application of fertilizer in two-split application along with neem cake at 5kg/ per palm organic manure (FYM) 50 kg/ per palm.  Spraying mixture of 2 per cent neem oil, garlic and soap mixture and 1 per cent Azadiractin @ of 4ml. per litre of water or root feeding or stem injection at 7.5 ml with same water proved beneficial in controlling infestation.  Spraying of wet able sulphur at 0.4 per cent per litre of water Carbosulphan at 2-ml/per litre of water and Triazophosat 5ml/per litre of water is recommended.

B. Major Diseases:

The coconut palm is affecting by a number of diseases, some of which are lethal while others gradually reduce the vigour of the palm causing severe loss in yield. A brief account of the important coconut diseases is given.

Bud Rot: Symptoms:

 The earlier symptom is the yellowing of one or two younger leaves. Black spots appear on spindle leaves.

 In the later stages, the spindle withers and drops down.

 The tender leaf base and soft tissues of the crown rot into a slimy mass of decayed material emitting foul smell.

 Ultimately, the entire crown falls down and the palm dies.

Control Measures:

 Remove all affected tissue of the crown and apply Bordeaux paste on cut end provide a protective covering until normal shoot emerges.

 Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture on the crown of the neighbouring palms as a prophylactic measure.

 Spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture during May and September if the disease occurs frequently.

 Cut and burn severely affected palms, which cannot be saving.

Leaf Rots:

Symptoms:

 Blackening and shriveling up of distal ends of the leaflets in the central spindle and younger leaves which, later break off in bits.

 Gradual weakening of the tree resulting in decline yield.

Control Measures:

 Improve general condition of palms through proper manuring and management.

 Remove the decayed portions of spindle leaf and upmost two leaves only.

 Pour fungicide solution of Hexaconazol – 2ml or Mancozeb - 3g in 300ml water per palm to the base of spindle leaf.

 Apply 20g prorate 10g mixed with 200g fine sand around the base of spindle leaf.

 2-3 rounds of spraying are sufficient in case of mild infections.

Stem Bleeding: Symptoms:

 Exudation of reddish brown liquid through cracks developing on the stem.

 Decaying of tissue at bleeding point.

 Vigour and yield decline.

 Development of big holes inside the trunk.

Control measures:

 Chisel affected tissue and dress the wound with 5% calixin (5ml in 100ml water) applies coal tar after 2 days.

 Avoid any mechanical injury to the stem.

 To avoid spread of disease on to upper portion of trunk, root feeding with 5% calixin may be adopt 3 times a year – April-May, September-October and January –February.

 Along with 50kg organic manure, apply 5kg neem cake containing the antagonistic fungi, Trichoderma culture to the basin during September.

 Provide adequate irrigation during summer and drainage during rainy season.

 Apply recommended doses of organic manures and chemical fertilizers.

 Coconut stem boring insects like Xyleboru, Diocalandra should be control by applying Carbaryl 50% WP on the trunk @ 3g per litre water.

Root (Wilt) Disease: Symptoms:

 Abnormal bending or ribbing of the leaflets and flaccidity of the leaves, general yellowing followed by marginal necrosis of the leaflets.

 Abnormal shedding of buttons, reduced leaves and crown, gradual reduction in yield.

47 Control Measures:

Being a non-lethal, debilitating disease as integrated approach is to be following for management of root wilt.

 Recommended control measures for leaf rot disease as this disease is superimposing on most of the root wilt affected palms.

 Follow integrated nutrient management. Apply organic manure @ 50kg/ per palm/ per year.

 Cut and remove disease advanced, uneconomical palms yielding less than 10 nuts per palm/ per year.

 Grow green manure crops – cowpea, sun hemp, mimosa invisa, calapagonium mucanoides, pueraria phaseoloides etc. may be shown in coconut basins during April – May and incorporated during September –October.

 Irrigate coconut palms with at least 250-litres water in a week.

 Adopt suitable inter/mixed cropping in coconut gardens.

 Provide adequate drainage facilities.

Tanjavur Wilt: Symptoms:  Decay of finer nuts, withering, yellowing, drooping and drying of outer whorl of leaves and exudation of reddish brown fluid at the base of the trunk.

Control Measures:

 Practice growing banana as intercrop in coconut garden.

 Root feeding with calixin once in 3 months.

 Drench the basin with 25 litres of 0.1% calixin.

 Apply neem cake containing trichoderma @ 5kg/per palm/per year.

 Apply recommended dose of organic manures.

 Avoid flood irrigation and follow drip irrigation.

 Practice clean cultivation and burn off diseased plant pests.

 Isolate infected palms by taking trenches of 1m depth and 0.5m width around the palm at 1.5m away from it.10

FARMING PRACTICES: Agro- Climatic Requirements:

The coconut palm thrives well under an evenly distributed annual rainfall from 1000mm to 3000mm. The palm requires an equitable warm and humid climate neither very hot, nor very cold. The mean annual temperature for optimum growth and maximum yield is State to be 27 degree Celsius with a diurnal variation of 6o C to 7o C. The coconut palm thrives well upto an altitude of 600 m.

49 The coconut palm can tolerate wide range of soil conditions. However, the palm does show certain growth preferences. A variety of factors such as drainage, soil depth and soil fertility of the land has great influence on the growth of the palm. The major soil types that support coconut in India are laterite, alluvial, red sandy, coastal sandy and reclaimed soils with a PH ranging from 5.2 to 8.0.

Selection of Site:

Shallow soils with underlying hard rock, low-lying areas subjected to water stagnation and clay soils should be avoid. Proper supply of moisture through either well distributed rainfall or irrigation and sufficient drainage are essential for coconut.

Selection of Seeds:

Seeds selected from high- yielding stock with desirable traits. Seeds nuts should be medium-sized and nearly spherical in shape. After fully mature nuts are picking, and not allowed to fall, they are test by shaking to listen for water within. Under ripe, spoiled, those with no water or with insect or disease damage are discarding.

Seeds Preparing:

Nuts are plant right away in nursery or stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated shed until they can be plant. Soaking nuts in water for 1-2 weeks before planting may benefit germination.

Nursery Bed Preparing:

In preparation of nursery beds, they should be dugged and loosen to a depth of 30 cm loosened soil mixed dried or rotten leaves and ash from burnt fresh coconut husks at a rate of 25 Ibs. Of husk ash per 225 sq.ft nuts spaced in beds 22 X 30 cm, a hectare of nursery accommodating 1, 00,000 seed nuts. Soil should be sandy or light loamy, free from water logging but close to source of water and away from heavy shade.

Planting:

Horizontally produce better seedlings then those planted vertically. The germinating eye is place uppermost in a shallow furrow, about 15 cm deep, and soil eye exposed. Bright sunlight is best for growing stout sturdy seedlings. Watering amount and frequency depend on local conditions. Mulching sometimes used to preserve moisture and suppress weeds. Potash fertilizers helps seedling growth, and probably do not need other fertilizers as nut provides most of needed nutrition. About 16 weeks after nut is planted, the shoot appears through the husk, and at about 30 weeks, when 3 seed leaves have developed, seedlings should be planted out in permanent sites. All late germinators and very slow growers are discarding.

Transplanting:

Period in their growth but usually 7-8 month old seedlings are use for transplants. Best spacing depends upon soil and terrain. Usually 9-10 m on the square is used, planting 70-150 trees/ per hectare with triangular spacing of 10 m, 115 palms/ per hectare; and for group or bouquet planting, 3- 6 palms planted 4-5 m apart. Planting holes of 1m wide and deep should be dugged 1-3 months before seedlings are transplant. Two layers of coconut husks are putting into bottom of hole before filling with the topsoil mixed ash. Muriate of potash, 1 kg per hole, is better than ash, but increases cost of planting. In planting soil should be well pack around nut, but should not cover collar of seedlings, nor get into leaf axils. The new tree should be water immediately after planting and frequently thereafter until it is well established. Young plantation should be fenced to protect plants from damages from cattle, goats or other wild animals. At end of first year after transplanting, vacancies should be filling with plants of same age held in reserve in nursery. In addition, any slow growers, or disease-damaged plants should be replacing.

Maintenance of Coconut Garden:

Regular manuring from the first year of planting is essential to ensure good vegetative growth, early flowering and bearing and high yield. Organic manure at the rate of 25 – 50 kg per palm/ per year may be applied with the onset of Southwest monsoon when soil moisture content is high. Different forms of organic manures like compost, farmyard manure, bone meal, fishmeal, neem cake, groundnut cake, gingerly cake, etc. could be use for this purpose. Green manure crops like sun hemp, gliricidia, dhaincha,

52 etc. can also be grown as intercrops to incorporate in the coconut basins later.11 TABLE NO. 2.1 PERFORMANCE OF COCONUT VARIETIES VARIETIES YIELD NUT/ COPRA OIL OIL YIELD OF COCONUT /PER PALM CONTENT g/ CONTENT (Ha) PALM /PER YEAR PER NUT % INDIGENEOUS

West Coast Tall 1.69 81 176 68

East Coast Tall 0.96 86 100 63

Banavali Green 151 151 68 2.74 Round Kappadam 2.99 90 283 67

EXOTIC

Fiji Tall 2.41 106 199 65

Philippines 108 196 66 2.65 Ordinary Chandrasankara 98 208 68 2.47 (COD X WCT) Lakshganga (LO 108 194 73 2.47 X GB) Chandraiaksha (LO 99 195 68 2.31 X COD) Keraganga (WTC X 100 201 69 2.48 GB) Anandganga (AO X 95 216 68 2.47 GB) ECT X 140 150 68 1.69 Gangabondam Source: Coconut Development Board.

MARKETING PRACTICES:

Marketing of coconut like that of any other horticultural commodities notionally has two aspects i.e. the „marketing activity‟, in which sellers and buyers have mutual coordination in each other‟s activities. The other aspect is the „marketing promotional activity‟, which comprises of gathering information, data, compilation, analysis, interpretation of the data and passing the resulted valid information to farmers, traders, business organizations and other concerned agencies to facilitate marketing functions. While marketing promotional activities play supporting and strengthening role to the marketing activity, however, the later requires professional and commercial skill.

Marketing of coconuts differs from that of other fresh fruits due to natural durability of coconuts, which are sold as fresh tender nuts as well as matured coconut nuts and dry nuts. Indirect mode of disposal of coconuts as a strategy is more popular and widely adopted by coconuts farmers. This indicates that channels, intermediaries play a major role in both assembling and equalization functions in marketing of coconuts.

Tender Coconut:

The farmers dispose off the tender coconuts immediately after harvesting, without giving any kind of dressing or grading. Tender coconuts are sending to market within a day or two after harvesting, as there is no practice of storage for longer period. The tender coconuts are sort out at the retailer level according to their size. Since, bigger the coconut is higher the

price due to consumer preference and belief that it contain more quantity of coconut water. The assembling and distribution of tender coconut through out the country is almost uniform and involve producer, contractor, itinerary merchants, wholesalers, retailers and hawkers. At some places, the producers take the tender coconut to nearby mandi or market.

Matured Coconut:

Farmers in unhusked form generally dispose matured coconuts for want of nearby market place generally dispose matured coconuts. However, farmers located near to market places dehusk the coconuts and sell them as husked nuts. Farmers, from the areas where the husks is not utilized for retting and coir purpose, store the coconuts for two to three months, particularly the nuts harvested in the monsoon season. The majority farmers sell the bulk crop as unhusked coconuts, still a considerable quantum of nuts are selling to consumers as husked nuts. The nuts reaching markets are either partially husked or dehusked as per demand and requirement in distant markets. Coconuts meant for copra making sold in local markets are fully husked; coconuts meant for distant market places are left with some fibres covering the eyes or on all around nuts.

The storage practices for matured coconut differ from place to place and in accordance with marketing practice i.e. by the producers, merchants or exporters. The farmers and local village merchants store coconuts in their houses. In markets, coconuts are stored in godowns owned by the wholesalers or commission agents. Since matured coconuts are meant

55 for immediate consumption or crushing for oil, they are not warehoused for longer period.

The village merchants are the first purchaser of the nuts from the producers. Traditionally, the price of coconut is determining by the price of coconut oil prevalent in the market. The copra maker transacts the business based on the conversion. The intermediaries who are also merchants convert the coconut into copra on sun drying or kiln dry or by following both the methods.

Copra (Dry Coconut):

The intermediaries who are also merchants convert the coconut into copra on sun drying or kiln dry by or following both the methods. It takes around 7 days for producing standard quality of copra. In most of the cases, copra is sold at the stage when moisture level is 10 to 12 per cent, commonly known as „ghatti‟, for which, corresponding amount is deducted by the traders compared to the better quality of copra of 6 to 7 per cent moisture. The price of the copra is calculate on the following basis i.e. (a) The price of oil per candy (b) The price of cake per candy and (c) Less sales tax crushing changes.

The traders bring the copra thus procured is brought for the further sale to millers. Generally, traders are associated with particular miller but can go to other agency if they have not taken any advance payment from the miller. The trader, ultimately sale the product to miller, sometimes

56 edges price for the copra or sometimes as a distress sale for crushing the whole thing into coconut oil. Since the major demand of coconut oil is from the up country markets, mainly meant for industrial purpose, especially for soap industry.

However, dealing under cover is not a healthy marketing practice but still it is prevalent in copra trade. The copra makers take their produce to market and contact the broker with copra samples, commonly called “one eda”, in one basket and moves from one broker to another. The settlement of the price for the produce is determined in secret manner without uttering the price in open.

The trader in the trade of matured nuts / copra, practices deductions for immature nuts, mouldy and discoloured copra, moisture content etc. the traders make the deductions arbitrarily.

The structure of coconut trade varies from traditional coconut growing State to non-traditional coconut growing State and region-to- region. It is a common practice among big farmers to pool his produce along with produce of small farmers of his village/area, convert into copra and sell it to intermediaries or miller directly. The miller in turn sells it to wholesalers in terminal market or to upcountry buyers. The major coconut oil trading centers are functional in the zones where more number of coconut oil mills is located. They are mainly at Kochi, Trissur, Trivandrum in Kerala, Kankeyam and Vellakovil in Tamil Nadu and North Kanara, Udupi and Mangalore in Karnataka.

PRICES TREND:

57 Trend of Prices of Coconut Products:

The prices of coconut and coconut products in the country are mainly centered around two major coconut products viz., copra and coconut oil. The price of coconut is usually influence by the price of coconut oil prevailing in the wholesale markets. However, the coconut oil prices are characterizing by wide and violent fluctuations and erratic price trends. The factor that determines the price of coconut and coconut products are also associated with the growers, oil industry and consumers. It has been observing that the prices of coconut in the country are integrating with the price of coconut oil prevalent in market.

However, variations in quality of matured coconut, size of nuts, copra content, oil contents, marketing cost, marketing methods of fresh tender coconuts and matured coconuts are also deciding factors for the price received by the coconut farmers. The coconuts produced on farm and gardens move through many agencies like farmers or producers, collectors, intermediaries, wholesalers and processors, before reaching the consumer in various forms. The involvement of these agencies and number of agencies involved in the marketing channels are also deciding factors of coconut prices.

Price Variation Due to Quality of Husked and Unhusked Nuts:

The price of unhusked and husked nuts prevailed in different States of India. It can be seen that the husked nuts fetched higher prices than unhusked nuts. In areas where the retting facilities for husk exist, unhusked nuts fetch higher prices than that of husked nuts. In land tracks where retting was not done price of husked and unhusked nuts were almost the

58 same. The difference in prices of unhusked and husked nuts depends upon the price obtainable for husk in different markets from time to time.

Size of Nuts, Tender Nuts and Copra Content:

The size of coconuts matters much in fixing price of matured coconuts, as bigger nuts usually yield more copra. Therefore, prices of coconuts, as a rule vary according to size of nuts. Nuts harvested in summer being bigger in size usually fetch higher prices than the nuts harvested in the monsoon. The coconuts from the laterite soils of coastal tracts yield more copra therefore fetch higher prices. Coconuts from certain locality are believed to yield copra with a better flavor and taste or to have better keeping quality as compared to other locality and such nuts usually fetch a higher premium price.

Seasonal Variation in Price:

Unlike most other agricultural commodities, coconuts are harvest several times in a year and as such, prices are not affecting too much by the presence of supplies at any one particular time of the year. However, the demand for coconut for copra making slackens during the monsoon months. Since, harvesting of coconut in different seasons makes the difference in quality and size of nuts reaching the market. The copra content of the nuts harvested in summer months is higher than the nuts harvested during rainy seasons. All these facts contribute towards variation in prices of nuts in different months of the year.

Retail Price:

The retail prices of mature nuts vary mainly according to their size. It has been observe that the difference between the retail and wholesale price varies in different markets and for different transactions.

Copra Price Trend:

The dried kernel of matured coconut, known as copra, is commercially classifying into edible and milling copra. The edible copra is process for the market in the form of balls and cups; milling copra is process in the form of cups and chips. According to trade estimate only 40 per cent of the coconut produced in major coconut producing States, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, convert coconut to copra. About 65 per cent of copra, locally produced in Kerala is use by oil milling industry and 35 per cent is export to upcountry markets. However, copra is a basic raw material for the end commercial products, the coconut oil but the ruling price of coconut oil is the yardstick for determining the prices of copra and coconut in the market.

Price Variation Due to Quality:

The ball copra and the best quality of cup copra are referring as “edible copra”, while all the other qualities of cup copra are “milling copra”. Ball copra fetches the highest prices, while in the cup copra, the edible qualities commands a premium price over the milling qualities, the extent of premium price paid depends upon the respective qualities and the supply and demand situation in different markets for both types of copra. The edible grade invariably fetched a premium, over the milling grade; the “Rajpur grade” too

60 fetched a higher price than the other grade. The difference between the prices of the two qualities varied from time to time.

Trend of Coconut Oil Prices:

The price of coconut oil is influence by its supply and inelastic demand. The other factors such as end users of entire coconut oil and their responsiveness to the prevailing prices; Supply of other major vegetable oils viz. palm oil, soyabean oil, rapeseed oil and sunflower oil, dominating the World market and lastly the different policies of Government from time to time do have bearing on the price determination process of coconut oil. As such, the coconut oil is over price in both, domestic and World markets as well.

Coconut Oil Cake Price Trend:

Oil meals are a rich source of proteins and used as cattle feed all over the World including India. Oil meals are obtaining after the extraction of oil from oilseeds whether by expelling or solvent extraction. Oil meals from India are export across the World in view of the heavy demand from many developed and developing countries, as an ingredient of animal feed, where animal meat consumption is high. The animal gains weight by eating more proteins through the oil meals, which results in higher yield of meat per animal.

Coconut oil cake meal is the residue left after extracting oil from copra. The yield of coconut oil cake may be reckoned to vary from 33 to 36 per cent of the copra. The dominant factor that affected copra meal

61 market was the situation of other oil meal. A surplus meal production especially, soyabean meal and sunflower meal are sluggish demand for oil meals from Asian countries. The market for oil meals in Asian countries is still affect by monitory and economic crisis. In addition, the supply of copra meal from Indonesia and the Philippines also affects the price of coconut meal in World market.

Minimum Support Price (MSP):

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) with a guarantee to purchase the copra at a pre-determined price for coconut was introduced in1986. NAFED at the national level is the sole agency involved in the operation of MSP through primary co-operative at the grass root level for procurer of copra. Thus, the growing trend towards physical construction renders the MSP for copra economically on in feasible proportion because of heavy base. However, it was essential to implement the programme to safe guard the coconut farmers from market risk particularly during peak production.12

Reviews of some of these studies, which are relevant to the present work, will form a part providing a theoretical background also throw light on the quantitative analysis, which will be appropriate to this thesis.

Dr. R. Jayavel and Dr. S. Dharmalingam (2011)13 studied the significance of the coconut industry in India. The crop assumes considerable significance in the national economy in view of rural employment and income generation. Major share of coconut production in the country is contributed by million of

62 small land marginal farmers who form the backbone of coconut culture. The economy of the region is interlinked with the prospects of the crop wherever coconut is grown. There is a huge potential for coconut byproduct and also raw coconut. Exports of coir textiles from India in the past five years have showed a phenomenal growth.

V.T. Markose (2010)14 observed the contribution of coconut cultivation in the national economy. The coconut palm exerts a profound influence on the rural economy of the many States where it is grown extensively and it provides sustenance to more than 10 million people. The export earnings derived by India from coconut are around Rs.3, 000 million, mainly through the export trade in coir and coir goods. The processing and related activates centered on the crop generate employment opportunities for over two million people in India. The contribution is Rs.7, 000 crores annually to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Kalairani M.K, D. Raja and R. Sivachandran (2009) 15 analyzed the management of nutrient deficiencies and physiological disorders in coconut. The productivity of the crop is the highest in India with 8,165 nuts/ per hectare with an area of 1.95 million hectares. Among the coconut growing States, Tamil Nadu ranks second in area as well as production and productivity. In recent times, the yield potential of coconut varieties has reached a plateau owing to several constraints like water stress, lack of nutrition, hormonal imbalance, pests, diseases etc., and the most important among them is the deficiency of nutrients noticed throughout the country. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) introduced a coconut tonic in the year 2002, which plays a vital role in reducing the nutritional disorders and in improving

the nut production at a cheap cost. It is also useful for the rejuvenation of coconut palms affected by pests and diseases.

Prapha K. Peter and R. Chandra Mohanam (2009) 16 examined the major disease problems affecting coconut in India. In their opinion, in recent years the bud rot disease has attained a serious proportion in some of the localities, in South India, especially hilly tracts with high humidity. Palms of all age groups are susceptible to bud rot disease caused by the fungus phyrophthora palmivora. Very high relative humidity that prevails during the Southwest monsoon (June to October-November) is very much favourable for bud rot epidemics. Rainfall aggravates the phytophthora infection in coconut and young palms in the low lying and moist prone conditions are more susceptible. Phytophthora propgules are found in the crown debris of dead palms even after one year. This clearly indicates that palms died due to bud rot will serve as a reservoir for supply of inoculums in the subsequent season. Bud rot is a serious disease of coconut causing considerable economic loss to the cultivators. Bud rot occurs commonly in all coconut growing countries.

Dr. K. Rajagopal and S. Naresh Kumar (2009) 17 observed the impact of climate change on coconut sector. Coconut tree grows in varied soil types and agro climate conditions, essentially in coastal areas. For optimum production of nuts, the tree requires an average temperature of 29˚ c with a diurnal variation of 7˚ c and annual rainfall of at least 1800mm evenly distributed throughout the year. Thus coconut seedlings planted now may have to experience enhanced co2 levels and increased temperature in the field for the

64 next 40 to 50 years of economic yield producing life span. Coconut productivity on all India bases is likely to go upto 4 per cent during 2020, upto 10 per cent in 2050 and upto 20 per cent in 2080 over current yield due to climate change. Thus, climate change provides a positive impact in coconut zones and opens up opportunities for livelihood. The economic benefits to growers would be substantial with impending remunerative prices and scope for value added products.

J. Thomas (2009) 18 studied the organic based farming system of coconut cultivation. Organic farming has been receiving attention the World over in the recent past. According to the SOEL Survey (February 2005), 26.48 million hectares in 558, 449 farms are managed organically Worldwide. In the Asian context, organic farming is a market oriented and a highly specialized small sector agriculture having tremendous scope for earning foreign exchange and provides augmented returns from a unit area of land. Though the organic farming areas contributes only about 2.8 per cent of the World area, the total number of farms accounts for 11.8 per cent indicating the smaller size of the farm holdings. Biodiversity plays a pivotal role in modulating ecosystem function and stability and forms one of the cardinal principles of organic farming. The organic management of pests and diseases involves measure for improving general plant health to resist pests and diseases, crop rotation and other mechanical means of pest management.

A.K. Udadhyay, H.P. Maheswarappa and Ravi Bhat (2009) 19 examined the impact of Composted Coir Pith in coconut cultivation and the effect of

65 Composted Coir Pith on the productivity of coconut palm. The treatments viz., no fertilizer (control), recommended chemical fertilizer (500g N, 320g

P2O5 and 1200g K2O per palm per year), 50% of the recommended K supplied through chemical fertilizer and 50% of the recommended K supplied through Composted Coir Pith (CCP) and 100% K supplied through composted coir pith only were given to the palms. The experimental results indicated that application of Composted Coir Pith (CCP) above and in combination with NPK (50%) resulted in the increase in Organic Carbon of the soil and higher K content of coconut leaf. The nut yield produced with the application of CCP+NPK was significantly higher (115 nuts/per palm/per year) compared to other treatments. Application of Composted Coir Pith (50% of K requirement i.e. 40kg per palm) in combination with NPK (50%) could be recommended for higher yield along with maintaining soil fertility starts in coconut garden.

