Environmental Guidelines for Access Roads and Water Crossings

Environmental Guidelines For Access Roads and Water Crossings

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Cover Photo - The Brightsand River bridge, built by Canadian Pacific Forest Products Limited near Thunder Bay, illustrates the use of good design and construction practices to minimize environmental changes.

This paper contains recycled materials Contents

1.0 Preface ...... 2

2.0 Introduction ...... 4 2.1 Why Guidelines ...... 4 2.2 Application of This Manual ...... 5 2.3 Using This Manual ...... 5

3.0 Applicable Legislation ...... 7 3.1 Introduction ...... 7 3.2 Federal Legislation ...... 7 3.3 Provincial Legislation ...... 7

4.0 Mandatory Standards ...... 9

5.0 Access Roads – Good Practices ...... 12 5.1 Introduction ...... 12 5.2 Road Planning and Location ...... 13 5.3 Clearing ...... 14 5.4 Grubbing ...... 14 5.5 Earth Grading ...... 15 5.6 Rock Grading ...... 17 5.7 Drainage Ditches and Culverts ...... 18 5.8 Swamp Treatments ...... 21 5.9 Graveling ...... 22 5.10 Road Maintenance ...... 22 5.11 Road Abandonment ...... 24

6.0 Water Crossings – Good Practices ...... 27 6.1 Introduction ...... 27 6.2 Site Selection and Design ...... 28 6.3 Fords and Temporary Bridges ...... 31 6.4 Construction ...... 33 6.5 Site Clean-up ...... 35

7.0 Mitigation Techniques ...... 37 7.1 Introduction ...... 37 7.2 Erosion and Sediment Control ...... 38 7.3 Beaver Problems ...... 53 7.4 Fish Habitat ...... 54 7.5 Aesthetics ...... 56

8.0 Glossary of Terms ...... 59

9.0 List of References ...... 62 1.0 Preface

This manual provides a collection of Organizations represented within the guidelines for those involved with access advisory group included various roads on Crown land in Ontario. It will disciplines within the Ministry, the assist them in carrying out their projects Ontario Forest Industries Association, with a minimum of disturbance to the the Ontario Lumber Manufacturers natural environment. Association and the Ontario Ministry of These guidelines were prepared the Environment. following an extensive review of guide- The group's participation ensured the lines used for similar purposes in publication reflects the knowledge and other jurisdictions. Section 9 contains a field observations of experienced people partial list of these other publications. from a cross-section of public and A technical advisory group private sector organizations that have an assisted in developing the manual's final interest in access roads and water text. crossings in Ontario. 1.0 Preface

The Ministry of Natural Resources Ministry of Natural Resources: Outside Participants: gratefully acknowledges the following people for their participation within the Bruce Adamson, Chairman Paul Abbott technical advisory group. Regional Engineer Communications Consultant North Central Region The Abbott Jenkins Design Group Thunder Bay Toronto

George Blight Cam Clark Consultant to Forest Industry Policy Officer Amisk Forest Services Limited Assistant Deputy Minister's Office Hearst Thunder Bay Bill Creighton Linda Jackson Manager, Technical Support Policy Officer Ministry of the Environment Land Management Branch Thunder Bay Toronto Larry Hicock Brian Martyniuk Principal Writer Engineering Services Technician The Abbott Jenkins Design Group Thunder Bay District Toronto Thunder Bay Ray Townsend Alan Parkinson Operations Superintendent Environmental Planner The Algonquin Forestry Authority Planning and Environmental Assess- Huntsville ment Branch Toronto Rudy Zorn Don Stillar Construction Superintendent Timber Management Supervisor Canadian Pacific Forest Products Cochrane District Limited Thunder Bay Greg Vaughan Senior Lands Technician Bracebridge District

Neville Ward Regional Fisheries Biologist Northwestern Region Kenora 2.0 Introduction

2.1 Why Guidelines? It is expected that most planners, • To establish mandatory standards to developers, operators and others be followed when constructing, involved in road development projects maintaining and abandoning access share a concern for the well-being of the roads and water crossings on Crown natural environment. The potentially land to ensure a minimum level of harmful effects of access road activities environmental protection. can be eliminated or minimized by decision makers who have an • To record and disseminate understanding of good environmental information about good practices being practices and use that knowledge used in Ontario which have proven effectively. effective in minimizing the impact on Various environmental values should the environment. be considered during the planning, construction, maintenance and • To provide design information about abandonment of access roads and water special mitigation techniques that may crossings. These include: be used to eliminate or reduce potential negative environmental impacts. • aquatic (water quality and fisheries) • terrestrial (plants and animals) The decisions and actions of those • recreation, cottaging and tourism involved in planning, constructing and • historical and archaeological maintaining access roads and water • aesthetics (at some locations) crossings have a significant influence on • air quality (dust abatement, pollution how much impact those activities have control) on the natural environment. By using this • noise levels publication access objectives can be met • worker and public safety while the extent and duration of • economic considerations environmental impacts are minimized. In many cases implementation of the The purpose of this manual is to recommendations does not require any establish standards and provide practical additional expenditure of money. In fact, advice for ensuring minimum doing it right the first time is often more disturbance to the natural environment economical in the long run because it (aquatic, terrestrial). Other values avoids costly mistakes that may have to outside the scope of these guidelines, for be rectified. Good practices lead to example tourism or archaeological, may efficient, cost-effective construction require the implementation of specific projects. They will ensure that access mitigation techniques to minimize the roads and water crossings will continue effects of access roads on that value. to function with a minimum of These would normally be identified and maintenance problems and a minimum of prescriptions developed at the planning adverse environmental impacts. stage of the project, possibly referring to Adherence to the manual's guidelines other guideline documents that are will help to assure compliance with available. relevant legislation. As a result, technical The specific objectives of this or legal irregularities can be avoided manual are: before they arise.