R. Chandra Mahanam (2008) 20 examined the various control methods of integrated pests and diseases management in coconut cultivation. The integrated pests and diseases management technologies involving various control methods like mechanical, sanitation, chemical/biological controls etc. have been developed for the management of coconut disease. Among the pests of coconut, eriophyid mite, red palm weevil and rhinoceros beetle have been recognized as the major pests in heavily root (wilt) disease (RWD) affected tracks of Kerala and other parts of India. Effective pest management practices have been evolved to combat these major pests. Coconut cultivation in heavily root (wilt) affected areas is profitable if the farmer adopts the recommended scientific technologies. Economically viable technologies have been developed for increasing the income per unit area by improving the health and yield of palms.

66 O.P. Chauhan, P.S. Asha Singh, P.S. Raju and A.S. Bawa (2008) 21 studied the scope for the Worldwide market opportunities for tender coconut. Tender coconut water is a very popular drink in the World market, especially for its healing qualities. Health drinks based on coconut water are also very popular in different parts of the World. Tender coconut water is not only a thirst quenching but also a mineral drink that cures most of the diseases. Pomegranate juice blended tender coconut water as a ready to serve beverage was developed. The developed beverage showed good consumer acceptability even after 6 months of storage and the optimum levels of the variables can be made use of in the commercial production of the pomegranate juice blended tender coconut water beverage.

P.S. Medda, S. Maitra and L.S. Singh (2008) 22 indicate the cultural practice of coconut cultivation. Coconut is a small holder‟s plantation crop and growing coconut as mono crop particularly during early stage of crop growth is the most inefficient way of using natural resources. In a 7.5m X 7.5m spaced coconut plantation the crop does not utilize 90 per cent of land area and incident solar radiation. Coconut based cropping system ensures maximum resource utilization, improvement in the soil properties and biological activities leading to better crop growth and higher additional return from per unit area of land. The interaction effect of cultivators and crop cultivation models become statistically non-significant except for the production of leaflets and leaflets bearing portion of the leaves.

Minnie Mathew (2008) 23 analyzed the scope for area expansion and improving productivity under coconut cultivation. Despite the many positive developments in the Indian sector in the recent past, there are several serious

67 problems confronting the industry. In India the scope for area expansion under coconut is slowly diminishing. The only way to improve production is by improving productivity. The cluster programme is gaining popularity in view of the gains in productivity, reduction in the cost of cultivation, increased income, community boarding and opportunities for primary processing and building marketable surpluses. For increasing the demand for coconut and coconut products and thereby ensuring remunerative prices to the farmers, a multimedia product promotional campaign has also been carried out. The Government of India and State Governments have taken many steps in favour of the coconut industry including removal of Value Added Tax (VAT) on coconut, copra and other coconut based products and exemption of central excise duty on packed tender coconut water in the last three years, which is reflected in better production and productivity, better farm gate prices, product diversification and a healthy growth.

Minnie Mathew, M. Thomas Mathew, Balachandran Nair and Sebastin, K.S. (2008) 24 analyzed the determination of coconut price. The price of coconut in India is determined by a variety of factors such as the movement of price of copra and coconut oil, seasonal variation in demand and the availability of other competing vegetables oils. The coconut market is characterized by high volatility and recurring violent fluctuations in prices as well as intra seasonal variations in market arrivals. The major season for the production of coconut/copra begins in the month of February and continues till the onset of monsoon in May/June. The coconut farmers are victims of market instability and price fluctuation. A price crash during the peak production period may drain away the entire profitability of the season and the net income of the farmer. In order to safeguard the interest of the farmers and

68 also to minimize the risks arising from market uncertainities, the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for copra has been introduced. S.S Roy, J.K. Hore, A. Bendopadhyay and D.K. Ghosh (2008) 25 in their study emphasize the use of fertilizer in coconut cultivation. Coconut plays an important role in the socio-economic life of large number of small and marginal farmers. The income derived from most of the coconut holdings is insufficient to sustain the dependent families. The use of fertilizer such as Neem cake + Urea has shown a considerable increase in the height of the tree, its basal girth and leaf number. In respect of yield and net return the next best treatment was Neem cake (1/2 N) + Urea (1/2 N) but as regard to B: C ratio the next best treatment was Neem cake (1/4 N) + (Urea ¾ N) of coconut palm. The percentage increase in height, leaf number and basal girth were 48.56%, 47.18% and 43.50 % respectively in intercropped block as compared to 41.17%, 39.01% and 34.47% in the mono crop block.

M.Thomas Mathew (2008)26 examined the impact of organic farming on coconut cultivation. The modernization of Indian agriculture had brought in tremendous growth in plantation sector too. The remarkable growth in production and productivity of coconut in the country is an outcome of these agrarian reforms. However, the rapid stride in the production has also brought in a distressing situation, the emergence of new pests and diseases. In view of the emerging economic scenario and also due to the tremendous growth in production and productivity of the coconut in the country it is inevitable to explore new markets for these products abroad for the stability of domestic market. Promotion of organic cultivation in coconut gardens is therefore inevitable. It is essential to guarantee the uninterrupted production of coconut in the country to meet the consistent demand while considering any change in the cultivation practices, particularly when converting the gardens under

69 modern agriculture to organic farming. There are many areas where farmers are still practising traditional farming without the application of any inorganic fertilizers.

Thomas Mathew (2008) 27 explained an efficient method of fertilizer application through drip system. Drip irrigation is an efficient method of providing irrigation water directly into the root zone of plants and it permits the irrigation to limit the watering closely to the water requirement of crops. It is suited to any type of soil either very porous or less porous soils and for the undulated topography where any other type of irrigation will lead to wastage of water and energy. The system has overall application efficiency around 90% as compared to 25-30% for surface irrigation. It is a widely adopted practice in Israel and other advanced countries as an efficient method of fertilizer application through drip system. Drip fustigation increases the efficient use of fertilizers, saves fertilizer costs, reduces labour requirements, supply nutrients uniformly and precise dose directly to the root zone.

Dr. Ajit Haridas (2007) 28 assessed the uses of coconut husk. Coir fibre is one of the strongest natural fibers. As a byproduct of coconut, it is an ideal environmental friendly replacement for synthetic fibers in a variety of applications.

Amit P. Pratap (2007) 29 describes the various uses of coconut-based products. Coconut is one of the ten most useful trees in the World providing food for millions of people, especially in the tropics. India is one of the leading producers of coconut in the World. Coconut oil is commonly referred to as lauric oil. The raw oil is obtained simply through mechanical processing

70 of dried copra without further treatment apart from filtration. Coconut oil is primarily useful for edible purpose and as hair oil. It is an important source of intermediates like fatty acids, glycerol and fatty alcohols, which are used for the manufacture of wide range of chemicals such as surfactants, emulsifiers, foam boosters etc. These intermediates are used in the formulation of several finished products like soaps, detergents and shampoos.

Anitha.C, S.N. Padma Devi and Padma Srinivasan (2007) 30 assessed the use of Composed Coir Pith on the growth of the coconut. Research reports indicate that coir pith waste derived from the husk of coconut is an excellent growing medium for both commercial and home gardening applications. The hydroponic and horticulture industries have observed that plants grown with the aid of coir pith develop larger roots, stems and blooms. Stimulating healthy root growth is easy with 100 per cent natural organic coir pith. So coir pith has been universally accepted as an excellent plant growth as well as a soil additive.

R. Bhaskaran, A. Ramanathan and R. Vaithilingam (2007) 31 studied the blight disease of coconut in Coimbatore and Tanjore Districts of Tamil Nadu. Coconut palm is affected by several lethal diseases like basal stem rot and debilitating diseases like root (wilt) causing huge economic loss to the coconut growers. Among the foliar diseases of coconut, the grey blight disease caused by pestalutiopsis palmarum is ubiquitous in nature wherever coconut is grown. In coconut seedlings and leaflets of grown up palms, spindle shaped necrotic spots appear on lower leaves. The spots enlarge and coalesce causing be lighting of droop followed by the leaves in the upper whorl.

71 R. Chandra Mohanan and Mohammed Basheer B.M (2007) 32 have pointed out the need for effective integrated disease management of coconut. In recent years the disease has attained a serious proportion in some of the localities, especially hilly tracks with high humidity. Since coconut is a perennial crop, the loss due to the disease is very high. Palms of all age groups are susceptible to bud rot disease caused by the fungus phytophthora palmirora. Effective disease management can be achieved only if the integrated plant protection measures are adopted at the right time. Removal of severely affected palms or dead palms, curative treatment, prophylactic spraying and nutrient management practices for the affected palms as well as healthy palms are important for improving the health and vigour of the palms for higher yield. The fertilizer dose generally recommended for an adult palm is 500g N, 320g P2O5 and 1200g K2O5 per palm per year. Under rain fed condition, fertilizer may be applied in two split doses.

D.K Dash, M.R Kar and G. Subudhi (2007) 33 have found that the coconut Hybrid is ideal for tender nut. The volume of water was found to increase till the seventh month of nut development in all the cultivators and it declined thereafter. The decrease in nut water may be due to absorption by developing endosperm from the eighth month onwards. Thampan (1975), Panda (1988) and Jayalekshmy et al, (1986) reported similar findings.

Deepu Mathew and Habeeburrahman (2007) 34 analyzed the nutrient management in coconut palms. Often the nutrient management system emphasizes upon major nutrient such as N, P and K forgetting the fact that at least 24 minerals are essential for proper cell development. This is particularly important when higher doses of major nutrients are applied

72 leading to toxicity in soil as well as plant systems and complications related to chelation and poor availability of minor nutrients or low nutrient use efficiency at cellular levels.

H. Hameed Khan, S. Arul Raj and Jaya Bose (2007) 35 have pointed out the need for balanced nutrition for increasing coconut production and productivity. In India, the crop is cultivated in 159 Districts, 17 States and 3 Union Territories accounting for 1.947 million hectares with an annual production of 14,811 million nuts and an average productivity of 7,608 nuts/per hectare. The all India figures indicate that 90.74 per cent of area and 89 per cent production in the country are concentrated in the Southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala is the premier coconut growing State accounting for 47.32% of total area and 43.97% of total production. Among the premier coconut growing States, the productivity in Kerala is 7,146 nuts/hectare, Tamil Nadu 13,133 nuts/hectare, Andhra Pradesh 8,577 nuts/hectare and Karnataka 3,139 nuts/hectare follow in that order. There is a considerable variation in productivity due to climate (number of sunshine hours; rainfall) in the coconut growing regions, irrigation, soil type and adoption of cultural practices. Balanced nutrition of coconut palm is one of the priority areas to be addressed in sustaining productivity. Plants should be provided with balanced nutrients to increase crop yield, quality, farm income and productivity besides a safeguard from succumbing to diseases.

K. P. Jayanth, M.Thomas Mathew, G.W. Narabenchi and K.R.M. Bhanu (2007) 36 in their study pointed out the impact of red palm weevil on coconut cultivation. The red palm weevil (RPW) Rhynchophorus Ferruginous Oliver causes death of coconut palms in India mainly due to the difficulty in detecting infestations in the early stages on account of the insidious nature of

73 its feeding. The red palm weevil is a ubiquitous pest of coconut that completes all stages of its life within the palm. Although palms of all ages are prone to the attack of this pest, young palms up to the age of 20 years are the worst affected. Continuous feeding by the grubs inside the stem, for more than one generation, causes breaking of the stem and toppling of the affected palm. Due to the concealed nature of feeding it is difficult to detect RPW infestation in the early stages and farmers become aware of the problem only when the tree is about to die. Chemical methods, including spraying of the palms with high pressure sprayers, stem injection of infested palms and spot application of fumigant tablets were only moderately successful in containing the infestation and dispersal of the pest.

K. Karunanithi, L. Sarala, R. Rabindran, Sabitha Doraisamy and H.H.Khan, (2007) 37 conducted a study of basal stem rot of coconut. Basal stem rot (Ganoderma) disease that is posing a potential threat to coconut cultivation is wide spread in India. An integrated approach is essential to manage the disease in endemic areas. In field, these plant products recorded lesser disease index of BSR compared to control. All the plant products increased the population of fungi and bacteria in soil. Basal stem rot wilt of coconut caused by Ganoderma lucidum is a lethal disease affecting coconut production in Tamil Nadu and other major coconut growing States in the country. Role of bio-fertilizers, organic manures and fungicides in the management of BSR has been reported earlier (Bhashkaran and Ramanathan, 1982; Bhaskaran etal., 1989 and 1990) attempts made on the use of botanicals on the management of BSR.

. 74 C.S. Rana Singhu, R.Vimala Sekar and A.Nainanayake (2007) 38 examined the effect of storage conditions on tender coconut keeping its quality. The major problem associated with the export of whole nut is the rapid physico- chemical changes that take place from harvest to consumption. Tender king coconuts cannot be stored for more than one week. Therefore, if suitable technology could be developed to retard these changes and improve the shell life of king coconuts up to four to five weeks, an enormous export potential a waits. Tender king coconuts were collected, disinfected, wrapped with cling film and net packing, packed in cartons and stored in a reefer container maintained at 13c to 15c and 70% RH for 4 weeks. The results indicated that it is extremely important to use the correct disinfestation methods and maintain the correct storage conditions when exporting king coconuts as whole nuts to the overseas market.

Thampan, K.Subash Babu, R.Venugopal and K.Muralidharan (2007) 39 indicated the problems and potential of marketing opportunities of coconut industry. Price fluctuation in the coconut oil market is the most serious problem faced by coconut growers. The coconut-based economy can be stabilized only when its dependency on a single product viz., coconut oil is minimized. To scope with the market fluctuations, there is an urgent need for formulating and implementing programmes to promote alternative uses of coconut and value addition through product diversification. As the practice of harvesting at tender coconut stage has been found to increase the productivity of palms, it is profitable to farmers also. Hence marketing of tender coconut will create opportunities for enhancing farm income and employment at different levels. It is assessed that only less than ten per cent of total coconut production in the country is used for tender nut purpose. Currently, there are

75 no organized efforts to ensure the availability of quality tender coconuts on a continuous basis to meet the consumer demand.

Thomas Mathew C.M (2007) 40 conducted a study of the competitiveness of India‟s coconut sector. He found that the severe problem of price induced market instability of coconut and coconut products on account of seasonal variations in the production, market arrivals, the demand and influence of the prices of other cheaper vegetable oils and fats are the factors responsible for the pessimistic growth of domestic coconut industry. The irrational reduction in tariff rates of palm oil and palm kernel oil and the resultant import surge of cheaper palm oil and palm kernel oil have a contributing role in reducing the coconut oil markets abruptly. The biggest obstacles to the competitiveness of India‟s coconut sector are low rate of returns from coconut holdings and the reduced input -output realization especially in the traditional coconut growing States. The increasing cost of production on account of higher rate of wages is another bottleneck in the growth of the domestic coconut industry.

Dr. P. Rethinam (2007) 41 studied the scope for the exports of coconut products. There are ample opportunities for coconut products in the international markets. The global demand for coconut and coconut products will be continuously increasing considerably. As World population is expected to grow steadily, the consumption of coconut products including coconut oil will also increase. Coconut products like copra, coconut oil and desiccated coconut have been exported since 1960. However, coconut oil is the major export product. The export of coconut products from APCC countries have indicated that the export of coconut oil, copra meal, coco chemicals and activated carbon have growth rates of 8.25, 5.05, 12.41 and 34.42 respectively over the period from 1990 to 2003. The export value of

76 coconut products included coir products from major producing countries in the World. If we compare the export earning per hectare Sri Lanka ranks first with (US $ 345) followed by Malaysia (US $ 264), Philippines (US $ 242), Indonesia (US $ 62), India (US $ 44) and Thailand (US $ 41). Further acceleration of value addition is yet to take off in most of the coconut growing countries including India.

S.N. Sabapathy and A.S. Bawa (2007) 42 highlighted the economic gain of coconut cultivation in World market. Coconut is the most important palm of the humid tropics grown in over 11 million hectares in 86 countries. About 96 per cent of the crop is grown by more than 10 million resource poor small holder families, and in total, more than 80 million people depend directly on coconut and its processing for their livelihood. The commodity chain also involves processors, traders, exporters, importers/consumers, researchers and other stakeholders both in the producing and importing countries. In addition to the traditional products of copra, coconut oil and copra meal, coconut has the advantage of producing a wide variety of food products which can be used both in domestic and export markets. India shares about 15 per cent of the World area under coconut and produces about 23 per cent of World production of nuts (in total 49 billion nuts). Coconut industries in India are of significant value to the economy of the Southern States, where the bulk of the trees are grown.

Subramanian, K and Santha Kumari.P (2007) 43 in their study pointed out the impact of the grey blight on coconut cultivation. Among the various diseases affecting coconut palm, the grey blight is of common occurrence in almost all the coconut-growing areas. With the injudicious management practices, this disease has engaged as a major problem in coconut cultivation.

77 The disease is seen in both mature palms and in seedlings causing reduction in the vigour of the seedlings, stunted growth and poor yield. The disease decreased the nut yield of palms by 10.0 to 23.6 per cent. Adult palms of 20- 40 years of age were highly susceptible to the disease.

T.Vidhan Singh and K.G.N. Swamy (2007) 44 studied the scope for accelerating and enhancing the market of tender coconut. Tender coconut water is a delicious and nutritious refreshing drink provided by nature. Though the artificial soft drinks had once tended to reduce the importance of tender coconut water, the propaganda in favour of tender coconut water by the Government, the Coconut Development Board and the proponents of naturopathy has now paved the way for its increased consumption. The lead taken by the Coconut Development Board in establishing tender coconut parlors at different locations is accelerating and enhancing the consumption of tender coconut water in a big way. The main factors deterring the large-scale adoption of tender coconut parlors are the absence of simple tools for the easy extraction of tender coconut water. A simple tender nut punch has been developed. One person operates this device manually. Any person including women thereby reducing the drudgery involved can operate it. Chances of injury are almost eliminated. This specific advantage is likely to encourage women also to establish tender nut parlors.

K.V. Ahamed Bavappa (2005)45 analyzed the factors contributing to the high yield in coconut production. Starting with the very choice of variety and in operations such as mother palm selection, nursery raising, seedling selection, plantation establishment and management, processing and marketing scope exists for the application of quality criteria. A plant, which yields high, speaks

78 for itself that it has the genetic potential to respond to a favourable environment, which is a very vital factor in production. As such selection of seed nuts from such high yielding trees irrespective of their location will be advantageous. The productive capacity of the soil depends upon its health. A quality improvement in the soil can be achieved through a higher organism base and bio-agents that could be established in the area so as to develop a self-generating and dynamic biological system.

N. Chandha (2005) 46 in his study points out the need for developing new varieties of coconut. Improving productivity through identification of elite types and developing new varieties and hybrids, developing cost effective agro techniques and solving pests and diseases problems are worth considering in this connection. In recent years, emphasis has also been laid on issues like integrated nutrient management, drip irrigation, organic farming and effective post harvest management and value additions. Five high yielding varieties have been released for cultivation in different regions of the country. These include Philippines Ordinary, Laccadive Ordinary and Chowghat Dwarf, Banawli Green Round and Arasampatty Tall. The hybrids have potential to produce 49-77% more copra yield when compared to local Tall besides being early bearer.

S. K. Jain, Arul K. Shrivastava (2005) 47 have drawn attention to mechanical harvesting of coconut. A prototype of a climbing device has been designed on the principle of upper and power clutches controlled by hand powers and foot pedals respectively. The modified version of climbing device was tested. The prototype did not work satisfactorily while climbing the palm due to problems encountered in the rope mechanism lifting operation. Dapoli, a prototype of a machine was developed, which harvests the nuts from ground controls. The

79 maximum height up to which the machine can harvest is 10m. The cutting attachment holds the CD motor, flexible shaft and rotary cutter. A nylon rope provides a uniform pressure over pedicel to achieve shearing and consequently, the bunch of coconut drops down.

Joseph Philip and P.R.Suresh (2005) 48 studied the water requirement in the cultivation of coconut. Coconut is a tropical crop requiring an average rainfall of 100-300 cm evenly distributed throughout the year. Among the environmental factors, annual rainfall and its distribution pattern have considerable influence on the annual yield and yield pattern in coconut. Low yield in coconut during October to December can be attributed to the coincidence of moisture stress periods with critical stages in the development of spadix. Hence, for increasing the production of coconut palms it is essential to keep the crop free from moisture stress by providing supplement irrigation resorting to moisture conservation practices. Water needs are also different for young and adult palms. Daily transformation loss from a palm is estimated as 24 litres. Basin irrigation is the most widely prevalent method. Sprinkler irrigation is most ideal for intercropped gardens. Flood irrigation is in practice where water is available is plenty. Drip irrigation is an advanced technique of irrigation, which avoids wastage of water by preventing other soil and evaporation losses.

P. Rajan and C.P.R. Nair (2005) 49 indicated the coried bug affects productivity of coconut palms. Coried bug has assumed the status of an important emerging pest of coconut palm. In recent times, the attack of this pest is widely observed in many parts of the coconut growing States. In cases of severe infections, majority of the tender buttons fall down. The surviving

80 ones continue to low resulting in nuts and in many cases developed into barren or punny nuts. Most of the infested buttons and tender nuts shed down. Those unfallen infested buttons develop into undersized or crinkled nuts or barren nuts. The remaining nuts on the bunches develop furrows and crinkles on their husk and are thus malformed. In many cases gummosis can be seen on such nuts. In severe infestation, the kernel of infested nuts become thin, malformed and cannot be used for edible purposes. The dehusking of intested nuts becomes difficult due to the hardening of husk as a result of corky formation of the fiber. In many cases both coried bug and eriophyid mite infestation could be noticed on the same nut and in such instances the crop loss in very high.

G. Karthikeyan, S. Karpagavalli, C. Natarajan and S. Arulraj (2005) 50 studied the disease management practice in coconut cultivation. More than 50 diseases in different parts of the World affect coconut palm. In India, Basal Stem Rot (BSR) disease caused by Ganoderma lucidum (Leys) Karst is a major limiting factor in coconut production in Tamil Nadu as well as coconut growing States of India. Basal stem rot of coconut can be contained by management practices if the disease is detected in the early stages. Few chemical methods like EDTA methods, Ortho philanthropy line Test, Colorimetric method and physiological methods like transpiration rate, electrical conductivity and growing of indicators plants in coconut groves have been reported to be useful to identify the diseased palms even before the expression of external symptoms, though the methods are non-specific for BSR. Integrated management of BSR includes cultural, chemical and biological methods as developed by Bhaskaran et.al (1989 and 1994).

81 P. Rethinam and Amrizal Idroes (2005) 51 studied the scope for the increased production of copra. Coconut, a perennial vegetable oil yielding crop occupies 12.190 million hectares distributed over 93 countries and produces 13.68 million tons of copra equivalents per annum (2004). World area of coconut grew at 3.05% per annum for the last four decades and the production in terms of copra equivalent accelerated annually at 2.9%. Coconut oil of obtained from the coconut meat by a process of pressing and or extraction. Only small quantities of coconut oil are produced from wet process, which bypass copra. The development of coconut meat based products other than copra will determine the quantity of coconut meat required for copra and to coconut oil.

Shri Bhaskar H. Save and Shri Ashok U.Sahnghavi (1993)52 have emphasized the natural farming method of coconut cultivation. The use of water gets reduced to less than 15% of the normal use (in chemical farming). Dr. Kate of Wardha has actually measured the requirement of water by coconut trees. According to him, one coconut tree requires 140 to 150 litres of water a day in the conventional method compared to 40 to 50 litres in drip irrigation method and 15 to 20 litres in the natural farming method. We may mention here that drip irrigation system is totally useless and unnecessary for our country. Natural farming is done with minimum human intervention; it relieves a large work force from seasonal, irregular, back breaking, laborious and cheap work for better utilization in more productive areas of the economy leading to their improved standard of living.

S. Chander Rao, K.D. Patil and D.G. Chandar (1993) 53 have found the stem bleeding disease of coconut cultivation as one among the many reasons

82 for low yield attributed to the pests and diseases problems. Diseases like stem bleeding, bud rot, leaf spot, leaf rot etc., are seen to affect the coconut cultivation. The typical symptom of the stem bleeding disease is the exudation of reddish brown liquid through the cracks developing on the trunk. In the disease affected palms, just above the bleeding site a hole is made on the stem from one end to other. The hole is filled with a mixture of ash, lime and cow dung. The palms affected by the disease are used for tapping and finally, nailing of the palms just above the bleeding site. In affected palm, root feeding with 5 gm/m of Bauistin/Calixis thrice a year along with regular dose of fertilizer and 5 kg of Neem cake/palm checked the disease, which result in increased yield.

R. Gopala Krishnan (1993) 54 describes the various financial incentives to the coconut grower. Coconut cultivations in India is mostly confined to coastal belts. However, new areas suitable for coconut cultivation have been located in many States including the non-traditional belts for further expansion. The major lacuna in expanding the area under the crop is the difficulty in raising resources by the small and marginal farmers. Realizing this problem the Coconut Development Board chalked out and implemented a programmed viz, “expansion of area under coconut” by providing incentive subsidy to small and marginal farmers. To new planting of coconut by providing financial incentives to the coconut grower. The direct and indirect results of the programme have been quite encouraging. The board through the State Agriculture/Horticulture/ Oilseed Departments implemented the programme. Though the programme was sanctioned in the States of Karnataka, Goa and Tamil Nadu

83 K. Satyabalan (1993) 55 has dealt with the yield variation of coconut palms. The number of nuts produced by a coconut palm varies from year to year. Each palm in the garden has different yield capacity and its yield depends mainly on its genotype. Coconut palms are grouped into three yield groups as high yielders (those yielding 80 nuts and above per year), medium yielders (those yielding 40 nuts and above per year) and low yielders (those yielding 10 nuts and above per year).

T. Bala Sundhahari and Dr. K. Mukundan, (1992) 56 highlighted the contribution of coconut to the national economy. The contribution of coconut to the national economy is very significant and it enjoys a prominent position among other plantation crops in the country. Coconut culture and the processing industries provide income and employment to a sizeable section of the rural population in the major coconut growing States in India. With the involvement of about 25 million families in its culture and processing, coconut is intimately associated with the prosperity of the people.

Dr. Kamala Thirumalaisamy, H. Vijayaraghavan and Joseph Savary (1992) 57 studied the control measures employed in Thanjavur wilt of coconut. Thanjavur wilt is a serious problem in Tamil Nadu and in the adjoining States. Trees in the age group of 10-30 years were more susceptible to the disease (43%) than younger trees (17%).

C. Jayasekara and D.T. Mathes (1992) 58 made an attempt to study the growth habit of coconut leaf. The productivity of a coconut palm is related to the net assimilation rate and the number of fronts or total photosynthetic area

84 in the canopy. During the first 3 to 5 years of growth of the coconut palm, expansion of the canopy is very limited. Thereafter, the crown begins to expand and within 8 to 10 years, attains its full character and maximum leaf area index. The climate, soil nutrients, and age of the palm and the genetic constitution of different varieties determine the rate of leaf production and the size of the leaves. Thus, leaf area of the canopy varies with the growth habitat and with different genotypes. The total leaf area and leaf area index has confounding effects on productivity of plants.

N. John Kurian (1992) 59 indicated that abnormal drooping of lower leaves affects the productivity of coconut palm. Sporadic incidence of petiole not resulting in drooping of coconut leaves during the summer months. The disease appears to be infectious and three to four neighbouring palms were found affected in a garden. An abnormal drooping of lower leaves of coconuts, which gradually dry up and fall. One third of the total number of leaves hang down disturbing the fruit bunches borne in their axils which results in premature nut fall and button shedding. The infection does not go beyond the leaf base and the bud is found to be free from infection. Though the central shoot manifests general weakness, it has also been found to be unaffected. The nuts are also not infected and no water soaked black lesions are noticed at the perianth portion of the nuts.

P.A. Joseph, P.C. Balakrishnan and N.K.Nayar (1992) 60 conducted a study of the difference between West Coast Tall and Lakshadweep Ordinary of coconut. Lakshadweep Ordinary (LO) is almost similar to West Coast Tall in growth habits. The better performance of Lakshadweep Ordinary in several respects including female flower production, setting percentage, nut production, copra out form, oil yield and stability for annual yield of nuts

85 makes LO, a premium variety in the cultivator‟s fields. Evaluation of the nut characters of LO and WCT revealed better nut qualities like higher nut weight, thicker meat, higher copra out form per nut and a slightly higher oil percentage in LO.

B.M Mittal, (1992) 61 studied the scope for the high profits for coconut grower. Motivating a higher coconut production results in cumulative trend towards high profits for investors and coconut grower. The use of Indian coconut through modern South East Asian processing techniques for better utilization of coconut ingredients in the form of value added products. It focuses on investments and returns which would give users push an on coconut production and establish secured prices to coconut growers. Wet coconut processing plant would help in reducing foreign exchange spent on imports of oil and would benefit investor and coconut growers due to value added premium products like virgin oil, medium fat desiccated powder, coconut milk, coconut water beverage and activated carbon, by using modern process techniques. Wet coconut processing plant thus is a profitable proposition to expectant entrepreneurs.

M. K. Nair (1992) 62 describes the genetic variability and varieties of coconut Tall and Dwarf as the two distinct varieties of coconut. The Tall palms, referred to as Var. typical Nar, are the most commonly cultivated in all the coconut growing regions of the World. They grow 30m Tall have a comparatively long pre-bearing normally cross pollinated and their fruits are generally medium to large in size. West Coast Tall, Lakshadweep Ordinary, East Coast Tall, Benaulim and Andaman Ordinary are some of the distinct Tall types from India. Dwarf palms or var. nana Nar, are characterized by

86 their short stature and smaller nuts of varying colours- green, yellow and orange. Chowghat Green Dwarf, Chowghat Orange Dwarf, and Gangabondam are the three important Dwarf types from India.

T. Nalina kumari, K.V.Mammen and N.Mohandas (1992) 63 analyzed the insect and non-insect pest affecting copra production. About 46 per cent of the total produce is converted into copra. At various stages of its production, distribution and utilization, heavy quantitative and qualitative losses occur from insect and non-insect pests, fungi and other micro organisms. The pest population is comparatively high during June to October and immature stages were seen only during that period.

T.Ramanathan, S.Thangavelu, C.S. Sridharan and S. Alarmelu (1992) 64 analysed the performance of hybrids of parents play an important role in selection of future coconut strains. There was no significant difference among the parents and Hybrids in the morphological characters like girth of crown, number of functional leaves and the length of the leaf. In nut characters, the parents and the Hybrid showed significant difference in nut weight, fibre weight and whole Kerni weight WCT X MDY Hybrid was found to be significantly superior to other hybrids followed by Laccadive Micro WCT X MOY Hybrids which give the highest cumulative copra yield. Among the varieties Laccadive Micro and Andaman Ordinary recorded a high cumulative yield.

N. Srinivasan and M. Gunasekaran (1992) 65 analyzed the leaf rot disease affecting the coconut cultivation. Several diseases affect coconut palm in different parts of India. The leaf rot disease occurs in association with root

87 wilt bringing about severe economic losses. The leaf rot is observed in palms of all ages and it is generally severe during monsoons. The super imposition of leaf irrespective of soil types and intensity increased with the advancement of root (wilt) disease. The disease appears in the earliest phase as minute, water soaked lesions like brown spots and manifests generally on the spindle leaf at distal portions or intermittently on leaflets. The leaf rot symptoms would appear in successively emerging spindle leaves. In leaf rot affected gardens; it is common observation that the disease symptoms seen as far like appearance of leaves in the crown, indicating that all leaves in such palms had contracted leaf rot earlier.

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17. Dr. Rajagopal and S. Naresh Kumar, (2009), Productivity likely to go up under all Scenarios, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture, The Hindu publication, pp.36-38

18 J. Thomas, (2009), Coconut based organic farming system, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 20-23.

19. A.K. Upadhyay, H.P. Maheswarappa, Ravi Bhat, (2009), Impact of composted coir pith on the nutrition and productivity of coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-5. 20. R.Chandra Mahanam, (2008), Integrated pest and disease management of coconut is heavily root (wilt) disease affected Districts of Kerala State- a success story, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-9. 21. Chauhan, P.S. Raju and A.S Bawa, (2008), Development of pomegranate juice blented tender coconut water beverage, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 8 -16. 22. P.S. Medda, S. Maitra and L.S. Singh, (2008), Favorable effect of intercropping on the growth of young coconut plantation, Indian coconut Journal, pp. 13-15. 23. Minnie Mathew, (2008), Coconut Development in India- a recap, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-7. 24. Minnie Mathew, M. Thomas Mathew, Balachandran Nail and Sebastian K.S, (2008), Standards for fixing parity price of de-husked mature coconut, Indian coconut Journal, pp. 2-7. 25. S.S. Roy, J.K. Hore, A. Bandopadhyay and D.K. Ghosh, (2008), Effect of different organic manures with varying levels of nitrogen on the growth and yield of ginger grown as intercrop in pre-bearing coconut garden, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 18-22. 26. M.Thomas Mathew, (2008), Organic Farming Coconut, Problems and Prospectus, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 17-23. 27. M.Thomas Mathew, (2008), Drip fertigation for coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 20-22.

90 28. Dr.Ajit Haridas, (2007), Closed retting for coir extraction with biogas recovery, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 7-8. 29. Amit P.Pratap, (2007), Quality standards for coconut oil and coco chemicals, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 12-21. 30. Anitha C, S.N.Padma Devi and Padma srinivasan, (2007), Effect of coir pith on the growth of Gymnema sylvestre and dolichos biflorus, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 19-20. 31. R. Bhaskaran. A. Ramanathan and R. Vaithilingam, (2007), Management of lethal leaf blights disease of coconut in Tamil Nadu, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 8-10. 32. R. Chanda Mohanan and Mohammed Basheer B.M,(2007), Integrated Management of bud rot disease of coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-4. 33. D.K.Dash, M.R.Kar and G.Subudhi, (2007), Evaluation of coconut hybrids and varieties for tender nut under Orissa conditions, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 4-6. 34. Deepu. Mathew and Habeeburrahman P.V, (2007), Managing Poron in coconut palms, Indian coconut Journal, pp. 5-7. 35. H. Hameed Khan, S.Arul Raj and Jaya Bose, (2007), Understanding balanced nutrition in coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 19-28. 36. K.P. Jayanth, M. Thomas Mathew, G.B. Narabenchi and K.R.M. Bhaw, (2007), Impact of large sale mass trapping of red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferruginous Oliver in coconut plantations in Kerala using indigenously synthesized aggregation pheromone lures, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-9. 37. K. Karunanithi, L.Sarala, R. Rabindran, Sabitha Doraisamy and H.H. Chan, (2007), Effect of plant products on the management of basal stem rot (Ganoderma) of coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 13-15.

91 38. C.S. Rana Singhe, R.Wimala sekara and A.Nainiyake, (2007), Simulated sea shipment of tender King coconut: effect of storage conditions on keeping quality, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 8-12. 39. C.Thampan, K.Subash Babu, R.Venugopal and K.Muralidharan, (2007), Integrated approaches for marketing of minimally processed tender coconuts, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-7. 40. Thomas Mathew.M, (2007), Indian Coconut Industry: the way forward, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 7-16. 41. Dr. P. Rethinam, (2007), Acceleration of value addition in coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-14. 42. S.N. Sabapathy and A.S. Bawa, (2007), Standards for packed and preserved tender coconut water, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-8. 43. K Subramanian and Santha Kumari. P, (2007), Epidemiology of grey blight of coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 10-12. 44. T.Vidhan Singh and K.G.N. Samy, (2007), Tender nut punch and cutter, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 11 -12. 45. K.V. Ahamed Bavappa, (2005), Quality improvement in coconut production, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 14-16. 46. N.Chandha, (2005), Coconut researches in India a review, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 13-19. 47. S.K. Jain, Atul K. Shrivastava, (2005), Coconut harvesting through ground controls, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 15-16. 48. Joseph Philip and P.R. Suresh, (2005), Water management in coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 20-24. 49. P.Rajan and C.P.R.Nair, (2005), Coired Bug of Coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 11-12.

92 50. G. Karthikeyan, S. Karpagavalli, C. Natarajan and S. Arulraj, (2005), Evaluations of coconut Hybrid ECT × BSR tealeaf in Basal Stem Rot sick soil, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 12-14. 51. P.Rethinam and Amrizlo Idroes, (2003), Lourie oil outlook, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 3-13. 52. Shri. Baskar H. Save, Shri. Ashok U.Sanghavi, (1993), Economic viability of sustainable Agriculture, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 10-11. 53. S. Chgander Rao, K.D. Patil and D.G. Dhandar, (1993), Stem bleeding disease of coconut in Goa- present status and strategy for its management, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-4. 54. R.Gopala Krishnan, (1993), An appraisal of the project for expansion of area under coconut implemented by the Coconut Development Board, Indian Coconut Journal, pp.9-18. 55. K. Satyabalan, (1993), Yield variation in West Coast Tall coconut palms yield attributes which cause variation in Annual yield of nuts in the palms of different yield groups, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 5-8. 56. T. Bala sundhahari, Dr. K. Mukundan, (1992), Economics of deciccated coconut industry, with special reference to Kozhikode and Kannur Districts in Kerala, Indian Coconut Journal, pp.12-15. 57. Dr. Kamala Thirumalaiswamy, H.Vijayaraghavan and Joseph Savery, (1992), Early diagnosis of Thanjavur Wilt of Coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 9-10. 2 58. C. Jayasekara and D.T. Mathes, (1992), A method to determine leaf area of a frond and the whole canopy of an adult coconut palm, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 7-9. 59. N.Kurian, (1992), Petiole rots in coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 11-12.

93 60. P.A. Joseph, P.C. Balakrishnan and N.K. Nayar, (1992), Comparative performance of West Coast Tall and Lakshadweep Ordinary cultivars of coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 10-12. 61. M Mettal, (1992), Indian agro based industry, reaping profit through wet coconut processing plant, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-6. 62. M.K. Nair, (1992), Genetic Resource in Coconut, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 17-19. 63. T.Nalina Kumari, K.V. Manmen and N.Mohandar, (1992), Occurrence and nature of damage caused by pests of stored copra in Kerala, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 7 -9. 64. T. Ramanathan, S. Thangavelu, C.S. Sridharan and S. Alamelu, (1992), Performance of coconut cultivars and hybrids under semi dry condition, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 9-11. 65. N. Srinivasan and M. Gunasekaran, (1992), An appraisal of symptom expression in coconut due to leaf rot disease, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-6.

94 CHAPTER –III

COCONUT SCENARIO IN INDIA

The coconut which is popularly known as „Tree of life‟, „Tree of Abundance‟ and „Nature‟s Supermarket‟ has been used as tender coconut and dry fruit as source of food, drink, oil and milk by human and their immediate ancestor species for at least half a million years. 66 The coconut palm belongs to the family of Aricaceae. It is monotypic with pan tropical distribution. Coconut palms are successfully grown in the tropics and are hence referred to as the „King of tropical palms‟. It is reported that the home of coconut was not far from India. The Arabs who were trading with India since medieval times called it an Indian fruit with its origin dating to the Epic period. However, neither India nor Sri Lanka can be considered the original home of the coconut. 67

The most prominent countries that specialize in developing coconut palms for commercial production are located in Asia, Oceana, West Indies, Central and South America and East and West Africa. According to FAO, coconut crop in 2004 was grown in about 90 countries across the World in an area of 14.231 million hectares producing 57.514 billion nuts and 10.52 million tons of copra. 68

Since 1961 there has been a slow but steady increase in the area under coconut cultivation and also the quantity of coconut produced. However, from 1961 to 1991 there was a declining trend in productivity. The

95 productivity declined from 5,407 per hectare in the beginning of the 20th century to 4,545 nuts per hectare in 1991 69.

Nearly half of the coconut produced in the World is processed into copra. The quantity so processed varies from country to country depending on the local consumption pattern. The coconut economy in the World is susceptible to the pressure of competition from palm oil, soya bean oil and sunflower oil, which is cheaper, compared to coconut oil. The demand for coconut oil for industrial use has also declined due to the development of substitutes from petrochemicals. The production and sale of other types of vegetable oil have recorded a consistent growth in recent years.

However, coconut oil recorded a low growth rate compared to them. In fact countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua and New Guinea have switched over to palm cultivation. The emergence of new markets such as U.S.A., European countries and South Korea is expected to give a boost to the export of coconut oil. In these countries coconut oil is emerging as an alternative to petrol based carbons for industrial and environment purposes like water desalination, waste water treatment, air purification, wine processing and even specialized black coating for stealth bombers.70

TABLE NO. 3.1 TOP TEN COCONUT PRODUCING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD AS IN 2009 -2010

S.NO PRODUCTION COUNTRY (METRIC TONES) 1 Indonesia 1,63,00,000 2 Philippines 1,45,00,000 3 India 95,00,000 4 Brazil 30,33,830 5 Sri Lanka 19,50,000 6 Thailand 15,00,000 7 Mexico 9,59,000 8 Vietnam 9,40,000 9 Malaysia 7,10,000 10 Papua New Guinea 6,50,000

Source: Coconut Development Board.

Coconut cultivation has gained considerable importance in India‟s national economy. The country wide demand for coconut both for edible and non-edible purposes has encouraged people hailing from areas which have not so for come within the ambit of coconut cultivation to take interest in planting a few saplings on an experimental basis. The significance of coconut in the Indian economy is primarily due to its role as a horticultural crop of food and livelihood security as well as its socio-religious importance.

97 The country can boast of warm climate without much diurnal variation in temperature, which is ideal for the cultivation of coconut.

The coconut palms in India have been traditionally grown on the sandy soils along the Seacoast especially the West Coast. But recent experiments have shown that they can be grown in other types of soil provided there are facilities for drainage and airflow. Based on climate, soil, physical and chemical characteristics and the length of the growing period, the country is broadly delineated into 20 agro-eco regions and 60 eco sub-regions. The coconut palms are grown in most of the zones except anti-tropic and temperate regions, which includes 19 States and 3 Union Territories in the country. 71.

The distribution of the area under coconut cultivation shows that the major portion of coconut production in the country is located in the Western plains and Ghat regions, comprising the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra and Eastern plain and hilly region, which include Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Apart from these, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Gujarat are the other traditional coconut growing area.

The establishment of the Indian Coconut Committee in 1945 with the objective of encouraging horticultural, technological and economically viable development of the coconut industry and the creation of the Directorate of Coconut Development in 1966 under the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India with its head quarters at Cochin to Plan and Coordinate Development Programmers for the coconut industry are two mile stones in the development coconut cultivation. In 1981, the Coconut

98 Development Board replaced the Directorate of Coconut Development. The major functions of the coconut board are:

o Adopting measures for the development of the coconut industry. o Devising measures for improving the marketing of coconut and its products. o Providing financial assistance wherever necessary. o Regulating exports and imports. o Propagating modern technology and o Standardizing with quality control.

Coconut industry in India received a special impetus only in the second and subsequent five year plans of development. In the second five year plan (1956-61) efforts were taken to popularize scientific methods of coconut cultivation for which purpose special nurseries were established in leading coconut cultivating States. Crop protection and pest control measures received special attention for which purpose biological control laboratories were set up in major coconut growing regions. The development activities continued during the third five-year plan. As a result of all these efforts the area under coconut cultivation and the quantity of nuts produced increased from 883.7 million hectares /5,035 millions nuts to 990 hectares /5,546 million nuts.

During the fourth, fifth and sixth five year plans (1969-1985) several short-term and long-term measures were taken to further step up production of nuts. Short-term measures included lying of demonstration plots, expansion of irrigation facilities and plant protection. Long-term

99 measures covered production and distribution of hybrid plants and rejuvenation of diseased holding. In 1980-81 at the commencement of the sixth plan the Coconut Development Board was established. At the end of the sixth plan period the area under cultivation rose to 1.83 million hectares and volume of production 6,913 million nuts.

In the seventh (1985-86-1989-90) and the eighth five- year plans further stress was laid on technological development in the coconut industry. A technology development centre was started. Great emphasis was laid on developing new products like coconut cream, packaged coconut water and coir pith briquette. During the seventh plan period an apex body in the cooperative sector by name „KERAFED‟ come into existence to Integrate Coconut Production Processing and Marketing. In the ninth five-year plan (1997-2001) efforts to bring about expansion in the areas already cultivated and to introduce the crop in non-traditional areas were taken. As a result, the area under coconut cultivation reached 1.91 million hectares and production touched 14,925 million nuts.

The development in the coconut industry during the plan period was significant in the four Southern States namely Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh recorded the highest growth rate in area (4.8 per cent) and production (14.2 per cent) followed by Tamil Nadu, (4.7 per cent in area and 4.7 per cent in production) Karnataka (2.9 per cent in area as well as production and Kerala (2.7 per cent in area and 4.47 per cent in production). The four Southern States account for 90 per cent of production.

100

In terms of productivity, India stands number one among the coconut growing countries in the World. The average productivity of coconut in the country is 6,898 nuts per hectare. Among the four Southern States, Tamil Nadu has the highest productivity (11,620 nuts per hectare) followed by Andhra Pradesh (8,296 nuts per hectare), Kerala (5,793 nuts per hectare) and Karnataka (5,204 nuts per hectare). 72 TABLE NO. 3.2 SHARES OF STATES IN TOTAL COCONUT PRODUCTION IN INDIA

TOTAL PRODUCTION S.NO STATES (IN PERCENTAGE)

1. Kerala 43 2. Tamil Nadu 27 3. Karnataka 11 4. Andhra Pradesh 09 5. Other States 10

Total 100

Source: Coconut Development Board.

As seen in table, four Southern States put together account for 90 per cent of the total production in the country. (Kerala 43 per cent, Tamil Nadu 27 per cent, Karnataka 11 per cent, Andhra Pradesh 9 per cent and other States 10 per cent).

101 There are mainly two varieties of coconut in India, namely Tall and Dwarf. Hybrids of various combinations have been evolved in recent years. The Tall cultivators are exclusively grown throughout India. The Dwarf variety is grown mainly for parent material in Hybrid seed production and for tender coconut. Coconut can boast of a unique characteristic that allows any crop combination in the interspaces. In a well spaced coconut grove there are adequate inter spaces where it is possible to grow a variety of seasonal as well as non-seasonal crops. Combinations of inter crops and a mixed crop is referred to as a multi-storyed cropping system. The common intercrops grown in India are Pine Apple, Banana, Groundnut, Chillies, Tapioca and Sweet Potato, Cocoa, Pepper, Cashew and Fruit trees.

The emphasis given by the Coconut Development Board to evolving technologies for the development of new value added products has yielded results and as a result products diversification and byproduct utilization have gained momentum recently. Various research programmes sponsored by the board in collaboration with existing research institutions in the country have led to the development of new technology for the manufacture of coconut cream, spray dried coconut milk powder and packed tender coconut water and coconut water based vinegar.

Coconut Development Programmes in India are mainly carried out by the Coconut Development Board, which was established in 1981 with its head quarters based in Kochi in the State of Kerala. The Board‟s schemes are implemented either directly or the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture functions in various States and Union Territories. The board functions less than ten administrative control of ten-ministry Government of

102 India. The State Government also implements their non-programmers to suit the local needs.73 TABLE NO. 3.3 State – Wise Area, Production and Productivity of Coconut in India

2007-08 2008 - 09 States/Union Area Production Productivity Area Production Productivity Territories (`000 hr) (Million (Nuts/hr) (`000 hr) (Million (Nuts/hr) nuts) nuts) Andhra 101.32 1119.26 11,047 104.00 970.00 9327 Pradesh Assam 19.00 136.00 7158 18.80 147.10 7824 Goa 25.50 127.60 5004 25.61 128.18 5005 Gujarat 16.40 138.30 8433 15.98 157.42 9851 Karnataka 405.00 1635.00 4037 419.00 2176.00 5193 Kerala 818.80 5641.00 6889 787.77 5802.00 7365 Maharashtra 21.00 175.10 8338 21.00 175.10 8338 Nagaland 0.90 0.20 222 0.92 0.55 598 Orissa 51.00 275.80 5408 51.00 275.80 5408 Tamil Nadu 383.37 4968.20 12,959 389.60 5365.00 13,771 Tripura 5.80 11.40 1966 5.80 11.40 1966 West Bengal 28.60 355.50 12,430 28.60 355.50 12,430 Andaman & 21.60 80.60 3731 21.69 82.00 3781 Nicobar Lakshadweep 2.70 53.00 19,630 2.70 53.00 19,630 Pondichery 2.20 26.60 12,091 2.10 30.70 14,619 All India 1903.19 14,743.56 7747 1894.57 15,729.25 8303 Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.

103 The above table shows that State-wise area, production and productivity of coconut in India. In 2007-08, Kerala occupied the first position with coconut production of 5,641 million nuts from an area of 818.80 thousand hectares. Tamil Nadu ranked second followed by Karnataka and Andra Pradesh.

Stages in Progress:

The production of coconut was 3.28 billion nuts during 1950-51. In the last four and a half decades, it has increased four times to reach the level of 13.09 billion nuts in 1997-98. Along with production, the productivity has also increased from 5,238 nuts per hectare to 6,869 nuts per hectare during the same period.

Upto year 1981, Coconut Development was looked after by Directorate of Coconut Development. Now CDB is responsible for the developmental activities. During the eighties, the developmental programme assumed a new dimension. The thrust areas included creation of permanent production potential, stepping up productivity, developing processing technologies for product diversification and improving market situation.

Along with traditional Southern States, CDB has extended its activity to the semi-traditional and eco-coconut areas. Of the total coconut production in the country, approximately 48 per cent is used for edible purpose, 31 per cent for production of milling copra, 8 per cent for conversion of ball copra, 11 per cent for tender coconut and the remaining the for manufacture of non-traditional products and cultural and social purposes.74

104 INDIA’S COCONUT EXPORTS:

India exports coconut products to 84 countries across the Globe including Bangladesh, Pakistan, Singapore, UAE, Uganda, UK, Malaysia, Lebanon and Oman. Coconut shell based stem activated carbon, a value added product, is exported to 38 countries. Coconut oil and virgin coconut oil are export to various Asian and European markets. The Coconut Development Board has identified the four regions of Russia, Germany, America and West Asia as focus areas for promotion of virgin coconut oil, coconut oil, activated carbon, tender coconut water and coconut based handicraft products.

TABLE NO. 3.4 INDIA’S COCONUT EXPORTS PER CENT QUANTITY VALUE YEAR CHANGES IN (TONS) (RS.MILLION) QUANTITY 2008-09 86,857 3,298.0 - 2009-10 1,16,000 4,425.6 25 2010-11(P) 1,57,466 6,000.0 26

Source: Coconut Development Board.

As seen above table, exports grew by 25 per cent in value touch Rs. 4,425.6 million in 2009-10 as against Rs.3, 298 million in the previous fiscal. There had been an increase of 30 per cent in volume to garner 1, 16,000 tons as against 86,857 tons in the previous year.75

105

COCONUT PRODUCTS IN INDIA

Coconut palm is a versatile plant, which provides multifarious products that are of benefit to mankind. Different parts of coconut and coconut-based products are used for a variety of purposes. Some products and their uses are as follows: Tender Coconut Water:

The Tender coconut water, technically the liquid endosperm, is the most nutrias wholesome beverage that the nature has provided for the people of the tropics to fight the sultry heat. It is unctuous, sweet, increasing semen, promoting digestion and cleaning the urinary path, says ayurveda on tender coconut water. A large number of coconut products are manufactured in the country, which have both domestic and export market. Vinegar and soft drink are manufactured in the country from coconut water. Tender coconut water concentrate is another product, which is manufactured and marketed successfully. Know- how for the preservation and packing of tender coconut water has been transferred to six forms in the country. Nata- de- coco is a gelatinous delicacy formed by the action of a micro organism. Copra (Dry Coconut):

Two types of copra namely milling and edible are made in India. Milling copra is used to extract oil while edible grade of copra is consumed as a dry fruit and used for religious purposes. Milling copra is generally manufactured by adopting sun drying and artificial means. Substantial quantity of milling copra is manufactured using modern hot air driers resulting in the availability of superior quality copra, which is required for the manufacture of best grade coconut oil. A good number of farmers‟ co-

106 operate societies are also involved in the manufacture and marketing of milling copra. Milling copra is available in different grades. Edible copra is made in the form of balls and cups. Different grades of edible copra are available in the market according to the size, colour etc. Coconut Oil: Coconut oil is used in the country as a cooking fat, hair oil, body oil and industrial oil. Coconut oil is made from fully dried copra having maximum moisture content of six per cent. Some millers to enhance the quality and aroma of oil also practice steam cooking of copra. Coconut oil is marketed in bulk as well as in packs ranging from sachets containing 5ml to 15 kg tins. The branded coconut oil in small packs is mainly marketed as hair oil and body oil. There are several brands of coconut oil known for their superior grade, which has export market throughout the World. India has unbeatable quality advantages in the sector. Refined coconut oil is mainly used in manufacture of biscuits, chocolates and other confectionary items, ice cream, pharmaceutical products and costly paints. Generally, filtered coconut oil is used for cooking and toiletry purposes.

Raw Kernel: Desiccated coconut, coconut cream, coconut milk and spray dried coconut milk powder are the conventional coconut products manufactured in the country. Desiccated coconut is used as a substitute to grated raw coconut in various food preparations. Desiccated coconut is marketed in bulk as well as in small packs. Defatted desiccated coconut is also available in the country.

Processed coconut cream / coconut milk is used in various food preparations as substitute to milk extracted from raw kernel in

107 the traditional method. They are available in cans and packs. Spray drying is the best method for the preservation of coconut milk. The product has advantages such as less storage space; bulk packaging is possible at low cost and with a long shelf life. Spray dried coconut powder is manufactured by one unit in the country. Coconut Cake: Coconut cake is the residue left after the extraction of oil from copra which is mainly used as a cattle feed. Coconut cake contains 4-5 per cent oil, which is extracted by solvent extraction process. The oil is generally used for industrial purpose and de-oiled cake is used to make mixed cattle feed. There are a few such units in the country especially in Kerala.

Coconut Toddy: Toddy tapping is an organized industry in traditional coconut growing tracts in the country. Coconut jaggery is made from sweet coconut toddy. It is manufactured by a few units in Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala on cottage scale and is available in different packing. Toddy on fermentation becomes an alcoholic drink. Arrack and vinegar are also manufactured from coconut toddy.

Coconut Shell Based Products:

Coconut shell as such is being used for preparation of various attractive articles. This is also used for making „hooka‟ where tobacco smoking is most common. Shell charcoal can be made for activation. Preparation of shell flour of 300-mesh size has a good demand in the organized industries. Coconut Wood Based Products:

108 The coconut wood with its distinct grain characteristics is ideal for making wall panels, furniture, showpieces, etc. There are several small-scale units manufacturing a variety of articles from coconut wood. Coconut Leaves: Coconut leaves are used as roofing material, mostly in Southern States; but it requires annual replacement due to fast deterioration. The Regional Research Laboratory of CSIR at Trivandrum has standardized a simple process to extend the life of coconut leaf thatch upto 4 years. Plaited coconut leaves are also used for making baskets, headgears and for erecting temporary fences. Plaiting of coconut leaves is a cottage industry in traditional coconut growing States. Midribs of leaves are used to make different types of brooms, which are used for cleaning rough grounds and floors. These brooms are manufactured on a commercial scale in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Coir and Coir Products:

Of the varied products of coconut, husk is commonly exploited, particularly in Kerala and partially in the neighbouring States. About 88,000 spinning units are distributed over 260 villages in Kerala and there are about 2.8 lakhs people involved in Kerala alone, who are engaged for collection of husks, retting, fibre extraction, spinning yarn and manufacture of mats. The extensive backwaters and lagoons in Kerala provide ideal facilities for natural retting of coconut husks. However, the utilization of husks by processing in India is only 25% of the total production, mainly because of lack of retting facilities. Coconut Curries: In Kerala, many dishes use coconut as an important ingredient. The most common way of cooking vegetables is to add grated coconut and then steam them with spices after frying in a bit of oil. Dishes that

109 are garnished with grated coconut are generally referred to as poduthol in North Malabar and thoran in the rest of Kerala. Coconut meat is used as a snack and is eaten with jaggery or molasses. Also, coconut grounded with spices is mixed in sambhar and various other dishes for extra taste.76 CHART NO. 3.1 CONSUMPTION AND UTILIZATION PATTERN OF COCONUT IN INDIA

Domestic 95% Desiccated Raw nut coconut 50% Export

Industrial 5% Cream

Milk Domestic Packed powder Tender nut water 1% 10-15% Edible Export 40% 1.935 Coconut Green nut (small) million oil 49% Toiletry Hr. 46% Domestic

12.251 (large) Milling Coconut million Copra 35- oil cake Industri 75-78% Nuts 39% al 14%

Edible 22-25% Export (large quantity)

Coir, coir products

Domestic (small Seed quantity)

nuts 2%

Source: CPCRI, Kasargode.

110

MAJOR VARIETIES OF COCONUT PALM IN INDIA:

 West Coast Tall (WCT):

This is extensively cultivated in the West Coast region has a life span of 75 years and a regular bearer produces 12 inflorescences per year. It starts bearing in about 6-7 years. Its average annual yield is 40 to 100 nuts per palm/per year. Average copra contents 176 Gms and oil content has 68 per cent. This variety is mostly recommended for cultivation in coastal regions of Kerala and Karnataka.

 East Coast Tall (ECT):

This is common cultivar grown extensively in the East Coast of India, morphologically similar to WCT. The palm takes 6-8 years to start bearings and the average annual yield is 70 nuts per palm/per year. It has average copra content of 125 Gms and per nut has 64 per cent oil content.

 Tipton Tall:

This is popular Tall cultivar of Karnataka is morphologically similar to WCT. Its average yield is 86 nuts per palm/ per year. Average copra content of 178 Gms and per nut has 64 per cent oil content.

 Benaulim Tall:

These Palms are predominantly occurring in Goa, Konkan regions of Coastal Maharashtra. It is morphologically similar in appearance to WCT but nuts are smaller and round and closely grow in heavy bunches. The

111 variety starts bearing in about 7 -8 years and an average annual yield is 150 nuts per palm with copra content of 152 Gms. Per nut has 64 per cent oil content. The variety is cultivated by name pratap in Maharashtra State.

 Lakshadweep Ordinary (Chandra Kalpa):

The variety is indigenous to Lakshadweep Islands and resembles to WCT except in nut size, which is smaller with prominent three ridges on triangular nuts. The palms are good source for tapping toddy and average yield of 100 nuts per palm/per year, copra content 176 Gms, with 72 per cent has oil content. The variety is released as Chandra Kalpa by CPCRI in 1985 for cultivation in Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

 Andaman Ordinary:

The variety is largely grown in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The palms are Tall massive and more vigorous than WCT in vegetative growth. The nuts are fairly large in size with average yield of 94 nuts per palm per annum. Per nut copra content of 169 Gms and per nuts with 66 per cent has oil content.

 Sevvelanir:

This is a Tall cultivar found in Pondicherry; its tender nut water has high medicinal value. The nuts are green in colour; tender nut water is sweet in taste. The average annual yield is 40 to 45 nuts per palm/ per year.

 Kamrupa:

112 The variety was originally known as Assam Green Tall, a selection from the local germplasms, one of the most promising cultivars of this region. It is high yielding capacity i.e. 106 nuts per palm/ per year. Copra yield has 16.34 kg per palm/ per year with oil content of 64.50 per cent. In tender nut, the water content is 253 ml. It is tolerant against major coconut pests and diseases commonly affecting coconut palm.

 Philippines Ordinary:

As the name indicates it is exotic cultivar from Philippines. The palms grow upto the height of 10-12 metre and annual average yield is 110 nuts/ per palm/ per year with copra content of 183 Gms. Per nut has 66 per cent oil content. The variety is found suitable for cultivation in the West Coast, Konkan region of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.

 Philippines Laguna:

Its annual average yield is 88 nuts/ per palm/ per year, with copra content of 258.9 Gms per nut and oil content of 66.5 per cent.

 Fiji Long Tongan:

Its annual average yield is 104 nuts/ per palm/ per year with copra content of 258.9 Gms per nut and oil content of 66.5 per cent.

 Fiji Tall:

Its annual average yield is 106 nuts/ per palm /per year, copra content 199.1 Gms per nuts and oil content of 65.2 per cent.

 S.S. Green:

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Its annual average yield is 108 nuts/ per palm/ per year, copra content of 186 Gms per nuts and oil content of 65.2 per cent.

 Sangamon:

Its annual average yield is 64 nuts/ per palm/ per year, copra content of 349.6 Gms per nuts and oil content of 68 per cent.

 Chowghat Orange Dwarf:

The variety is cultivate in Chavakkad area of Trissur District in Kerala. It is also known as Gaurigathram or Chenthengu and Kenthali in Karnataka. The palm has thin stem, small and compact crown with orange coloured leaf, petioles, inflorescence and nuts. The palm starts bearing from 3-4 years and its average annual yield is 65 nuts per palm/per year. Average copra content of 150 Gms with 66 per cent of oil content. The variety is ideal for tender coconut water purpose. The variety is recommended for cultivation in Kerala and Karnataka.

 Chowghat Green Dwarf, Malayan Yellow Dwarf, Malayan Orange Dwarf, Malayan Green Dwarf and Gangabondam:

These are Dwarf varieties have one thing in common that they are shorter in statures and life span. Its bear nuts with orange, yellow and green colours as found in their names. Mostly cultivated for tender nuts its ornamental value and for production of hybrids.

 Kentholi Orange Dwarf:

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This variety is cultivate in Karnataka State, having high medicinal value in its tender nut water.

 Chitra Gangapani and Udha Gangapani:

These Dwarf varieties are found in Arsikere and Tiptur area in Karnataka with green in colour and medium sized round fruits. Tender nut water is very sweet in taste.

Hybrid Varieties in India:

Hybrids are evolved by artificial inter varietals crosses of two morphological forms of coconut and they exhibit improved inherited characteristics such as early flowering, high yielding, higher quantity and better quality of copra and oil when compared to the parents. Hybrid vigour in coconut was reported for the first time in India by Petal in 1932 from artificial crossing West Coast Tall (WCT) as mother palms and Chowghat Green Dwarf (CGD) as male parent. In Dwarf X Tall (D X T) Hybrids, Dwarf is the female and Tall is the male parent and inter varietals Hybrids like Tall X Tall and Dwarf x Dwarf are produced. More than 80 Hybrids combinations have been evaluated over the years in India and so T X D Hybrid for eleven coconut Hybrids were released for commercial cultivation and establishing seed gardens.77

HARVESTING PRACTICES IN INDIA:

115 Coconuts are harvested at varying stages of development depending upon their consumption and commercial utility in the producing States. The nuts must be fully matured if maximum quantity of good quality copra is to be obtained. It‟s desirable to allow the nuts to fall naturally, so as to have fully matured nuts good quality ball copra and seed purposes. Besides, coconut oil, desiccated coconut is also an important commercial product for which fully matured nuts are coconut harvesting essential. Usually, 11 to 12 months old nuts are harvested at varying intervals in about 6 to 10 times in a year depending upon the yield of palms.

In Southern States, particularly in the tracts where husk is utilized for manufacture of coir fibers, nuts which are 11 months old are harvested to meet the requirement of coir manufactures. The best quality of coir fiber is obtained from the husks of green nuts i.e. nuts somewhat immature from the point of view of copra quality nuts. In the States like West Bengal, Assam and Orissa where coconuts are mainly harvested for the purpose of coconut water for drinking purpose, the green coconuts or tender nuts are harvested at about 5 to 7 months old.

The periodicity and frequency of harvesting coconuts vary from area to area, depending on the yield of the tree, variety and finally the purpose for which are crops utilized. In highly productive gardens, as on the West Coast nuts are harvested once in a month, harvesting of nuts may be possible 6 to 12 times a year. In Andhra Pradesh 8 to 10 harvests are common in Godavari belt and once in two months in Vishakhapatnam and adjoining Districts. In Karnataka State the harvesting of coconut is carried out once in three months and the major portion is harvested in the months of March and

116 April every year. In Maharashtra and Gujarat States, matured nuts are harvested about 3 to 6 times in a year and tender nuts are harvested as and when required through out the year.

Usually all over the country, farmers practice conventional harvesting method in which specially trained, skillful and experienced climbers pick coconuts. Knife, sickle or iron hook attached to the plucking end of long bamboo poles are also used for picking nuts. In some gardens in Kerala 2-3 metre long ladders are used for climbing. It has been reported that a simple coconut palm climbing device has also been used by the climbers for harvesting nuts. The climbers, on reaching the crown, examines the maturity of the bunches and pick the mature nuts.78

Strength of Indian Coconut Industry:

 One of the leading producers of coconuts in the World producing 13 billion nuts per annum.

 Coconut area distributed in 18 States and three Union Territories under different agro-climatic conditions.

 3000 years tradition in coconut cultivation.

 Premier Coir Manufacturing Country in the World.

 Producer of best graded milling copra in the World yielding high-grade coconut oil known for its aroma and flavors.

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 Large number of farmer‟s co-operative societies in primary processing and marketing.

 Government agencies such as KERAFED, State Trading Corporation, Kerala State Marketing Federation and Karnataka State Marketing Federation in Manufacturing and Marketing of branded coconut oil in small packs.

 Hundreds of reputed and established private firms in manufacturing and marketing of various coconut products including branded coconut oil in small packs.

 Wide range of coconut products both edible and non-edible available for export.

 Technical know-how and trained manpower for the manufacture of various coconut based products.

 Availability of research support by reputed research organization such as CSIR, ICAR and DRDO.

 Good number of cultivators/varieties having specific nut characteristics.

Weakness of Indian Coconut Industry:

 Limited scope for expansion.

 Less exportable surplus due to huge domestic demand.

118  Vast area under low productivity zone in Kerala and Karnataka.

 Processing sector is not organized to the desired level.

 Prevalence of non-organized channels of marketing: presence of unorganized linkage between marketing and processing.

 No priorities before formulation and implementation of development programmes.

 Less capital, investment and marketable surplus.

Opportunities of Indian Coconut Industry:

 Scope for replanting/ under planting.

 Scope for increasing the productivity in low/ medium productivity zones.

 Scope for improving the productivity by adopting location specific integrated crop management.

 Scope for practicing agribusiness by farmers themselves as a group approach.

 Technology prioritization for various coconut production zones.

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 Group farming, rich support from institutions and scope for agribusiness.

Threats of Indian Coconut Industry:

 Lack of availability of elite planting materials.

 Copra production is low as compared to other major coconut growing countries.

 Structural problems such as predominance of small holdings and consequent decreased investment in farming.

 Competition from international trade sector.

 Missing linkage between production, processing and marketing sectors.

 Structural constraints and lack of entrepreneurship79.

COCONUT INDUSTRY IN TAMIL NADU:

Coconut is produced in all the Districts of Tamil Nadu. About 3.52 lakh hectares of land in the State have come under coconut cultivation and they account for 4,357 million nuts per year. As far as

120 productivity is concerned Tamil Nadu State with 12,382 nuts per hectare comes next to West Bengal, which has the highest productivity in India (12,601 nuts per hectare). Among the Districts, in Tamil Nadu, the District of Comibatore which includes the area selected for the present study comes first with an area of 96,072 hectares and 828.7 million nuts followed by Thanjavur (24,801 hectares and 307.9 million nuts), Dindigul (22,801 hectares and 273.8 million nuts), Kanyakumari (22,589 hectares and 252.8 million nuts) and Dharmapuri (21,515 hectares and 218.9 million nuts). Two distinguishable varieties of coconut, namely, Tall and Dwarf are cultivated in the State. Due to cross-pollination in the Tall variety, variation occurs from place to place.

TABLE NO. 3.5 COCONUT CULTIVATION IN TAMIL NADU AS ON 2009-10

Total Area of the States 1,30,058 Sq.Kms

Total Area of Cultivation 57,22,552 Hectares

Coconut Cultivation 3,10,706 Hectares

Annual Production of Coconut 3,16,020 Million Nuts

Source: Coconut Development Board.

The State has established twenty-seven coconut nurseries to produce Tall as well as Dwarf seedlings. The seedlings are supplied to farmers at the rate Rs. 12 per seedling. The State is implementing the area expansion programme with cent per cent help from the Coconut Development

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Board. The Coconut Development Board located at Kochi is providing subsidy to coconut cultivators to towards the cost of seedlings, digging pits, planting and maintenance. The subsidy is given in two annual installments. Apart from the State owned nurseries there are many private nurseries in the State. The nurseries are given assistance by the board, according to their size ranging from Rs. 3 lakhs to Rs. 6 lakhs. In order to improve of productivity of coconut plantations, a centrally sponsored programme is implemented with cent per cent assistance from the board.

Tamil Nadu has been quite successful in making the coconut industry competitive and sustainable by increasing productivity reducing the cost of production and by launching integrated farming, farm level processing, proper value addition, product diversification and byproduct utilization.80

COIR INDUSTRY IN TAMIL NADU:

Tamil Nadu is the second largest producer of coir fiber in the country. In the brown coir fiber sector, Tamil Nadu occupies the first place as being the single largest producer of brown fiber contributing to about 65% of total production in India. By using coir fibre, coir yarn, coir rope, coir mattings, curled coir and rubberized coir mattresses, pillows etc. are being manufactured.

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TABLE NO. 3.6 COIR INDUSTRY IN TAMIL NADU AS ON 2009-10 Total Number of Units 5,399 Private Sector 5,333 Co-Operative Sector 66 Fibre Extraction Units 571 Yarn Spinning and Rope Making Units 4,706 Curled Coir Units 103 Rubberized Coir Units 8 Pith Processing Units 7 Marketing Societies 4

Source: Coconut Development Board.

 There are 66 coir societies functioning in the State with 10,652 members.

 5,000 workers are being provided with employment in the rural areas.

 An integrated coir development project at a cost of Rs. 461.95 lakhs for modernization of the coir industry in 21 primary coir co-operatives is now being implemented

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 Coir Board and the Tamil Nadu Government provided a coir rebate of 10% each to the coir co-operatives to dispose of the stocks of coir and coir products till 1999-2000.

 However, from 2000-2001 onwards, a new scheme called MDA (Market Development Assistance Scheme) has been approved by the Government of India providing an assistance of 10% to be shared equally by the Government of India and the State Government on the average sales turnover of the preceding three years in the State.

 The Tamil Nadu State Coir Industrial Cooperatives Marketing Federation known as TANCOFED, an apex organization is extending marketing facility to the member societies.

Tamil Nadu stands first in the manufacture of brown fiber and is second to Kerala in the fiber production. The coir co-operatives societies have undertaken activities such as extraction of fiber, production of coir yarn, coir rope, coir mat and matting and rubberized coir mattresses and pillows.81

MARKETING PRACTICES IN TAMIL NADU

124 Marketing of horticultural goods like coconut like many other agricultural goods in Tamil Nadu has to go through certain channels before goods reach the ultimate consumers from the producers. However, marketing of coconut differs from that of fresh vegetables and fruits because of their semi durability. There are not many differences in the marketing practice relating to coconuts in Tamil Nadu. This is because major part of the production is centered in the peninsular States of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Coconut farmers in Tamil Nadu have two channels for the distribution of their product namely, direct and indirect channels. The direct channel is very simple. Coconut farmers, who are financially well placed, prefer this channel. Farmers with financial constraints opt for indirect channel, which is dominated by intermediaries. Various studies have shown that majority of the small and marginal farmers in Tamil Nadu prefer to lease their coconut trees faced as they are with various financial constraints such as redeeming old loans and meeting expenses on ceremonies.

Tender Coconut Marketing Practices:

As far as marketing of tender coconuts is concerned, farmers dispose them of soon after harvesting. This is because if they are stored, there is every likelihood of their getting rotten. They are usually kept in a heap and are lifted by traders. They are manually sorted at the time of retail sale. Now a days, they are sent to long distances due to the availability of fast means of transport. They are in great demand in cities and towns especially during summer days. The chain of distribution of tender coconuts is more or

125 less uniform throughout the country and it comprises producers, contractors, wholesalers and retailers.

Increased awareness among consumers about the health wise benefits of the tender coconut water has led to substantial increase in their demand. It has been found that more than 75 per cent of production of coconut in West Bengal, North Eastern States and Orissa is consumed at the tender stage. Tender coconuts from Tamil Nadu find their way to distant places such as Chennai, Tiruchirappalli is the leading market for tender coconuts with an average demand of 2 to 3 lakhs nuts per day. In recent time tender coconut water on a small scale is being sold in bottled form to be served in chilled condition as and when necessary. But this practice has not been popular on account of its exorbitant price due to the high cost incurred in processing it.

Matured Coconut Marketing Practices:

Farmers generally dispose of matured coconuts in unhusked form as it involves less cost and greater margin. Such coconut can be stored for two to three months. Coconuts meant for copra making are left fully husked and those sent to distant markets are left with some fiber so as to minimize breakage during transportation. The storing practice of mature nuts differs from place to place. While wholesalers and commission agents store them in godowns, farmers and local traders store them in the open or in sheds. Farmers with means store them up to three months anticipating a rise in price. The nuts harvested during the dry season are sun dried and converted in to copra.

126 The main links in the channel of distribution are the village merchants, the middlemen and the miller. In many States, the village merchants are the chief purchasers of nuts from the farmers. The small and marginal farmers prefer selling to them as they know each other well and the scope for exploitation is less. Some of the small and marginal farmers might have borrowed money from them with the promise to supply nuts after the harvest.

CHART NO: 3.2

Source: Coconut Development Board, Kerala.

128 Copra (Dry Coconut) Marketing Practices:

The middlemen are also traders who have specialized in selling copras. They are known as copra merchants. They buy the coconuts in bulk from farmers and convert them into copras by sun drying. They sell the copras to millers when moisture level falls to 10 to 12 per cent. The middlemen ultimately sell the product to millers of their choice.

Majority of the small and marginal farmers who grow coconut palms have been found to sell their product immediately after the harvest. This sale is attributed to their inability to hold a stock due to financial constraints such as necessity of repayment of old loans and lack of adequate credit facilities. Many of these farmers take advances from middlemen/traders on the condition that they supply their product to them immediately after harvest. The condition of small farmers who grow coconut as a mono crop is still worse.

Future trading particularly in coconut oil was in vogue till 1971. It was discontinued to check excessive speculation in trading activities. However, it was reintroduced in the last quarter of 2001 after a gap of three decades. This brought about phenomenal changes in the coconut industry and trade. The copra crushing industry got a boost as a result. It is expected to control violent fluctuations in prices and provide farmers an option to sell their products at a favourable price. But the actual functioning of the future trading was not encouraging because of certain anomalies.

129 The prices of various coconut products are mainly governed by two major products namely, copra and coconut oil. This has often caused problems to farmers as coconut oil prices have been found to be subject to wide and violent fluctuations. Factors such as the quality of the matured coconut, copra content, marketing cost and the marketing method have also a role to play in fixing the prices of coconut and coconut products.

Generally coconut prices in Tamil Nadu tend to rise from October/November to March/ April. This is partly due to sustained demand for copra with the season of the monsoon session. The retail prices of mature coconuts vary mainly according to their size. The Minimum Support Price (MSP) was introduced in 1986. Under this scheme a guarantee to purchase copra at a predetermined price was introduced. NAFED at the national level and primary co-operatives at the grass root level were entrusted with the responsibility of operating MSP.

The following are some of the factors at the global level, which are likely to shape the prospects for coconut sector in the coming years:

 Global demand for vegetables oil which in turn depends on the growth of population and income.

 Competition from other vegetable oils in the World market.

 Development of consumers‟ acceptance of newer coconut products.

Indian coconut products are rated as premium quality products in the World. There is an expanding market for coconut products in

130 the Gulf countries, Europe and America. The Indian coconut industry must avail this opportunity to extend its base. This will be possible through extension in the area of cultivation, increase in productivity and innovation, research cum development82 . TABLE NO. 3.7 Country – Wise Export of Fresh Coconut from India

Values in Rs Lakh Quantity in thousands Country 2006-07 2007-08 Per cent 2006-07 2007-08 Per cent growth growth Australia 0.57 - - 2 - - Bahrain 2.83 7.34 159.44 17.36 39.03 124.85 Canada 13.94 0.19 -98.62 100 3.1 -96.9 Kuwait 10.9 4.71 - 74.5 34.17 -54.13 Malaysia 0.02 - - 0.5 - - Mauritius 1.15 15.87 1,280.97 18.52 121.15 553.98 Nepal 85.86 46.33 -46.04 577.85 376.29 -34.88 New Zeland 0.22 0.39 75.93 5.3 4.55 -14.11 Oman 1.65 25.26 1,428.13 6 175.29 2,821.43 Qatar 4.61 5 8.37 31 22.51 -27.38 Saudi Arabia 11.73 25.7 119.19 80.55 170.76 111.99 Singapore 0.96 2.39 149.84 18.73 25.55 36.46 United Arab 6.44 205.83 3,091.92 35.38 1,622.70 4,487.13 Emirates UK 0.36 9.05 2,388.21 2.2 59.95 2,625.14 USA 2.2 2.92 33 20.13 35.22 74.95 Yemen Republic 0.26 0 -98.72 5.9 0.04 -99.32 Total 161.16 371.48 130.51 168.16 395.76 141.76 Source: Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, Kolkota.

131 In the light of this review of the coconut industry in India an attempt has been made in chapter IV of the dissertation to throw light on the production and marketing practices in Pollachi Taluk (Pollachi South Block) of Tamil Nadu in India which is a region known for its enterprising and innovative farmers. REFERENCES

66. Op.cit pp. 1-3. 67. Thampan, P, K. (1987), Hand book on coconut palm, Oxford & IBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, pp. 1-3. 68. CPCRI, Annual Report, (2007), Kasaragod, Kerala, pp. 36-37. 69. V.T. Markrose (2008), Country paper presented in the XLV APCC meeting held at Colombo, Sri Lanka during December, pp.2-5. 70. R. Nair,(1984), Factors affecting the yield and quality of copra, proceeding of the seminar on coconut processing and utilization, Regional Research lab, Trivandrum, pp. 72-84. 71. T.B. Nanda Kumar, (2003), Report on demand, Cost and Supply of coconut products in Tamil Nadu, Coconut statistics (supplement issue) Kochi, pp. 24-27. 72. Op.cit. pp. 145-166 73. George V, (2007), Production technology for sustainable coconut cultivation, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 2-9. 74. G. Palaniappan and S.Subramaniyan, (2009), The coconut Revital, Market Survey, pp. 3-4. 75.Op.cit pp. 15-16. 76. H.M. Montenegru, (1993), Coconut byproducts, their role in the development of the coconut industry, Indian Coconut Journal, pp. 9-12. 77. Nair, R.V, Jacob, P.M, Thomous R, J and Sasikala, M, (2004), Development of varieties of coconut, Journal of Plantation Crops, pp. 33-38.

132 78. Op.cit. pp.170-189. 79. www.nmce.com/copra.pdf (2012) pp.13 80. Coconut Development Board, Annual Reports, (2010), Kerala, pp. 89-96. 81. Coir Board. Annual report 2011-2012, Kochi.pdf pp.14. 82. Op.cit pp.130-135.

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CHAPTER - IV

PROFILE OF THE POLLACHI TALUK

Pollachi Taluk in Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu is a role model for agro industrial development in the country. Its people who are endowed with enterprise and indefatigable energy have proved to the World that with proper application and a zeal for innovation even sand can be termed in to gold. Hard work and dedication are the hallmark of the people. Pollachi Taluk comprises Anaimalai, Pollachi South, Pollachi North and Kinathukadavu CD blocks. Of the four CD blocks, Pollachi South block presents a picture of agriculturally and commercially well-developed region. There are altogether twenty-nine revenue villages in this block. The farmers here are hard working and enterprising. This block of Pollachi taluk constitutes the area of the present study.

The total population of this block is 1, 11,617. Of this 56,541 are males and 55,056 females. 5,162 males and 2,572 females are engaged in agriculture. 1,788 farmers own less than one hectare of land and 2,546 not less than two hectares. Added to this another 1,144 farmers own less than three hectares. Together the three categories constitute the majority of the farmers. (Primary data from CD block office) There are 40 bore wells 1,301 tube wells and 4,697 open wells. Apart from wells there are two tanks supplying water for irrigation of 6, 95, 616 hectares of land. Paddy, kambu, ragi, maize, chillies, coriander leaves, plantains, turmeric, sugarcane and coconut are the major crops grown in this block. (Primary data from the CD Block office)

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Pollachi town is about 40 Kms from Coimbatore on the way to Parambikulam - Aliyar Project. Next to Coimbatore it is the leading town of the District and an important commercial centre. It is a town and a municipality in the Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the nearest town to Indira Gandhi National Park and it exports coconuts and tender coconuts to all over India. There are several coconut groves in this city and hence it is called „Coconut City‟.

As Pollachi is near to Western Ghats, it has a pleasant climate throughout the year. It is also termed as a trendy film location for Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi films. For this reason, it is also called “Mini Kodambakkam”. It has a big market for agricultural products. The Jaggery Market in Pollachi is Asia‟s largest. There are several popular tourist spots in and around Pollachi.

History:

In ancient times, Pollachi was known as „Pollil Vaichi‟ which means “The land of Natural Wealth and Prosperity” or „Porull Aatchi‟ (The Land of Wealthy Government). In olden days, it was said that everything was sold and bought here including elephants on the basis of barter system. During the period of Kulottunga Chola III, Pollachi was known as Mudi Konda Chola Nallur. The Subramanyar Temple is one of the most ancient Temples in Pollachi with a history of about 8 centuries. The name „Pollil Vaichi‟ is found in the stone inceptions in this Temple. It is also believed that this Temple was once a Shiva Temple, enshrining Agastheeswaram Udaiyaar, with the festival idol Subramanyar.

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A Temple dedicated to Mariamman and another to Subramanya is located here. There are beautiful stone carvings like a five- hooded serpent, a Yali with a chain made of stone hanging from its mouth and carved zodiacal signs in the Subramanya Temple.

NEARBY LAND MARKS: Anamalai-Wildlife-Sanctuary:

This Sanctuary is situated at an altitude of 1,400 metres in the Western Ghats near Pollachi (about 90 Kms from Coimbatore). The area of the sanctuary is 958 sq.kms. It has various kinds of fauna like elephant, gaur, tiger, panther, sloth-bear, deer, wild bear, wild dog, porcupine, flying squirrel, jackal, pangolin, civet cat and birds like rocket-tailed drogue, red- whiskered bulbul, black headed oriole, tree pie, spotted dove, green pigeon, etc. The Amaravathy reservoir in the Anamalai has a large number of crocodiles. There are also many places of scenic beauty such as Karainshola, Anaikunthiashola, grass hills, waterfalls, groves, teak forests, estates, dams and reservoirs.

Top Slip:

It is a picturesque location in the Anamalai Hills. It is about 37 kms from Pollachi. This small town is an ideal picnic spot. Arrangements are available at Top slip to take tourists around the Sanctuary on elephant back or by van. Top Slip is a national park and a medical plant conservation area in Annamalai hills. It is famous for its elephant camp and its wildlife at Kollikamuthi. It got its name during British era, as lots of its timber

136 slipped down to the plains below. For thrill seekers, accommodation is also available in a tree house. There are bungalows available within the Sanctuary to enable tourists to view natural scene and wildlife.

Merchants incurring loss in their business, people hassled by enemies, women or men who lost their belongings take bath, sport holy ashes of the shrine, grind red chillies in the stone grinder of the Masanniamman Temple here and smear the paste on the Stone of Justice called „Neethi Kal‟. In the sanctorum, the extensive image of Masaniamman lying on her back measures about 15 feet long from head to foot. The gigantic image of Masaniamman is painted with flashy colours. The idol has four hands, two hands placed on the ground, two hands raised above. While the top left hands hold a skull and snake the other two hands hold a drum and a trident.

On Tuesdays and Fridays devotees rush to this Temple. During Krithigai and New Moon days there are special poojas. There is a historical background for the configuration of this powerful Temple. A King called Nannan ruled Anaimalai, a place near Pollachi earlier. He treated his people very badly. During his reign he had a very big mango tree in his farm on the river side of Aaliyar, which was very special to him. He was so particular about the tree that nobody was permitted to use either mangoes or the leaves of the tree. Once, a gang of girls went to the river to take bath. They noticed a mango floating on the river, which passed by Nanan's tree‟ one of the girls picked up and ate the fruit. Even after several pleadings made by her father, instead of excusing the King sentenced her to death. After some time the villagers in that area formed a female statue in lying posture using sand in the graveyard in remembrance of the innocent girl and worshipped her as

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„Masani‟. Later Kozhinkhosargal defeated King Nanan and destroyed the mango tree. It is also believed that Lord Rama on his way in search of Seetha was attracted by this powerful Temple and made meditation over here, which adds glory to this Temple.

Dams-Around-Pollachi:

Sholaiyar-Dam:

It is about 30 kms from Valparai town. It is one of the longest dams in Asia. The length of the Dam measures about 6-7 km. It lies in the border of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It was constructed on Chalakudy River. The beauty of Athirappally waterfalls and Sholayar dam are to be enjoyed on the way to Sholayar.

Kadamparai-Dam:

Special permission must be sought to visit this place. Hydro Electric plant at Kadamparai between Pollachi and Valparai is worth seeing. Many wild species are found frequently in this region. Its specialty lies in the fact that it is carved out with a single rock, which gives an astonishing view.

Nirayar-Dam:

Water from Chinnakallar falls gets collected in this Dam. It is located on the Eastern side of Valparai hills 20 kms from Valparai town.

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There are two Dams, Upper Nerar and Lower Nerar, which are about 20 kms and 15 kms from Valparai.

Aliyar-Dam:

Aliyar Dam was constructed in 1962 across the Aliyar River. It is located about 65 Kms from Coimbatore and it is found on the foothills of Valparai. Here, Aliyar Lake receives water from Upper Aliyar reservoir through hydroelectric power station in Navamalai and the Parambikulam reservoir through a contour canal. Near Aliyar Dam, Tamil Nadu Fisheries Corporation is maintaining a good-looking park, an aquarium and a mini theme park. Ambarampalayam Darga is situated on the banks of the river Aliyar.

Thirumoorthy Hills - Thirumoorthy Temple:

A perennial stream flows by the side of Sri Amaralingeswarar Temple and nearby there is Thirumoorthy falls. It is believed that long years ago Athri Maharishi along with his wife Anushiya Devi lived here. Pleased with their prayer, Lord Shiva together with Brammah and Vishnu (Thiru Moorthigal) came in disguise to test their devotion. Impressed by their appearance, the couple offered them tributes. The Thiru Moorthigal refused to accept their offerings as such and demanded that Anushiya Devi should make the offering without dress. She accepted their demand and with her power of devotion she changed the Thiru Moorthis into 3-year-old babies and fed them. On seeing the power of devotee Anushiya

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Devi, the Thiru Moorthis blessed the couple and hence the place is known as Thiru Moorthi hills.

Arulmigu-Alagunachiamman-Koil:

It is located at Pollachi. It was built by a group of people who were living in Valliarachal. They built this Temple after the theft of the idol of their family God (Arulmigu Alagunachiamman) on the river side of Pollachi. So they selected a brick, placed it in the same place and built a small Temple. The present Temple was rebuilt in the year 2002. The inhabitants of Sulakkal and other villages nearby used to send their domestic animals to the forest for feeding. A villager noticed that his cow stopped yielding milk all of a sudden. On suspicion, he followed his cow to the forest. He noticed that his cow was shedding milk on a Sand-Hill. When he approached the cow it started running and got its feet hit by the Sand-Hill. Much to his surprise he saw blood oozing out from the Sand-Hill. On the very same day a Goddess appeared in his dream and asked him to raise a Temple. This Temple came to be known as Arulmigu Sulakkal Mariamman Temple.

Arulmigu-Shree-Velayudhaswamy-Thirukoil-Senjarimalai:

This Temple originally built by „Karikal Chola‟ and renovated by Veerapallalai III dates back to the 13th century. A holy spring called „Gnanatheertha Sunai‟ and a sacred tree known as „Karunochi‟ can be seen in the Temple. Here, Lord Muruga came to be worshipped as Manthragiri and Shree Velayudhaswamy.

Arulmigu-Maghudeeswaran-Temple:

140 Around 1200 years ago a Temple for Lord Shiva was been raised here. It is located 18 kms away from Pollachi near Ramanamuthalipudur village on the way to Anamalai and Sungam road. The ruined Temple and its pillars are undergoing reconstruction. The Temple surrounded by green valleys and river makes the place more beautiful.

Athirampalli-Falls:

This particular falls has been featured in numerous films and advertisements. It is also called „Punnagai Mannan Falls; since this falls was featured in the Tamil film „Punnagai Mannan‟. It is about 35 kms from Sholaiyar.

Monkey-Falls:

It lies on the foothill of Valparai. It is about 5 km from Aaliyar. It is a perennial waterfalls; one can relax his mind and body by taking Ayurvedic bath in this falls.

Chinnakallar-Falls:

Chinnakallar is geographically an important place. It is about 26 kms East of Valparai. It is known as the Cherrapunji of Tamil Nadu. It is receiving maximum rainfall next to Cherrapunji. A hanging bridge built across the falls is enchanting. This area is always found wet and misty. Chinnakallar is full of greenish dense forest with tall majestic trees, which give a pleasant environment.

141 Rhythm-Falls:

This falls is about 30 kms from Sholaiyar and 5 kms ahead of Athirampally falls. Water droplets from the falls scattering on adjoining road gives an exciting show.

Palani: Palani is a major pilgrimage centre in this region. It is situated on the edge of the great Vyapuri tank. It is a municipality in Dindigal District, located about 60 kms from Dindigal. This Temple draws more than 7 million devotees every year who offer their prayers to Lord Muruga. The Temple is the most famous of the six abodes of Lord Muruga, the son of Shiva, who is said to have come here disguised as a mendicant, after quarrelling with his brother Lord Ganesh over a fruit, popularly known as Dandayutha Pani ("Bearer of the Staff"), Murugan is depicted with a clean- shaven head, holding a stick. His image idol is made of medicinal herbs, mixed together to create a wax-like substance. During the Thaipoosam festival, the Temple attracts thousands of pilgrims, many of whom shave their heads as an act of worship. An electric cable car takes devotees up the 600 steps to the hill shrine. Palani is also a base for hikes in the surrounding hills.

Nearest Tourist Spot:

Sarkarpatty:

Located at the foothills of Top Slip and 35 kms from Pollachi, it is covered with Eucalyptus trees.

ThoonaKadavu:

142 Water from Parambikulam reservoir is stored in Thoona Kadavu.

Echanari Vinayagar Temple:

It is one of the most famous and oldest Temples in Coimbatore, which dates back to 1500A.D. It is about 13 kms from Coimbatore and is located on Pollachi road. The moolavar at this temple was actually meant for Perur Patteshwarar Temple and since it got struck on its way from Madurai, Eachnari became the blessed place. The deity's height is 6 feet and the width is 3 feet and is one of the biggest in South India.

Kovai-Kutralam: Kovai Kutralam is a waterfall at Siruvani. It is 37 kms from Coimbatore and is quite magnificent. This fall is amidst a thick forest and visitors are not allowed after 5 pm. Siruvani is one of the sources of drinking water supply to Coimbatore.

Kovai Kondattam Theme Park:

It is located in Siruvani main road. The Park offers many themed attractions like Aqua Dance, Wave Pool, Dashing Cars, Rock Climbing, Hara-kiri and Video parlour to name a few, which is suited for people of all ages.

Black Thunder Theme Park:

Black Thunder is filled with water sports and amusement park, which is, located about 40 kms from Coimbatore on the Ooty main road. Black thunder is the best place to take time off from the rest of your World,

143

time to be with your loving family, time to be with your friends to share 142moments of adventure and fun and it's time for your children to experience fun and joy. So it's the best choice to enjoy your self. 83

With this profile as a backdrop an attempt has been made in the next chapter to analyze the data collected during the present survey.

REFERENCES

83. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pollachi. (2011)

144

CHAPTER – V

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The principal objective of the present study is to highlight the production and marketing practices obtaining in the coconut industry in Tamil Nadu with special reference to the South Block of Pollachi Taluk in Coimbatore District, a region known for the enterprise and dedication of its farmers. Altogether 300 respondents selected on the basis of proportional sampling were personally interviewed and the data provided by them have been classified and tabulated for purpose of analysis and arriving at findings. Particulars of the analysis are given here under.

There are several personal and sociological factors that shape the attitude and approach of farmers as far as their occupation is concerned. Age is one such factor. It is generally held that young farmers are more innovative and enterprising to the socio- economic needs of the people. The age-wise distribution of the present respondents is inferred in table 5.1

145 TABLE NO. 5.1

AGE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

S.NO AGE GROUP NO. OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

1 Less than 30 years 15 05

2 30 – 40 years 93 31

3 40 – 50 years 105 35

4 50 – 60 years 75 25

5 More than 60 years 12 04

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 66 per cent of the respondents come under the age group 30 to 50 years. This is the period when the enthusiasm and youthful exuberance get mellowed by experience and exposure. 25 per cent of the respondents in the age group 50 to 60 years combine dedication and caution by virtue of their long standing in the trade.

145A FIGURE NO. 5.1

AGE - WISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

120

100

NO. OF RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE 40

0 Less than 30-40 years 40-50 years 50-60 years More than 30 years 60 years

146 Male population dominates agriculture in India and this is true of Tamil Nadu too. This is because of the nature of the occupation, which requires enormous physical strain and readiness to work during all types of climate changes. Moreover male farmers are assertive with regard to their right to own land. The sex-wise distributions of the present respondents find a place in table 5.2 TABLE NO. 5.2

SEX -WISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

SEX- WISE NO. OF S.NO PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION RESPONDENTS

1 Male 234 78

2 Female 66 22

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that in the study area male farmers are predominant in agriculture. 78 per cent of the respondents are males. The fact that 22 per cent of the respondents are females is significant as its shows the progressive nature of the society here.

146A

FIGURE NO. 5.2

SEX - WISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

300

250

200

150 NO. OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

100

0 Male Female

147 At the time of the independence of India the agricultural economy was in a primitive State and farmers were conservative and no changers. Widespread illiteracy was attributed as a major cause of this State of affairs. Today with the growth of literacy ratio in population several far- reaching changes have taken place in agriculture and horticulture. Educational background of farmers plays an important role in moulding their production and distribution practices. The educational status of the respondents is given below in table 5.3.

TABLE NO. 5.3

EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE RESPONDENTS

EDUCATIONAL NO. OF S.NO PERCENTAGE STATUS RESPONDENTS

1 Illiterate 06 02 2 Upto Primary level 84 28 3 Secondary level 114 38 Higher Secondary 4 36 12 level 5 Degree / Diploma 45 15 6 Professional Degree 15 05

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

147A

FIGURE NO. 5.3

EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE RESPONDENTS

Illiterate Upto primary level Secondary level

Higher secondary level Degree/ Diplamo Professional degree

148 From the above table it is inferred that nearly half of the respondents (50 per cent) have had education upto higher secondary level and 20 per cent are degree or diploma holders including technical degree. Even then it must be noted that 28 per cent have stated that they have studied only upto primary level.

Coconut farming in India is of different categories. Majority of the farmers cultivate coconut palms in their own land holding either as a special crop or as a component of a mixed crop. It has been stated earlier that of late farmers take land on lease or hire coconut palms. The nature of land holdings of the respondents is given below in table 5.4. TABLE NO. 5.4

NATURE OF LAND HOLDING OF RESPONDENTS

NATURE OF NO. OF S.NO PERCENTAGE LAND HOLDING RESPONDENTS

1 Own land 246 82

2 Lease land 42 14

3 Hire land 12 04

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

148A From the above table it is inferred that 82 per cent of respondents have stated that they are cultivating coconut palms in their own land. Only 18 per cent are cultivating the crop on leased or hired holding. FIGURE NO. 5.4

NATURE OF LAND HOLDING OF RESPONDENTS

149 It has been stated in a previous chapter that majority of the coconut farmers in India/ Tamil Nadu are small and marginal landholders. This fact has its own impact on the production and marketing practices of farmers. The distribution of the respondents on the basis of the size of their holding is given below in table 5.5 TABLE NO. 5.5

SIZE OF LAND HOLDING OF RESPONDENTS

TOTAL LAND NO. OF S.NO PERCENTAGE HOLDING RESPONDENTS

1 Less than 2 acres 69 23

2 2 - 4 acres 135 45

3 4 - 6 acres 57 19

4 6 - 8 acres 33 11

5 8 & above acres 06 02

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 23 per cent of the respondents have stated that they are cultivating in holdings, which are less than 2 acres, and 45 per cent have stated that their holdings vary from two to four acres in area. It is evident that 68 per cent of the respondents belong to marginal and

149A small farmer‟s categories. The remaining 32 per cent of the respondents own more than 4 acres. FIGURE NO. 5.5

SIZE OF LAND HOLDING OF RESPONDENTS

160

140

120

100

80 NO. OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

0 Less than 2-4 acres 4-6 acres 6-8 acres Above 8 2 acres acres

150

The area of land used by the respondents for cultivating coconut palms is given below in table 5.6. TABLE NO. 5.6

AREA UNDER COCONUT CULTIVATED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

AREA UNDER NO. OF S.NO COCONUT PERCENTAGE RESPONDENTS (IN ACRES)

1 Less than 2 acres 72 24 2 2 - 4 acres 138 46 3 4 - 6 acres 60 20 4 6 - 8 acres 27 09 5 8 & above acres 03 01 TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 70 per cent of the respondents grow coconut palms in less than 4 acres. The remaining 30 per cent of the respondents grow coconut palms in more than 4 acres.

In a preceding chapter the versatility of coconut as a crop that can be grown under varying soil and climatic conditions has been highlighted. In the

150A study area different types of soil are found. The nature of the soil used by the respondents is given below in table 5.7

FIGURE NO. 5.6

AREA UNDER COCONUT CULTIVATED

160

140

NO. OF RESPONDENTS 120 PERCENTAGE

100

0 Less than 2-4 acres 4-6 acres 6-8 acres Above 8 2 acres acres

151 TABLE NO. 5.7 NATURE OF THE SOIL AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NATURE OF NO. OF. S.NO PERCENTAGE SOIL RESPONDENTS

1 Sandy soil 159 53 2 Laterite soil 69 23 3 Alluvial soil 51 17 4 Clay soil 15 05 5 Others soil 06 02 TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that majority of the respondents (53 per cent) stated that their coconut holdings are sandy in character. The other two important types of soil used by the respondents are laterite soil (23 per cent) and alluvial soil (17 per cent).

Coconut palms grow under various conditions provided; there are facilities for irrigation. The soil must maintain a certain amount of moisture. In the study area, the traditional open wells fitted with motors and pump sets are found to be predominant. The types of irrigation facilities used by the respondents are given below in table 5.8.

152

TABLE NO. 5.8 MODE OF IRRIGATION USED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

MODE OF NO. OF S.NO PERCENTAGE IRRIGATION RESPONDENTS

1 Well 153 51

2 Tube - Well 99 33 3 Bore - Well 30 10

4 River Water 09 03

5 Dam / Ponds 06 02 6 Rain Water 03 01

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that majority of the respondents (51 per cent) use the traditional open well irrigation in which they have fitted electric motors of varying capacity. It is significant to note that (33 per cent) use tube wells and (10 per cent) use bore wells.

Two distinguishable varieties of coconut, namely, Tall and Dwarf are widely cultivated in Tamil Nadu. Due to cross-pollination variations do occur in the same variety. The variety grown by the respondents are given below in table 5.9

152A

FIGURE NO. 5.8

MODE OF IRRIGATION USED BY THE RESPONDENTS

Well

Tube - Well

Bore - Well

River Water

Dam / Ponds

Rain Water

153 TABLE NO. 5.9 VARIETIES OF COCONUT PALM CULTIVATED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

VARIETIES OF NO. OF S.NO PERCENTAGE COCONUT PALM RESPONDENTS

1 Tall palm 141 47 2 Hybrid palm 120 40 3 Dwarf palm 36 12 4 Semi Dwarf palm 03 01 TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 47 per cent of the respondents have followed the traditional path and have raised the age-old Tall variety of coconut palms. However 40 per cent of the respondents endowed with an innovative outlook have opted for the Hybrid variety, which comes to bear in three years. This is a significant trend in the production practice of farmers.

The number of coconut palm cultivated by the respondents is given below in table 5.10.

153A FIGURE NO. 5.9

VARIETIES OF COCONUT PALM CULTIVATED BY THE RESPONDENTS

160

140

120

100

NO. OF RESPONDENTS 60 PERCENTAGE

0 Tall palm Hybrid palm Dwarf palm Semi Dwarf palm

154 TABLE NO. 5.10 NUMBER OF COCONUT PALM CULTIVATED AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

PALM

% % % %

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS

SEMI

TALL

NO. OF COCONUT COCONUT OF NO.

DWARF DWARF HYBRID

Less than 1 18 06 12 04 03 01 - - 33 11 100

2 100 –200 45 15 48 16 03 01 03 01 99 33

3 200 –300 30 10 36 12 15 05 - - 81 27

4 300 –400 24 08 18 06 03 01 - - 45 15

5 400 –500 15 05 03 01 09 03 - - 27 09

6 500 –600 06 02 03 01 03 01 - - 12 04

More 7 03 01 ------03 01 than 600

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 86 per cent of the respondents [Tall (39%), Hybrid (38%), Dwarf (8%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have raised less than 400 coconut palms. Many of the respondents in this region are small and marginal farmers. It is felt that this is the optimum number given the area and the resources at their disposal.

154A FIGURE NO. 5.10

NUMBER OF COCONUT PALM CULTIVATED

100

50 TOTAL NO. OF PALM PERCENTAGE

0 Less than 100 –200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600 More than 100 palms 600 palms

155 Coconut trees belonging to the Tall variety begin to yield fruits in six or seven years. The Dwarf and the Hybrid ones begin to yield after three years from planting. This yield will be at the peak after 10 years and will begin to taper down after 30 years for Dwarf and Hybrid varieties and after 60 years for Tall varieties. The normal practice is to replace them after 60 years. The age-wise distribution of the coconut trees cultivated by the respondents is given below in table 5.11

TABLE NO. 5.11

AGE OF COCONUT PALM AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

PALM % % % %

AGE OF

RCENTAGE

COCONUT COCONUT

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

TOTALOF NO. CULTIVATORS Less than 10 1 18 06 48 16 24 08 03 01 93 31 Years 2 10 – 20 years 48 16 33 11 03 01 - - 84 28 3 20 –30 years 15 05 36 12 09 03 - - 60 20 4 30 – 40 years 33 11 03 01 - - - - 36 12 5 40 – 50 years 18 06 ------18 06 50 & above 6 09 03 ------09 03 years

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that 79 per cent of the coconut palm age group, Tall (27%), Hybrid (39%), Dwarf (12%) and Semi Dwarf (1%) has age group less than 30 years. The remaining 21 per cent of the

156 coconut palm age group [(Tall (20%) and Hybrid (01%)] has age group more than 30 years.

At the national level, a coconut tree on an average yields 32 nuts per year. But in Tamil Nadu the average is 72 nuts per year. This doubling of yield has become possible due to the dexterous use of fertilizer. Balanced nutrition along with adequate irrigation will certainly boost the yielding capacity of coconut trees. Particulars of fertilizers used by the respondents are given below in table 5.12. TABLE NO. 5.12

FERTILIZERS USED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO % % % %

SEMI

TALL

FERTILIZE

PERCENTAGE

NAME OF THE OF NAME

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS

DWARF DWARF HYBRID

1 Urea 45 15 39 13 18 06 03 01 105 35 2 NPK 30 10 33 11 03 01 - - 66 22

3 Neem Cake 36 12 42 14 06 02 - - 84 28

Bio - 4 27 09 03 01 06 02 - - 36 12 Fertilizers 5 Others 03 01 03 01 03 01 - - 09 03

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

156A From the above table it is inferred that 57 per cent of the respondents [Tall (25%), Hybrid (24%), Dwarf (7%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] prefer chemical fertilizers Urea and NPK because they are easy to apply and FIGURE NO. 5.12

FERTILIZERS USED BY THE RESPONDENTS

120

100

TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 60 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 40

0 Urea NPK Neem Cake Bio - Fertilizers Others

157 they show quick results. The remaining 40 per cent [Tall (21%), Hybrid (15%) and Dwarf (4%)] prefer the natural and bio fertilizers which they believe will not affect the fertility of soil and also control the various diseases/pests of coconut trees. Agricultural scientists recommend a combination of both natural and bio-fertilizers. The general practice among coconut farmers is to apply fertilizers once in a year. Particulars regarding application of fertilizers by the various types of coconut cultivators are given below in table 5.13. TABLE NO. 5.13 NUMBER OF TIMES APPLY FERTILIZERS AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

APPLYING

DWARF DWARF

PERIOD OF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO. CULTIVATORS 1 6 Months Once 03 01 30 10 03 01 - - 36 12 2 Yearly Once 60 20 78 26 21 07 03 01 162 54 3 2 Years Once 66 22 09 03 12 04 - - 87 29 More than 2 4 12 04 03 01 - - - - 15 05 Years

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that majority of the respondents i.e. 54 per cent [Tall (20%), Hybrid (26%), Dwarf (7%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] apply fertilizer once in a year. The respondents believe that this will be enough for their coconut garden to produce coconut. 34 per cent of the respondents do not properly apply fertilizer for their coconut garden.

158 Coconut palm requires lot of moisture. When there is continuous drought the palm will require at least two years of normal rainfall to recover from the impact of drought. In recent years, in areas where water scarcity is felt, drip irrigation and water spraying are resorted to maintain moisture in the region surrounding the root. Particulars of the frequency of irrigation provided to the different palm varieties by the respondents are given below in table 5.14. TABLE NO. 5.14 FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION TO COCONUT PALM AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO % % % %

SEMI

TALL

IRRIGATION

FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS DWARF 1 4- 8 Days 60 20 90 30 12 04 03 01 165 55

2 8 – 12 72 24 06 02 06 02 - - 84 28 Days 3 12 – 16 06 02 21 07 09 03 - - 36 12 Days 4 Above 16 03 01 03 01 09 03 - - 15 05 Days

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that majority of the respondents i.e. 55 per cent [Tall (20%), Hybrid (30%), Dwarf (4%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have provided irrigation to their coconut groves once for four to

159 eight days. 28 per cent of the respondents [Tall (24%), Hybrid (2%), and Dwarf (2%)] have provided irrigation to their palm for eight to twelve days. Coconuts have to be harvested at regular intervals to avoid over crowding which will affect future growth. The general practice in Coimbatore District is to harvest the nuts on an average eight times a year and sort them according to their maturity. Normally matured coconuts are harvested at 45 days interval. The copra (dry nuts) is harvested at 60 days intervals and tender coconut is harvested at 30 days intervals. Particulars of harvest made by the respondents in a year are furnished as below in table 5.15. TABLE NO. 5.15 NUMBER OF TIMES HARVEST (PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO % % % %

TIMES

SEMI

TALL

HARVEST

(PER YEAR) (PER

NUMBER OF OF NUMBER DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO. CULTIVATORS Less than 8 1 33 11 03 01 - - - - 36 12 Times 2 8-10 Times 105 35 99 33 12 04 - - 216 72 More Than 10 3 03 01 18 06 24 08 03 01 48 16 Times

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that 72 per cent of the respondents [Tall (35%), Hybrid (33%) and Dwarf (4%)] harvested 8 to 10

160 times in a year. 16 per cent [Tall (1%), Hybrid (6%), Dwarf (8%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] harvested more than 10 times in a year. 12 per cent of the respondents [Tall (11%) and Hybrid (1%)] harvested less than 8 times in a year. The tender coconut harvested in Pollachi region is in great demand throughout Tamil Nadu particularly in cities like Chennai, Madurai and Trichy. Next to tender coconut, matured coconuts are also in demand. The purposes of harvests as far as respondents are concerned as given below in table 5.16. TABLE NO. 5.16

PURPOSES OF HARVEST AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

OF OF

S.NO

SEMI

TALL

HARVEST

DWARF DWARF

% HYBRID % % %

PURPOSES

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO. CULTIVATORS

For 1 matured 102 34 12 04 - - - - 114 38 Coconut For Copra 2 33 11 03 01 - - - - 36 12 (dry nuts) For Tender 3 - - 105 35 36 12 03 01 144 48 coconut For 4 06 02 ------06 02 Jaggery

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data 161

From the above table it is inferred that 48 per cent of the respondents [Hybrid (35%), Dwarf (12%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] harvest for tender coconut. The Hybrid, Dwarf and Semi Dwarf varieties are mainly cultivated for tender coconut purpose. 38 per cent of the respondents [Tall (34%) and Hybrid (4%)] harvest for matured coconut. The Tall palms are mainly cultivated for matured coconut, dry coconut and jaggery production. The Tall palm has high oil extraction content. 12 per cent of the respondents [Tall (11%) and Hybrid (1%)] harvest for copra and remaining 2 per cent of the Tall cultivators harvest for jaggery production.

Harvesting of coconut is posing a problem especially in the case of the Tall variety due to shortage of manpower. Hence in many regions machines are used for this purpose. The methods used by the respondents to harvest coconuts is given below in table 5.17

161A

FIGURE NO. 5.16

PURPOSES OF HARVEST BY THE RESPONDENTS

160

140

120

100 TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 80 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL 60 PERCENTAGE

0 MATURED COCONUT COPRA TENDER JAGGERY

TABLE NO. 5.17 162

TYPE OF HARVEST PRACTICED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI SEMI

TALL

NATURE OF

DWA DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF

CULTIVATORS USING HARVEST

1 Using Manuals 120 40 114 38 21 07 - - 255 85

Using 2 12 04 06 02 15 05 03 01 36 12 Bamboos

3 Using Rope 09 03 ------09 03

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 85 per cent of the respondents [Tall (40%), Hybrid (38%) and Dwarf (7%)] are using manual method for harvest. It signifies that this method is popular and much preferred in this region. Hybrid palms particularly during tender stage need to use manual method. The remaining 15 per cent of the respondents are using bamboos or rope for harvest.

Apart from seasonal and occasionally violent fluctuations in the prices of coconuts and other related products the coconut industry in Tamil Nadu is facing certain internal problems relating to the production/harvesting of

163 coconut. Four such problems mentioned by the respondents are given below in table 5.18

TABLE NO. 5.18

PROBLEMS AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS IN CONNECTION WITH THE PRODUCTION/HARVEST OF COCONUT CULTIVATION

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

TALL

PROBLEMS

NATURE OF NATURE

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

SEMI DWARF SEMI

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL CULTIVATORS Labour 1 99 33 81 27 15 05 - - 195 65 Problems Storage 2 18 06 33 11 21 07 03 01 75 25 Problem Height of 3 18 06 ------18 06 Palm Transport 4 06 02 06 02 - - - - 12 04 Problems TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100 Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that majority of the respondents (65% per cent) [Tall (33%), Hybrid (27%) and Dwarf (5%)] have complained of shortage of labour for climbing up the trees, plucking nuts and sorting them. Pollachi is fast turning into an industrial center and there is 164

migration of working population from agriculture to industries where the migrants are absorbed in rendering services which do not require much skill. This has led to a dearth of labour in agriculture and horticulture. The existing workers demand a wage, which is not commensurate with the quality of work. Next to labour problem comes the problem of storage. 25 per cent of the respondents [Tall (6%), Hybrid (11%), Dwarf (7%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have felt this problem acutely. The height of the palms (6%) and transport problems (4%) are the other problems reported by respondents.

The productivity of coconut nuts per palm per year is reported to be very high in Tamil Nadu especially in the coastal and irrigated regions. Coconut palm productivity is measured on the basis of production of coconut nuts per palm per year. The average is in the region of 120 to 140 nuts per palm per year. The productivity of coconut palm as reported by the respondents is given below in table 5.19.

164A

FIGURE NO. 5.18

PROBLEMS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS IN CONNECTION WITH THE PRODUCTION/ HARVEST OF COCONUT CULTIVATION

200

180

160

140

TALL 120 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 100 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF 80 PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 60

0 Labour Problem Storage Problem Height of Palm Transport Problem

TABLE NO. 5.19 165

PRODUCTIVITY OF COCONUT PALM (PER PALM /PER YEAR) AS

REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

PALM

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

OF COCONUT OF

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY Below 100 1 21 07 ------21 07 Nuts 100 -120 2 117 39 27 09 03 01 - - 147 49 Nuts 120 -140 3 03 01 84 28 06 02 - - 93 31 Nuts Above 140 4 - - 09 03 27 09 03 01 39 13 Nuts

TOTAL 147 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 13 per cent of the respondents [Hybrid (3%), Dwarf (9%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have reported an annual productivity of 140 to 160 nuts per palm/per year. Nearly half of the respondents [Tall (39%), Hybrid (09%) and Dwarf (01%)] have reported productivity in the range of 100 to 120 nuts a year. Another 31 per cent [Tall (01%) Hybrid (28%) and Dwarf (2%)] have estimated the productivity in the range of 120 to 140 per palm per year.

FIGURE NO. 5.19 165A

PRODUCTIVITY OF COCONUT PALM (PER PALM /PER YEAR)

160

140

120

100 TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 80 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL 60 PERCENTAGE

0 BELOW 100 NUTS 100-120 NUTS 120-140 NUTS ABOVE 140 NUTS

166

The respondents have mentioned various causal factors for this high productivity/ yield. These factors are mentioned in table 5.20 TABLE NO. 5.20

CAUSES OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY/ YIELD OF COCONUT PALM AS

REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

YIELD

S.NO

% % % %

CAUSES OF

SEMI

TALL

HIGH

PERCENTAGE

DWARF DWARF

TOTALOF NO.

HYBRID CULTIVATORS 1 Control of 84 28 102 34 21 07 03 01 210 70 Pests/Diseases 2 Adequate 30 10 12 04 09 03 - - 51 17 Irrigation 3 Proper 12 04 03 01 - - - - 15 05 Maintenance 4 Adequate 15 05 03 01 06 02 - - 24 08 Fertilizers TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100 Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 70 per cent of the respondents [Tall (28%), Hybrid (34%), Dwarf (7%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have attributed that high productivity/yield of their palms to control of various pests and diseases. 17 per cent of the respondents [Tall (10%), Hybrid (4%) and Dwarf (3%)] have attributed the high yield to provide adequate irrigation. The remaining 13 per cent of the respondents attributed the high yield to proper maintenance and adequate fertilizers.

166A FIGURE NO. 5.20

CAUSES OF HIGH YIELD OF COCONUT PALM OF RESPONDENTS

250

200

TALL 150 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF 100 PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Control of Diseases / Adequate Irrigation Proper Maintenance Adequate Fertilizers Pests

167

The respondents have reported the existence of diseases and pests, which were identified by the extension personnel of the Department of Agriculture. They are Root Wilt, Stem Bleeding, Leaf Rot Diseases and Eriophyid Mite pest. TABLE NO. 5.21 NATURE OF DISEASES/PESTS AFFECTED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

DISEASES

S.NO

% % % %

/ PESTS /

TALL

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF

CULTIVATORS

SEMI DWARFSEMI NATURE OF 1 Root Wilt 21 07 27 09 06 02 03 01 57 19 Diseases 2 Eriophyid Mite 75 25 60 20 06 02 - - 141 47 Pest 3 Stem Bleeding 30 10 30 10 06 02 - - 66 22

4 Leaf Rot 15 05 03 01 18 06 - - 36 12 Diseases

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that the Eriophyid Mite Pest appears to be widespread. It has been reported by 47 per cent of the respondents [Tall (25%), Hybrid (20%) and Dwarf (2%)]. Stem Bleeding Disease was reported by 22 per cent of the respondents [Tall (10%), Hybrid (10%) and Dwarf

167A (2%)]. Root Wilt Diseases reported by 19 per cent of the respondents [Tall (7%), Hybrid (9%), Dwarf (2%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] and Leaf Rot Diseases reported by 12 per cent of the respondents [Tall (5%), Hybrid (1%) and Dwarf (6%)] have affected.

FIGURE NO. 5.21

NATURE OF DISEASES/PESTS AFFECTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

160

140

120

TALL 100 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 80 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF 60 PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 40

0 Root Wilt Disease Eriophyid Mite Pest Stem Bleeding Leaf Rot Disease Disease

168

According to the respondents, due to timely remedial measures taken the numbers of palms affected have been contained. Particulars of the number of palms affected by diseases/pests are reported by the respondents are given below in table 5.22 TABLE NO. 5.22 NUMBER OF COCONUT PALM AFFECTED IN THE COCONUT GAOVE (PER

ACRE) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

(PER (PER

S.NO

NO.OF

ACRE)

% % % %

SEMI SEMI

TALL

COCONUT COCONUT

AFFECTED AFFECTED

PALM

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL CULTIVATORS

Less than 20 1 21 07 81 27 15 05 03 01 120 40 Palms 20-40 Palms 2 114 38 36 12 18 06 - - 168 56

Above 40 3 Palms 06 02 03 01 03 01 - - 12 04

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that majority (56 per cent) of the respondents [Tall (38%), Hybrid (12%) and Dwarf (6%)] have between 20 to 40 palms affected per acre. 40 per cent of the respondents [Tall (7%), Hybrid (27%), Dwarf (5%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have less than 20

169 palms affected per acre. In considering, the total number of such palms the number affected is very significant. But it must be stated that even this incidence has affected the quality of nuts.

The number of coconut nuts affected by diseases/pests is given below in table 5.23

TABLE NO. 5.23 NUMBER OF COCONUT NUTS AFFECTED (PER 1000 NUTS / PER HARVEST)

AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

NUTS NUTS

% % % %

COCONUT COCONUT

AFFECTED AFFECTED

SEMI SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

PERCENTAGE

HYBRID

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL CULTIVATORS 1 Less than 30 10 36 12 06 02 03 01 75 25 25 nuts 2 25-50 nuts 99 33 81 27 09 03 - - 189 63

3 More than 12 04 03 01 21 07 - - 36 12 50 nuts

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that majority of the respondents 63 per cent [Tall (33%), Hybrid (27%) and Dwarf (3%)] have

170 reported that of the 1000 nuts per harvested 25 to 50 nuts have been affected. It is one of the reasons for the fall in coconut cultivator‟s quality and revenue.

Four types of protective measures have been taken by the respondents to contain the diseases/pests and restore the health of the palm. Respondents have asserted that only by integrating the measures they could contain the diseases/pests and save the palm. Particulars of protective measures taken by the respondents are given in table 5.24 TABLE NO. 5.24

PROTECTION MEASURES TAKEN AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

AGE

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PROTECTION PROTECTION

PERCENT

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL

MEASURES OF OF MEASURES

CULTIVATORS COCONUT PALM COCONUT 1 Adoption of Pesticides and 54 18 111 37 21 07 03 01 189 63 Insecticides 2 Nutrition 36 12 06 02 06 02 - - 48 16 Management 3 Manual 30 10 03 01 09 03 - - 42 14 Treatments 4 Removal of 21 07 ------21 07 Affected Palms

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100 Source: Primary data

171 From the above table it is inferred that use of pesticides and insecticides is preferred by majority (63 per cent) of the respondents [Tall (18%), Hybrid (37%), Dwarf (7%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] as they immediately contain the diseases/pests. Others measures like nutrition management and stepping up the frequency of manual treatment and removal of diseases affected palms help to restore the health of the palm.

FIGURE NO. 5.24 171A

PROTECTION MEASURES TAKEN BY THE RESPONDENTS

200

180

160

140

TALL 120 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 100 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE 80 TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Adoption of Nutrition Manual Treatments Removal of Pesticides and Management Affected Palms Insecticides

172 The table below the coconut palm‟s insurance status of the respondents is given in table 5.25. TABLE NO. 5.25

INSURANCE STATUS AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

S.NO

NO. OF OF NO.

STATUS

INSURANCE INSURANCE

PERCENTAGE RESPONDENTS

Respondents who 1 have Availed 24 08 Insurance

Respondents who 2 have not Availed 276 92 Insurance

TOTAL 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 92 per cent of the respondents (all varieties of coconut cultivators) have not availed insurance. Only 8 per cent of the respondents [(Tall (3%) and Hybrid (5%)] have availed insurance.

It has been already mentioned that the Central and State Governments have initiated various steps to expand the area under coconut cultivation and improve the productivity of the coconut palms. Of them, extending subsidy to

173 coconut farmers is one. Particulars of the subsidies availed by the respondents are given below in table 5.26

TABLE NO. 5.26

NATURE OF SUBSIDIES AVAILED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

URE OF URE

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI SEMI

TALL

SUBSIDIES

NAT

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL CULTIVATORS 1 Tube Well 30 10 33 11 30 10 03 01 96 32 Subsidies 2 Coconut Palm 72 24 48 16 03 01 - - 123 41 Subsidies 3 Fertilizers 30 10 27 09 03 01 - - 60 20 Subsidies 4 Subsidies 09 03 12 04 - - - - 21 07 Not Availed TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that 41 per cent of the respondents [Tall (24%), Hybrid (16%), and Dwarf (1%)] have availed subsidy for developing nursery and planting of palms. 32 per cent [Tall (10%), Hybrid (11%), Dwarf (10%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have availed subsidy for tube well construction and 20 per cent of the respondents [Tall (10%), Hybrid (9%) and Dwarf (1%)] have availed fertilizer subsidy.

FIGURE NO. 5.26 173A

SUBSIDIES AVAILED BY THE RESPONDENDTS

140

120

100

TALL 80 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF PERCENTAGE 60 SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Tube Well Subsidies Coconut Palm Fertilizers Subsidies Not Availed Subsidies Subsidies

174 It has been already stated that the coconut farmers in Tamil Nadu gather information about the prices of coconut products from different sources. Majority of the respondents rely on hearsay information coming from commission agents, traders, friends and relatives. The sources of information gathered by the respondents are given in table 5.27.

TABLE NO. 5.27

PRICE INTELLIGENCE AVAILABLE AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

OF OF

S.NO

% % % %

TALL

DWARF

HYBRID

SOURCES OF

PERCENTAGE

TOTALNO

CULTIVATORS

INFORMATION SEMIDWARF

Commission 1 15 05 18 06 03 01 - - 36 12 Agent

2 Village Traders 33 11 27 09 03 01 - - 63 21

3 Friends 45 15 30 10 12 04 03 01 90 30

Neighbour 4 21 07 12 04 15 05 - - 48 16 cultivators 5 Relatives 15 05 18 06 03 01 - - 36 12 Co- operative 6 06 02 06 02 - - - - 12 04 Market News Papers 7 06 02 09 03 - - - - 15 05 or TV

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data 175 From the above table it is inferred that 30 per cent of the respondents [Tall (15%), Hybrid (10%), Dwarf (4%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] come to know the prices from their friends, 21 per cent [Tall (11%), Hybrid (9%) and Dwarf (1%)] from village traders. 16 per cent [Tall (7%), Hybrid (4%) and Dwarf (5%)] from the neighbour cultivators and the remaining respondents from commission agents, relatives, co-operative market and news channels.

With regard to selling of coconuts and coconut products farmers in peninsular India and especially in Tamil Nadu depend to a great extent on commission agents and village traders because both of them provide them credit at the time they need on the condition that they sell the harvested products to them in return for the loan. Between the two, farmers prefer commission agents on the belief that they may not exploit them. The chain of sales for the respondents is given in table 5.28

175A FIGURE NO. 5.27

PRICE INTELLIGENCE AVAILABLE TO RESPONDENTS

TALL 50 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF 40 PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL 30 PERCENTAGE

0 Commision Village Friends Neighbour Relatives Co - News Paper Agent Traders Cultivators Operative or Tv Market

176 TABLE NO. 5.28 CHANNELS OF MARKETING (BUYER) OF VARIOUS COCONUT PRODUCTS AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

BUYERS

TALL

NATURE OF

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF

CULTIVATORS SEMI DWARFSEMI 1 Commission 54 18 60 20 09 03 - - 123 41 Agent 2 Village 39 13 30 10 06 02 03 01 78 26 Traders 3 Regulated 09 03 03 01 - - - - 12 04 Market

4 Oil Mills 18 06 ------18 06

5 Co-Operative 21 07 03 01 - - - - 24 08 Market 6 Wholesaler - - 21 07 06 02 - - 27 09

7 Retailer - - 03 01 15 05 - - 18 06

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100 Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that various channels are links in the chain of distribution as far as the respondents are concerned. The table given the reluctance of the respondents to sell their produce in the regulated and co-operative markets where the stage for exploitation in prices and weights and measures is practically nil. Only 12 per cent stated that they go to regulated and co-operative market. The general practice of the respondents is

176A to depend on commission agents (41 per cent) [Tall (18), Hybrid (20%), and Dwarf (3 per cent). FIGURE NO. 5.28

CHANNELS OF MARKETING (BUYER) OF COCONUT PRODUCTS BY THE RESPONDENTS

140

120

100

TALL 80 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF PERCENTAGE 60 SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Commission Village Regulated Oil Mills Co - WholeSaler Retailer Agent Traders Market Operative Market

177 Dwarf (3%)], on village traders (26 per cent) [Tall (13%), Hybrid (10%) Dwarf (2%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)]. Even though the respondents are aware of the exploitation by both even they prefer them, as they are easily accessible.

It has been already stated that the mature coconut is one of the important produce in Pollachi region. They are famous all over Tamil Nadu. Out of 300 respondents, 114 cultivators (38%) harvest for mature coconut. Generally the main link in the mature coconut distribution channel is commission agents and village traders. The various distributions of mature coconut cultivators in this region as given below in table 5.29.

TABLE NO. 5.29

MARKETING (BUYER) OF MATURED COCONUT AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

MATURED MATURED

SEMI SEMI

TALL

COCONUT

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

MARKETING MARKETING

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL CULTIVATORS 1 Commission 48 16 09 03 - - - - 57 19 Agent

2 Village Traders 36 12 03 01 - - - - 39 13

3 Regulated 12 04 - - - - 12 04 Market 4 Oil Mills 06 02 - - - - 06 02 TOTAL 102 34 12 04 - - - - 114 38

Source: Primary data

178 From the above table it is inferred that Matured coconuts are mostly sold to commission agents and village traders. 19 per cent of the respondents [Tall (16%) and Hybrid (3%)] sell to commission agents. 13 per cent [Tall (12%) and Hybrid (1%)] sell to village traders, 4 per cent of the respondents [Tall (4%)] sell to regulated markets and 2 per cent [Tall (2%)] sell to oil mills.

As it has been already stated tender coconuts from Pollachi have an extensive market in Tamil Nadu. They are famous for their quality and quantity of their content. During the summer months there is a heavy demand for them in cities and towns like Chennai, Madurai, Trichy and Coimbatore. The marketing of tender coconut too has to pass through a channel of distribution. Out of 300 respondents, 144 cultivators (48%) harvest for tender coconut. Generally the main link in the distribution channel is the commission agent. The links in the channels of distribution of the respondents given in table 5.30.

178A FIGURE NO. 5.29

MARKETING (BUYER) OF MATURED COCONUT AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

TALL PERCENTAGE 30 HYBRID PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 20

0 Commission Agent Village Traders RegulatedMarket Oil Mills

179 TABLE NO. 5.30

MARKETING (BUYER) OF TENDER COCONUT AS REPORTED BY

THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

COCONUT COCONUT

OF TENDER OF

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

MARKETING MARKETING

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO. CULTIVATORS Commission 1 57 19 09 03 - - 66 22 Agent Village 2 - - 27 09 09 03 - - 36 12 Traders 3 Wholesaler - - 12 04 09 03 03 01 24 08 4 Retailer - - 09 03 09 03 - - 18 06 TOTAL 105 35 36 12 03 01 144 48

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that Tender coconuts are mostly sold to commission agents and village traders. 22 per cent of the respondents [Hybrid (19%) and Dwarf (3%)] sell to commission agents. 12 per cent [Hybrid (9%) and Dwarf (3%)] sell to village traders. 8 per cent [Hybrid (4%), Dwarf (3%) and Semi Dwarf 1%)] sell to wholesaler and the remaining 6 per cent (Hybrid (3%) and Dwarf (3%) sell to retailers.

Unlike in the case of tender coconut and mature coconut where the respondents in the main sell to commission agents and traders, in the case of copra majority of the respondents sell to co-operative markets. The Central and State Governments offered the Minimum Support Price to copra product,

179A FIGURE NO. 5.30

MARKETING (BUYER) OF TENDER COCONUT AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

HYBRID PERCENTAGE 40 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF 30 PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 20

0 Commission Agent Village Traders Wholesaler Retailer

180 on the basis of coconut market price determined in Tamil Nadu. Out of 300 respondents, 36 cultivators (12%) harvest for copra. The links in the channels of distribution of the respondents given in table 5.31.

TABLE NO. 5.31 MARKETING (BUYER) OF COPRA (DRY COCONUT) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

OF OF

TING

S.NO

% % % %

COPRA COPRA

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS MARKE 1 Co- Operative 18 06 03 01 - - - - 21 07 Market 2 Village Traders 03 01 - - - - 03 01

3 Oil Mills 12 04 ------12 04

TOTAL 33 11 03 01 - - - - 36 12 Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that out of 36 copra (dry) producers 7 per cent of the respondents [Tall (6%) and Hybrid (1%)] sell to co- operative market. 4 per cent of the Tall cultivators sell to the oil mills and the remaining (1 per cent) of the Tall cultivators sell to village traders.

Jaggery production is the one of the cottage industries in Pollachi Taluk. Particulars of the sale of Jaggery product are given in table 5.32.

180A FIGURE NO. 5.31

MARKETING (BUYER) OF COPRA (DRY COCONUT) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

15 TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 10

0 Co-Operative market Village Traders Oil Mills

181 TABLE NO. 5.32

MARKETING (BUYER) OF JAGGERY AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

OF OF

S.NO

% % % %

JAGGERY

SEMI

TALL

PERCENTAGE

DWARF DWARF

TOTALOF NO.

HYBRID

CULTIVATORS MARKETING

Co- Operative 1 03 01 ------03 01 Market

2 Wholesalers 03 01 ------03 01

TOTAL 06 02 ------06 02

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 1 per cent of the respondents [Tall (1%)] admitted that they are supplying jaggery to co-operative markets while 1 per cent of the [(Tall (1%)] respondents are selling it to wholesalers.

One of the byproducts of the coconut industry is the coconut husk, which is in demand in the coir industry. The local coir units have only a limited capacity. The most profitable way to sell them is to send them to places where there are many coir units. The sale of the husk by the respondents is given in table 5.33.

182 TABLE NO. 5.33

MARKETING (BUYER) OF COCONUT HUSK AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

HUSK

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS

COCONUT MARKETING Local 1 99 33 12 04 - - - - 111 37 Traders

2 Coir Industry 39 13 ------39 13

3 Own Use 06 02 ------06 02

TOTAL 144 48 12 04 - - - - 156 52 Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that in line with the practice obtaining in the region 37 per cent of the respondents [Tall (33%) and Hybrid (4%)] sell their husk to local traders. 13 per cent of the Tall respondents sell directly to coir industry, 2 per cent use it for preserving the moisture of the soil and the remaining 48% of the respondents harvest at tender coconut stage.

In coconut groves annual maintenance expenses such as expenditure on the removal of weeds, replacing disease affected palms by new ones and maintaining irrigation trenches in proper condition are essential. Particulars of land maintenance expenditure incurred by the respondents are as follows in table 5.34.

182A FIGURE NO. 5.33

MARKETING (BUYER) OF HUSK AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS

120

100

TALL PERCENTAGE 60 HYBRID PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Local Traders Coir Industry Own Use

TABLE NO. 5.34 183

EXPENDITURE ON LAND MAINTENANCE (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS

REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

) NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

LAND LAND

% % % %

TALL

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS

EXPENDITURE (inRs SEMIDWARF

1000 - 1 09 03 03 01 - - - - 12 04 2000 2000 - 2 93 31 81 27 - - - - 174 58 3000 3000 - 3 39 13 33 11 30 10 03 01 105 35 4000 More Than 4 - - 03 01 06 02 - - 09 03 4000 TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100 Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that (31 per cent) of the Tall cultivators and (27 per cent) of the Hybrid cultivators have stated that they are incurring an expenditure ranging from Rs.2000 to Rs.3000 per acre per year. (13 per cent) of the Tall cultivators, (11 per cent) of the Hybrid cultivators, (10 per cent) of the Dwarf cultivators and (1 per cent) of the Semi Dwarf cultivators have stated that they are incurring an expenditure ranging from Rs.3000 to Rs.4000.

183A FIGURE NO. 5.34

EXPENDITURE ON LAND MAINTENANCE (in Rs.) (PER ACRE / PER YEAR)

180

160

140

120 TALL PERCENTAGE

100 HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF PERCENTAGE 80 SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL 60 PERCENTAGE

0 Rs. 1000- Rs. 2000 Rs.2000- Rs.3000 Rs.3000- Rs.4000 Above Rs.4000

184 The average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.2680.85. The average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.2687.50. The average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/per year Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3666.70 and the average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3500.00. (source: compiled from primary data)

Labour problem is one of the major problems in the coconut industry. Apart from scarcity of labour, the available labourer demands exorbitant wages. Particulars of expenditure incurred by the respondents on wages are provided in table 5.35. TABLE NO. 5.35 EXPENDITURE ON WAGES (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE

RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

(in Rs.) (in

WAGE

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

EXPENDITURE EXPENDITURE CULTIVATORS

1 Less than 3000 12 04 ------12 04 2 3000-4000 60 20 15 05 - - - - 75 25 3 4000-5000 45 15 36 12 21 07 03 01 105 35 More than 4 24 08 69 23 15 05 - - 108 36 5000

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

184A FIGURE NO. 5.35

EXPENDITURE ON WAGES (in Rs.) (PER ACRE / PER YEAR)

120

100

TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 60 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 40

0 Less than Rs.3000 Rs.3000-Rs.4000 Rs.4000-Rs.5000 Above Rs.5000

185 From the above table it is inferred that 35 per cent of the respondents [Tall (15%), Hybrid (12%), Dwarf (7%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] are incurring expenditure in the range of Rs.4000 to Rs.5000 per acre per year. 36 per cent of the respondents [Tall (8%), Hybrid (23%) and Dwarf (5%)] are incurring expenditure in the ranging more than Rs.5000 per acre per year.

The average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.3989.40. The average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.4950. The average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/per year Dwarf cultivators is Rs.4916.70 and the average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.4500.00. (source: compiled from primary data) Expenditure incurred by the respondents on fertilizers per acre per year is given in table 5.36

186 TABLE NO. 5.36 EXPENDITURE ON FERTILIZERS (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY

THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

(inRs.)

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

EXPENDITURE EXPENDITURE

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

ON FERTILIZER FERTILIZER ON CULTIVATORS 1 Less than 03 01 ------03 01 2000

2 2000- 3000 75 25 33 11 - - - - 108 36

3 3000 – 4000 57 19 51 17 30 10 03 01 141 47

4 More than 06 02 36 12 06 02 - - 48 16 4000

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 47 per cent of the respondents [Tall (19%), Hybrid (17%), Dwarf (10%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] spend on fertilizers amounts ranging from Rs.3000 to Rs.4000 per acre per year. 36 per cent [Tall (25%) and Hybrid (11%)] spend amounts ranging from Rs.2000 to Rs.3000 per acre per year and 16 per cent of the respondents [Tall (2%), Hybrid (12%) and Dwarf (2%)] spend more than Rs.4000 per acre/per year.

187

The average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.2957.45. The average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.3525. The average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/per year Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3666.70 and the average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3500.00.(source: compiled from primary

data)

Expenditure incurred by the respondents on controlling diseases/pests which hinder the growth of coconut palms and bring down their quality/ productivity. The expenditure incurred on diseases/pests per acre per year is given in table 5.37.

FIGURE NO. 5.36 187A

EXPENDITURE ON FERTILIZERS (in Rs.) (PER ACRE / PER YEAR)

160

140

120

100 TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 80 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL 60 PERCENTAGE

0 Less than Rs.2000 Rs.2000-Rs.3000 Rs.3000-Rs.4000 Above Rs.4000

188

TABLE NO. 5.37 EXPENDITURE ON CONTROLLING DISEASES/PESTS (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

(inRs.)

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

CULTIVATORS

TOTAL.OF NO

DISEASES/PESTS DISEASES/PESTS EXPENDITURE ON ON EXPENDITURE 1 Less than 2000 120 40 21 07 - - - - 141 47

2 2000- 3000 21 07 93 31 33 11 03 01 150 50

3 More than 3000 - - 06 02 03 01 - - 09 03

TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 50 per cent of the respondents [Tall (7%), Hybrid (31%), Dwarf (11%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] have reported expenditure on diseases/pests ranging from Rs.2000 to Rs. 3000 per acre per year. 47 per cent of the respondents [Tall (40%) and Hybrid (7%)] an expenditure less than Rs.2000 per year per acre. 3 per cent of the respondents reported expenditure above Rs.3000 per acre per year.

188A The average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.1223.40. The average expenditure on diseases/pests per FIGURE NO. 5.37

EXPENDITURE ON CONTROLLING DISEASES / PESTS (in Rs.) (PER ACRE / PER YEAR)

160

140

120

100 TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 80 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE 60 TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Less than Rs.2000 Rs.2000-Rs.3000 Above Rs.3000

189 acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.2287.50. The average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/per year Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2583.00 and the average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is

Rs.2500.00. (source: compiled from primary data)

We have already seen in different contexts that the farmers in this region prefer to sell their mature nuts in the local markets to local agencies. They spend only a portion of the tender coconut harvested by them to distant places within the State. As such the expenditure incurred by them on transport is given in table 5.38 TABLE NO. 5.38

EXPENDITURE ON TRANSPORT (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY

THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

(in Rs.) (in

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

EXPENDITURE EXPENDITURE

CULTIVATORS ON TRANSPORT TRANSPORT ON 1 Less than 06 02 ------06 02 1000 2 1000- 96 32 42 14 - - - - 138 46 2000 3 2000 – 33 11 54 18 30 10 03 01 120 40 3000 4 More than 06 02 24 08 06 02 - - 36 12 3000 TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data 190 From the above table it is inferred that 46 per cent of the respondents [Tall (32%) and Hybrid (14%)] spend on transport ranging between Rs.1000 to Rs.2000 per acre per year. 40 per cent [Tall (11%), Hybrid (18%), Dwarf (10%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] spend ranging between Rs.2000 to Rs.3000 per acre per year. 12 per cent [Tall (2%), Hybrid (8%) and Dwarf (2%) spend more than Rs.3000 per acre per year. Only 2 per cent of the Tall cultivators spend less than Rs.1000 per acre per year.

The average expenditure on transport per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.1776.60. The average expenditure on transport per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.2350. The average expenditure on transport per acre/per year Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2666.70 and the average expenditure on transport per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2500.00 (source: compiled from primary data)

The respondents incur an expenditure on marketing. This expenditure includes the sorting of the harvested nuts and paying commission and local taxes. The expenditure given below in table 5.39.

190A

FIGURE NO. 5.38 EXPENDITURE ON TRANSPORT (in Rs.) (PER ACRE / PER YEAR)

140

120

100

TALL PERCENTAGE 80 HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF PERCENTAGE 60 SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Less than Rs.1000 Rs.1000-Rs.2000 Rs.2000-Rs.3000 Above Rs.3000

191

TABLE NO. 5.39 EXPENDITURE ON MARKETING (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY

THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

) NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

(in

S.NO

% % % %

TALL

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS

EXPENDITURE ON ON EXPENDITURE

SEMIDWARF MARKETING 1 Less 51 17 09 03 - - - - 60 20 than 500 2 500- 75 25 60 20 06 02 03 01 144 48 1000 3 1000 – 15 05 09 03 09 03 - - 33 11 1500 4 More than - - 42 14 21 07 - - 63 21 1500 TOTAL 141 47 120 40 36 12 03 01 300 100

Source: Primary data

From the above table it is inferred that 48 per cent of the respondents [Tall (25%), Hybrid (20%), Dwarf (2%) and Semi Dwarf (1%)] spend on marketing amounts ranging from Rs.500 to Rs.1000 per acre per year. 21 per cent [Hybrid (14%) and Dwarf (7%) spend more than Rs. 1500 per acre per year. 20 per cent [Tall (17%) and Hybrid (3%)] spend less than Rs.500 per

191A acre per year. 11 per cent [Tall (5%), Hybrid (3%) and Dwarf (3%)] spend in the range between Rs.1000 and Rs.1500 per acre per year.

FIGURE NO. 5.39

EXPENDITURE ON MARKETING (in Rs.) (PER ACRE / PER YEAR)

160

140

120

TALL 100 PERCENTAGE HYBRID PERCENTAGE 80 DWARF PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE 60 TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Less than Rs.500 Rs.500-Rs.1000 Rs.1000-Rs.1500 Above Rs.1500

192 The average expenditure on marketing per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.622.35. The average expenditure on marketing per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.1100. The average expenditure on marketing per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.1458.35 and the average expenditure on marketing per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.750.00. (source: compiled from primary data) The Central Government has introduced an insurance scheme for coconut farmers to protect them against unexpected fall in prices and damage suffered due to the spread of diseases/pests. But the scheme is not popular in this area. TABLE NO. 5.40 EXPENDITURE ON INSURANCE (PER ACRE / PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

PERCENTAGE

HYBRID

TOTALOF NO.

CULTIVATORS

EXPENDITURE ON ON EXPENDITURE INSURANCE (in Rs.) INSURANCE

1 Less than 06 02 09 03 - - - - 15 05 500

More than 2 03 01 06 02 - - - - 09 03 500

TOTAL 09 03 15 05 - - - - 24 08

Source: Primary data

193 From the above table it is inferred that 5 per cent of the respondents [Tall (2%) and Hybrid (3%)] spend on insurance per acre per year less than Rs.500. 3 percent of the respondents [Tall (1%) and Hybrid (2%)] spend more than Rs.500 per acre per year.

It has been already mentioned that 38 per cent of the respondents earn income from the sale of matured coconut. The distribution of these respondents is given in table 5.41

TABLE NO. 5.41 INCOME FROM MATURED COCONUT PRODUCERS (PER ACRE/PER YEAR) EARNED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

Rs.)

MATURE

S.NO

% % % %

TALL

COCONUT COCONUT

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL

CULTIVATORS CULTIVATORS CULTIVATORS

INCOME (in INCOME

SEMI DWARF SEMI LEVEL OF LEVEL

1 60,000 -65,000 12 04 03 01 - - - - 15 05

2 65,000 – 70,000 81 27 03 01 - - - - 84 28 3 70,000 – 75,000 09 03 06 02 - - - - 15 05

TOTAL 102 34 12 04 - - - - 114 38

Source: Primary data From the above table it is inferred that cultivators of the Tall variety are more or less equally distributed in all the income groups ranging from Rs.60, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre per year. Altogether they constitute 34

193A FIGURE NO. 5.41 INCOME FROM MATURED COCONUT PRODUCERS (PER ACRE/PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

60 TALL PERCENTAGE HYBRID 50 PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE 40

0 Rs.60,000-Rs.65,000 Rs.65,000-Rs.70,000 Rs.70,000-Rs.75,000

194 per cent of the respondents. The remaining 4 per cent cultivators of Hybrid are also equally distributed between the income groups ranging from Rs.60, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre per year. The average income of matured coconut producing the Tall variety cultivators is Rs. 66,563 and the average income of matured coconut producing Hybrid variety cultivators is Rs. 68,759.(source: compiled from primary data) It has been already said that respondents numbering 144 (48 per cent) earn their income from the sale of tender coconuts. The income wise distribution is given below in table 5.42.

TABLE NO. 5.42 INCOME FROM TENDER COCONUT PRODUCERS EARNED (PER ACRE/ PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

S.NO

% % % %

TALL

COCONUT COCONUT

DWARF

HYBRID

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO. OF OF NO. TOTAL

CULTIVATORS CULTIVATORS CULTIVATORS

INCOME (in Rs.) (in INCOME

SEMI DWARF SEMI LEVEL OF TENDER OF TENDER LEVEL 1 60,000 - - - 06 02 03 01 - - 09 03 65,000 2 65,000 - - - 90 30 21 07 03 01 114 38 70,000 3 70,000 - - - 09 03 12 04 - - 21 07 75,000 Total - - 105 35 36 12 03 01 144 48

Source: Primary data

194A

FIGURE NO. 5.42 INCOME FROM TENDER COCONUT PRODUCERS (PER ACRE/PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

120

100

HYBRID PERCENTAGE DWARF 60 PERCENTAGE SEMI DWARF PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Rs.60,000-Rs.65,000 Rs.65,000-Rs.70,000 Rs.70,000-Rs.75,000

195 From the above table it is inferred that all of the 144 respondents (48 per cent) belong to cultivators of Hybrid and Dwarf varieties. 35 per cent of the Hybrid cultivating respondents nearly are in the income groups from Rs.60, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre per year. The others are distributed in all the income groups. In the case of respondents cultivating Dwarf and Semi Dwarf varieties numbering 39 (13%) they are fairly equally spreads from Rs.60, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre per year. The average income of tender coconut producing Hybrid cultivators is Rs.69, 689, the average income of tender coconut producing Dwarf cultivators is Rs. 68,333 and the average income of tender coconut producing Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs. 68,485. (Source: compiled from primary data) The income earned by the respondents from the sale of copra (Dry Coconut) is given below in table 5.43. TABLE NO. 5.43 INCOME FROM COPRA (DRY COCONUT) PRODUCERS (PER ACRE/ PER YEAR) EARNED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS ((IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

)

S.NO

COPRA

% % % %

LEVEL OF

SEMI SEMI

TALL

TOTAL NO.

PERCENTAG

S INCOME S (in

DWARF DWARF

CULTIVATOR CULTIVATOR HYBRID 60,000 - 1 03 01 ------03 01 65,000 65,000 – 2 24 08 03 01 - - - - 27 09 70,000 70,000 - 3 06 02 ------06 02 75,000 TOTAL 33 11 03 01 - - - - 36 12

Source: Primary data 195A

FIGURE NO. 5.43 INCOME FROM COPRA (DRY COCONUT) PRODUCERS (PER ACRE/PER YEAR) AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

TALL PERCENTAGE 15 HYBRID PERCENTAGE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

0 Rs.60,000-Rs.65,000 Rs.65,000-Rs.70,000 Rs.70,000-Rs.75,000

196

From the above table it is inferred that the 12 per cent respondents producing and selling copra, (11 per cent) of the Tall variety and (1 per cent) of the Hybrid variety, they equally are distributed in the income groups from Rs.60, 000 to Rs. 75,000 per acre per year.

The average income of copra (dry coconut) producing Tall cultivators is Rs. 67,613 and the average income of copra producing Hybrid cultivators is Rs.68, 250. (Source: compiled from primary data)

The income earned by the respondents from the sale of jaggery is given below in table 5.44.

TABLE NO. 5.44 INCOME FROM JAGGERY PRODUCERS (PER ACRE /PER YEAR) EARNED AS REPORTED BY THE RESPONDENTS (IN RUPEES)

NUMBER OF CULTIVATORS

. OF

S.NO

% % %

JAGGERY

LEVEL OF OF LEVEL

SEMI SEMI

TALL

DWARF DWARF

HYBRID

CULTIVATORS CULTIVATORS

INCOME (in INCOME Rs.)

PERCENTAGE

TOTAL NO CULTIVATORS

1 65,000 – 03 01 ------03 01 70,000 2 70,000 – 03 01 ------03 01 75,000 Total 06 02 ------06 02 Source: Primary data

197 From the above table it is inferred that a total of six respondents (2 per cent) cultivating Tall variety earn income from the sale of jaggery. 2 per cent of the Tall respondent‟s income group between Rs.65, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre per year.

The average income of jaggery producing Tall cultivators is Rs. 70,500. (Source: compiled from primary data)

Testing of Hypotheses First hypothesis:

Ho: There is no considerable difference in the profitability between farmers cultivating Traditional and Hybrid varieties of coconut in the study area.

Ha: There is considerable difference in the profitability between farmers cultivating Traditional and Hybrid varieties of coconut in the study area.

The mean value of Traditional cultivators X1 = 58,098

The mean value of Hybrid cultivators X2 = 59,965

S1 value of Traditional cultivators = 28707.220 2 S 1 value of Traditional cultivators = 824104500

S1 value of Hybrid cultivators = 236816.264 2 S 2 value of Hybrid cultivators = 56081943200

198

| X 1 – X 2| =

2 2  S1 S2 +

n1 n2

| 58098 - 59965| =

 824104500 56081943200 + 3 3 1867 =

 274701500 + 186939810700

1867 =

 18721451200

1867 = 136826.3542

= 0. 013

199

The result of the„t‟ test shows that t* = 0.013 and the table value at 5% level of significance is 1.96.

Since t* < t, the null hypothesis is accepted. It infers that there is no significance difference in the profitability between farmers cultivating Traditional and Hybrid varieties of coconut in the study area. Second hypothesis: The second hypothesis states that wage expenditure constitutes a major portion of total expenditure incurred by the coconut farmers.

TABLE NO. 5.45 Average expenditure on various coconut cultivators (in rupees) Nature of Average Average Average Average Average Over all Percentage Expenditure Tall Hybrid Dwarf S.Dwarf Total Average Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure (in Rupees) (in Rupees) (in Rupees) (in Rupees) (in Rupees) (in Rupees) Land Mai. 2680.85 2687.50 3666.70 3500.00 12535.05 3133.76 18.89 Wages 3989.40 4950.00 4916.70 4500.00 18356.10 4589.25 27.67 Fertilizers 2957.45 3525.00 3666.70 3500.00 13649.15 3412.28 20.57 Pests/ Dise. 1223.40 2287.50 2583.00 2500.00 85933.00 2148.47 12.95 Transport 1776.60 2350.00 2666.70 2500.00 92933.00 2323.35 14.00 Marketing 622.35 1100.00 1458.35 750.00 3930.70 982.65 5.92 Total 16589.81 100 Source: compiled from primary data.

From the above table it is inferred that the coconut farmers incur variety of expenditures in their cultivation. The expenditure on land maintenance, wages,

200 fertilizers, pests/diseases, transport and marketing are the major expenses on coconut cultivation. The percentage wise expenditure shows clearly that wage is the major constituent of total expenditure. It constitutes 27.67 per cent of the total expenditure incurred by the coconut cultivators. All other items of expenditure are less than the average expenditure on wages. The second hypothesis, which states that wage expenditure constitutes a major portion of the total expenditure in averred by the coconut farmers, is proved an ambiguity.

Third hypothesis:

Ho: The profit is not significantly varies with the channels of marketing. Ha: The profit is significantly varies with the channels of marketing.

Channels of marketing:

Channel of marketing classified on the basis of segmentation of market. The researcher has classified channels of marketing as given below.

 Commission agent and Village traders  Wholesaler and Retailers  Regulated market, Co-operative market and Oil mills.

201 TABLE NO. 5.46 Average profit of various channels of marketing (in Rupees) Channels of marketing Average profit Total Average profit (in Rupees) (in Rupees) Commission Agent 68,300.50 68,129.00 Village Traders 67,956.84

Wholesalers 69,172.00 69,090.75 Retailers 69,009.50

Regulated Market 67,233.87

Co-Operative Market 66,563.00 66,906.70 Oil Mills 66,953.00

Source: Compiled from primary data The researcher has applied „F‟ test for the validity of hypothesis.

TABLE NO. 5.47 ANOVA TABLE S.V d.f s.s m.ss Fr Treat 1 19402900 19402900 Error 1 4627200 4627200 4.193 Total 2 24030100

F 0.05 (1.1) d.f = 160.40 4.193 < 160.40

F* = 4.193

202

F table value at 5% level of significance is 160.40.

Since F* < F the null hypothesis Ho is accepted. The hypothesis, which a state that the profit is not significantly varies with channels of marketing, is proved correct. It can be calculated that irrespective of the channels of marketing done by the coconut farmers the profits accrued to them remain the same. The channels of marketing adopted by coconut farmers have not significantly influence their profits.

203 CHAPTER-VI

FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

Agricultural growth and instability continue to be the subject matter of ongoing intense debate in India. The need for stepping up agricultural production in the country is obvious considering the rapid growth of population and the growing needs of industry. With the advent of globalization and liberalization the sheltered market enjoyed by farmers all along has been thrown open to international players. Under the circumstances there is an urgent need to concentrate on the raising of such commercial crops in which the country has an advantage. In this context, the cultivation of coconut palm has assumed special significance.

Most of the coconuts growing countries are located in Asia Pacific Region and India is one of them, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka being the others. Together these countries account for 82 per cent of food and livelihood for millions and are also of social and religious importance. Substantial portion of the output of coconut in the country is accounted for by its four peninsular States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

India contributes nearly one fifth of World‟s coconut output. The coconut industry in India is primarily governed by the domestic market and only a very small quantity is exported. Indian coconut products are rated as premium quality products in the World. Its coconut oil has a large potential

204 in the Gulf countries, USA, UK, Germany, France, Japan, Russia and China are emerging World markets.

The coconut industry in India today is facing several challenges in production, processing and marketing such as the uneconomic size of the holding, prevalence of pests and diseases, high cost of production due to high wage rate, unscientific management and lack of economies of scale of production. The present study has been undertaken to highlight the production and marketing practices of a region in Tamil Nadu known for the enterprise and innovative zeal of its people. Among the peninsular States Tamil Nadu enjoys the highest productivity. In India as a whole Tamil Nadu comes next to West Bengal, which occupies the first place. An attempt has been made to identify the problems relating to the production and marketing of coconut faced by the farmers in the study area.

The principal objective of the study is to highlight the economics of production and marketing of coconuts and their byproducts in Tamil Nadu with special reference to the South Community Development Block of Pollachi Taluk in the Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu known for the enterprise and innovative zeal of its people.

The Major Findings of the Study:

 66 per cent of the respondents are in the age group 30 to 50 years. This is the period when farmers can take right decisions based on their experience and maturity.

205  78 per cent of the respondents are males and this shows that agriculture and its related business still continue to be dominated by males. The significant presence of women (22 per cent) is an encouraging sign.

 Majority of the respondents are literate; 50 per cent have studied upto higher secondary level and 20 per cent upto degree level. This finding shows that they are capable of taking independent decisions.

 82 per cent of the respondents have own land holdings while the remaining 18 per cent are lease and hire holders.

 Majority of the respondents are small and marginal farmers. 23 per cent own holdings of less than 2 acres and another 45 per cent own holdings whose size varies between 2 to 4 acres.

 70 per cent of the respondents have declared that they have cultivated coconut as a mono crop in less than 4 acres.

 The region has different types of soil. Sandy soil, laterite soil and alluvial soil are the important types of soil here. 53 per cent of the respondents are growing coconut in sandy soil and 23 per cent in laterite soil.

 In coconut cultivation it is essential that the soil surrounding the root of the plant maintain moisture. Irrigation plays an important role in this regard. 51 per cent of the respondents have stated that they use open- well irrigation and 33 per cent tube-wells.

206  Tall variety of coconut palms is still popular as they last longer and withstands attack of pests and diseases. 47 per cent of the respondents have cultivated only this variety. Another 40 per cent have grown the Hybrid variety, which yields more but is susceptible to diseases and pests.

 86 per cent of the respondents have stated that they have raised less than 400 numbers of coconut palms in their holdings.

 48 per cent of the respondents have averred that their palms are in the ripe stage with age group varying between 10 to 30 years.

 57 per cent of the respondents depend on chemical fertilizers such as Urea and NPK.

 Majority of the respondents (54 per cent) apply fertilizer once in a year.

 55 per cent of the respondents irrigate their palms once in a week and four times in a month.

 72 per cent of the respondents harvest the nuts on an average of eight to ten times in a year and this is common practice in Coimbatore District.

 48 per cent of the respondents produce Tender coconut, 38 per cent of the respondents produce Matured coconut, 12 per cent of the respondents produce Copra (Dry Coconut) and the remaining 2 per cent of the respondents produce Jaggery.

207  85 per cent of the respondents use only the manual method for harvesting coconuts.

 65 per cent of the respondents have stated that labour problem is the one, which is felt by them.

 44 per cent of the respondents have average productivity of more than 120 nuts per palm per year. 49 per cent of the respondents average productivity is 100 to 120 nuts per palm per year.

 70 per cent of the respondents attribute the high productivity/ yield to the control of pests and diseases.

 Root wilt disease, Eriophyid Mite pest, Stem bleeding disease and Leaf rot disease are the diseases/pests commonly reported by the respondents. Eriophyid Mite pest has affected 47 per cent of the respondents coconut palm.

 Considering the total number of trees raised by a respondent, the number coconut affected by pests/ disease is significant.

 75 per cent of the respondents coconut nuts have been affected at the rate of more than 25 nuts per 1000 nuts in a harvest.

 79 per cent of the respondents declared that they use only pesticides and nutrition management as they immediately arrest the spread of the diseases and pests.

208  Only 8 per cent of the coconut cultivators have availed crop insurance.

 Only 7 per cent of the respondents have stated that they have not availed subsidies. 41 per cent of the respondents have availed coconut palm raising subsidies and 32 per cent of the respondents have availed tube- well construction subsidies.

 Majority of the respondents depend on local traders and friends for information about prevailing prices in various markets.

 Majority of the respondents prefer selling coconut products to commission agents and local traders as they give them a helping hand in times of need.

 Of the 38 per cent of the Matured coconut producers, 19 per cent are selling to commission agents and 13 per cent to village traders. The remaining 6 per cent of the respondents sell to regulated market (4 per cent) and oil mills (2 per cent).

 Of the 48 per cent of the Tender coconut producers, 22 per cent of the respondents sell to commission agents and 12 per cent of the respondents are selling to village traders. The remaining 14 per cent of the respondents sell to wholesaler (8 per cent) and retailer (6 per cent).

 Of the 12 per cent of the Copra (Dry Coconut) producers, 7 per cent are selling to co-operative market and remaining 5 per cent are selling to village traders (1 per cent) and oil mills (4 per cent).

209  Of the 2 per cent of the Jaggery producers, prefer selling Jaggery to co- operative market (1 per cent) and wholesalers (1 per cent).

 Majority of the respondents (37 per cent) prefer selling coconut husk to local traders.

 The land expenditure per acre per year incurred by 93 per cent of the respondents is in the range of Rs.2000 to Rs.4000.

The average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.2680.85. The average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.2687.50. The average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3666.70 and the average expenditure on land maintenance per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3500.00.

 Of the various components of the expenditure incurred by the respondents, the one on wage paid to labour and the other on use of fertilizer are significant ones. The wage expenditure per acre per year incurred by 60 per cent of the respondents is in the range of Rs.3000 to Rs.5000.

The average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.3989.40. The average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.4950. The average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.4916.70 and the average expenditure on wage expenditure per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.4500.00

210  The fertilizers expenditure per acre per year incurred by 83 per cent of the respondents is in the range of Rs. 2000 to Rs.4000.

The average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.2957.45. The average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.3525. The average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3666.70 and the average expenditure on fertilizer expenditure per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.3500.00

 The expenditure for the control of diseases and pests per acre per year incurred by 50 per cent of the respondents is in the range of Rs.2000 to Rs.3000.

The average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.1223.40. The average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.2287.50. The average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2583.00 and the average expenditure on diseases/pests per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2500.00

 As the respondents prefer selling their products to commission agents and local traders, the expenditure incurred by them on transport is very marginal.

The average expenditure on transport per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.1776.60. The average expenditure on transport per acre/per year of Hybrid

211 cultivators is Rs.2350. The average expenditure on transport per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2666.70 and the average expenditure on transport per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.2500.00

 The expenditure on marketing per acre per year incurred by 59 per cent of the respondents is in the range of Rs.500 to Rs.1500.

The average expenditure on marketing per acre/ per year of Tall cultivators is Rs.622.35. The average expenditure on marketing per acre/per year of Hybrid cultivators is Rs.1100. The average expenditure on marketing per acre/per year of Dwarf cultivators is Rs.1458.35 and the average expenditure on marketing per acre/per year of Semi Dwarf cultivators is Rs.750.00

 The expenditure on insurance incurred per acre per year by 8 per cent of the respondents is within Rs.1000.

 34 per cent of the Tall variety respondents who have declared that their income from the sale of Matured coconuts is between Rs.60, 000 to 75,000 per acre/ per year. They are more evenly dispersed between income groups. Respondents cultivating Hybrid variety (4 per cent) have stated that their income from the sale of Matured coconut is between Rs.60, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre/ per year.

212

The average income of matured coconut producing Tall cultivators is Rs. 66,563 and the average income of Matured coconut producing Hybrid cultivators is Rs. 68,759.

 Of the 144 respondents who are selling Tender coconut, 105 have cultivated Hybrid palms, 36 Dwarf varieties and 3 Semi Dwarfs. The Hybrid cultivators and the Dwarf and Semi Dwarf cultivators have declared their income in the range of between Rs.60, 000 to Rs.75, 000 per acre/per year.

The average income of Tender coconut producing Hybrid variety cultivators is Rs. 69,686, the average income of Tender coconut producing Dwarf variety cultivators is Rs.68, 333 and the average income of Tender coconut producing Semi Dwarf variety cultivators is Rs. 68,485.

 Of the 36 respondents who sell Copra (Dry coconut) 33 have raised Tall variety cultivators and 3 Hybrid variety cultivators. The Copra cultivators have declared an income range of between Rs.60, 000 to Rs. 75,000 per acre per year.

The average income of Copra (Dry coconut) producing Tall variety cultivators is Rs. 67,613 and the average income of Copra producing Hybrid variety cultivators is Rs. 68,250.

 Only an insignificant 2 per cent of the Tall respondents are producing and marketing Jaggery. The Jaggery cultivators have

213  declared an income range of between Rs. 65,000 to Rs. 75,000 per acre per year.

The average income of Jaggery producing Tall cultivators is Rs. 70,500.

 Commission agents and local traders are the main links in the distribution channel as for the respondents are concerned.

 Unlike the traditional varieties the hybrid ones start yielding three years after they are planted.

 The first hypothesis states that there is no considerable difference in the profitability between farmers cultivating Traditional and Hybrid varieties of coconut in the study area.

The result of the„t‟ test shows that t* = 0.013 and the table value at 5% level of significance is 1.96.

Since t* < t, the null hypothesis is accepted. It infers that there is no significance difference in the profitability between farmers cultivating traditional and hybrid varieties of coconut in the study area. The first hypothesis is proved.

214  The second hypothesis states that expenditure on wage constitutes a

major portion of total expenditure incurred by coconut farmers.

The expenditure on land maintenance, wages, fertilizers, pests/diseases, transport and marketing are the major expenses on coconut cultivation. The percentage wise expenditure shows clearly that wage is the major constituent of total expenditure. It constitutes 27.67 per cent of the total expenditure incurred by the coconut cultivators. All other items of expenditure are less than the average expenditure on wages. The second hypothesis, which states that wage expenditure constitutes a major portion of the total expenditure in averred by the coconut farmers, is proved an ambiguity.

 The third hypothesis states that the profit is not significantly varies

with the channels of marketing

The result of F* value is 4.193 and F table value at 5% level of significance is 160.40.

215

SUGGESTIONS:

The respondents have the following suggestions to offer to make this business profitable.

 Coconut cultivators to take up systematic replanting and under planting to replace the old, senile, unproductive and diseases affected palms, using quality-planting materials for improving their palms productivity.

 By providing adequate funds at liberal terms for processing and storage facilities for coconut cultivators.

 Liberal subsidy may be given for raising of nurseries.

 Fertilizers and pesticides may be provided at subsided rates.

 Extension workers must visit the villages frequently and provide them proper guidance.

 Creating awareness and exposition of value added products among consumers.

 To encourage copra marketing, more co-operative markets may be established in the region.

216  Oil mills are few and far between. More oil mills may be opened in the co-operative sector as in the nearby Kerala State.

 Banks must come forward to offer liberal credit.

 The National Agriculture Insurance scheme should be extended to provide risk cover to coconut cultivators.

 An export promotion agency may be established in the region to promote export.

 Close interaction among coconut cultivators, traders, research organization by way of organizing workshops, trade fairs, exhibitions for the all round growth of processing industry is necessary.

217

CONCLUSION:

The present study reveals that coconut industry is the core sector in Pollachi, which contributes to the development of the study area in terms of productivity, employment and over all growth of the rural economy. The coconut industry offers wide scope for the cultivators to earn foreign exchange through wide range of products. Though the industry is emerged as vibrant in the area, it faces many challenges like increasing wages and diseases expenditure, low support from Government organization. The study throws its light on the problems in production and marketing and gives solution to overcome the challenges. The study concludes that coconut industry is witnessing a tremendous growth in the area and would reap better fruits if the Government support is ensured.

Avenues for further research: The Coconut industry offers great scope for research and study. But much research has not been done on the economics of the industry in India. A study may be undertaken to evaluate the productivity of coconut industry region wise. The scope for making new products, which have a worldwide market, is another area to be studied. A research may be undertaken to study the comparative advantages of interspaced cropping (or) mixed cropping.

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Annexure -I

Sl.

No.

crops

cultivators

(In Hectares) (In

( in Hectares) in (

No. of coconut coconut of No.

Total Number of of Number Total

Cultivating other Cultivatingother

Respondenttaken

Total Number of land of Number Total

Name of of village the Name cultivating Coconut land(in Hectares) 1 Thenkumarapalaya 418 219 212 637 20 2 Kolarpatti 380 177 165 557 16 3 Nallampatti 375 212 146 587 15 4 Unjavelampatti 312 216 138 528 14 5 Kullanaikanpatti 302 170 140 472 14 6 Thippam patty 375 180 128 632 12 7 S.Malaiyandipattina 330 168 122 498 12 8 Chenjuvadi 360 208 112 568 11 9 Ambrampalayam 306 196 112 502 11 10 Makinampatti 305 169 114 474 11 11 Singanallaur 294 184 114 428 11 12 Chinnampalayam 285 189 120 474 11 13 Komangalam 265 196 118 461 11 14 Chilakampatti 318 192 109 510 11 15 Samathur 298 185 103 483 10

Sl.

No.

crops

( in Hectares) in (

cultivators

(In Hectares) (In

No. of coconut coconut of No.

Total Number of of Number Total of Number Total

Cultivating other Cultivatingother

Respondenttaken

land

Name of of village the Name Coconut cultivating land (in Hectares) 16 Thondamuthur 263 202 90 465 09 17 Cholapalyam 212 164 89 376 09 18 Komangalaputhur 198 119 96 317 09 19 Zaminuthukuli 315 158 96 473 09 20 Zaminkottampatti 275 180 91 455 08 21 Vakkampalayam 296 168 89 464 08 22 Thalaivaipalayam 291 225 88 516 08 23 Sooleshvarampatti 214 202 82 416 08 24 S.Ponnapuram 212 190 77 402 08 25 Palaiyur 202 154 86 356 08 26 Naaikenpalayam 218 178 74 396 07 27 Naattukalpalayam 217 162 79 379 07 28 S.Nallur 219 222 65 441 06 29 Veralpatti 217 165 63 382 06 Total 8272 5350 3118 13649 300

The researcher has selected respondents on the basis of lottery method.

Particulars are the selection of respondents as given below:

No No . of

ybrid

Name of the village Tall taken samples H taken samples Dwarf taken samples dwarf Semi taken samples Total Respondents taken Thenkumarapalaya 122 12 68 6 22 2 - - 20 Kolarpatti 91 9 50 5 24 2 - - 16 Nallampatti 78 8 48 5 20 2 - - 15 Unjavelampatti 68 7 59 6 11 1 - - 14 Kullanaikanpatti 50 5 59 6 20 2 11 1 14 Thippam patty 44 4 71 7 13 1 - - 12 S.Malaiyandipattina 60 6 52 5 10 1 - - 12 Chenjuvadi 70 7 31 3 11 1 - - 11 Ambrampalayam 40 4 40 4 22 2 10 1 11 Makinampatti 64 6 38 4 12 1 - - 11 Singanallaur 42 4 51 5 21 2 - - 11 Chinnampalayam 53 5 54 5 13 1 - - 11 Komangalam 62 6 44 4 12 1 - - 11 Chilakampatti 61 6 39 4 9 1 - - 11 Samathur 43 4 50 5 10 1 - - 10

Thondamuthur 50 5 30 3 10 1 - - 9 Cholapalyam 39 4 42 4 8 1 - - 9 Komangalaputhur 44 4 42 4 10 1 - - 9 Zaminuthukuli 54 5 32 3 10 1 - - 9 Zaminkottampatti 43 4 34 3 14 1 - - 8 Vakkampalayam 33 3 33 3 23 2 - - 8 Thalaivaipalayam 25 2 43 4 20 2 - - 8 Sooleshvarampatti 23 2 29 3 20 2 10 1 8 S.Ponnapuram 29 3 38 4 10 1 - - 8 Palaiyur 42 4 44 4 - - - - 8 Naaikenpalayam 35 3 31 3 8 1 - - 7 Naattukalpalayam 34 3 33 3 12 1 - - 7 S.Nallur 31 3 22 2 12 1 - - 6 Veralpatti 32 3 31 3 - - - - 6 TOTAL 1462 141 1238 120 387 36 31 3 300

Source: primary data.