• To provide up to date environmental guidelines appropriate for the construction, maintenance and abandonment of access roads and water crossings. 2.0 lntroduction

2.2 Application of This Manual This manual applies to the planning, agement, the good environmental construction, maintenance and principles and guidelines set out in the abandonment of access roads on Crown manual have application to all access land in Ontario. These activities are roads, regardless of their purpose. subject to the Environmental Assessment This publication supercedes portions of Act and to the Lakes and Rivers the Construction and Mitigation Improvement Act. The guidelines Handbook dealing with access roads. complement other pertinent guidelines There are a wide variety of access and procedures such as the Guidelines road types and standards constructed in and Criteria for Approval Under the Ontario. The potential harmful effects on Lakes and Rivers Improvement Act, the natural environment are influenced Access Road Strategies and Guidelines, by the physical site conditions, the Fish Habitat Guidelines, Moose Habitat activity being undertaken, the road Guidelines, and Tourism Guidelines. standard, the life of the road and It is a requirement of the Class abandonment procedures. The Environment Assessment for Timber potentially negative effect of a poorly Management in Ontario that this manual installed water crossing on an important be followed for road access activities spawning bed is not lessened because it undertaken as part of timber is located on a tertiary road and not a management. The Ministry of Natural primary road. For this reason it is Resources will be responsible for intended the manual will apply to all monitoring compliance of the private access roads on Crown land regardless of sector, as well as its own staff, with type, standard or duration of use. It is not these guidelines. Where necessary, the intended to apply to roads on dedicated Ministry of Natural Resources or the rights-of-way such as those under the Ministry of the Environment will jurisdiction of the Ministry of undertake enforcement related to the Transportation, Municipalities or Ontario statutes under their administration. Hydro. Although developed for use as support to the Class EA for Timber Man-

2.3 Using This Manual The manual is a comprehensive Legislation and mandatory standards set collection of mandatory standards, good out the minimum criteria that must be practice guidelines and mitigation followed to prevent unnecessary or techniques. There will be variation in unacceptable environmental changes. It practice from area to area and some of is expected they will be followed in all the operations described may not circumstances. apply to some roads. The guideline Adherence to the mandatory should be applied where necessary and standards does not guarantee automatic appropriate to prevent or minimize a compliance with applicable legislation. potentially harmful effect on the In situations where mandatory standards environment. The manual is a source of are inadequate to protect fisheries information for decision-makers to draw habitat, water quality or other values, upon to accomplish this objective. appropriate good practice and mitigation This manual is divided into several techniques must be selected and used to sections. It is important to understand ensure legislative standards and the manner in which these relate to each requirements other. 2.0 Introduction

are met. For example, if a specific scribed in the manual are primarily objective such as protection of a fish focussed on erosion and sediment spawning bed, is not met by following control at water crossings. the mandatory standards then additional In areas of unique or special values, site specific measures may become identified prior to or during construction, necessary to ensure compliance with the it may be appropriate to specify some of Fisheries Act. the good practice guidelines or Good practice guidelines are mitigation techniques as mandatory provided for each component of requirements to mitigate possible planning, constructing, maintaining and negative impacts. In this way managers abandoning access roads and water involved in road construction can draw crossings. Most are based on simple on the information contained in the common sense principles. Adherence to guidelines to utilize appropriate them will minimize potential harmful construction techniques in the protection effects on the natural environment. As of identified values along the route of with all guidelines, flexibility is the road. expected in their application, however A section containing a glossary of they should be followed to the extent terms is provided to define technical and reasonably possible throughout the construction terminology as it is used in entire road length. the manual. A list of publications used as Mitigation techniques are the means a source of information during by which construction activities can be development of the manual is provided. modified to minimize or eliminate It may be useful to readers who wish potential negative impacts at specific further details on specific areas of locations where important values must interest. be protected. The techniques de-

The guidelines contained in this manual apply to all types of access roads, including this tertiary road. 3.0 Applicable Legislation

3.1 Introduction This section summarizes most of the • Construction of a water crossing. special Federal and Provincial legislation applicable to the construction of access • Any activity on Crown land during roads and water crossings on Crown the forest fire season. land. Included is a brief description of each • Construction near a water body that of the Acts which require a permit or could have a detrimental effect on fish application for approval. Activities habitat or water quality. associated with access road and water crossing construction on Crown land that • Development and operation of a require such approvals and/or permits borrow pit or gravel pit. include the following: • Any activity associated with timber • Cutting of timber on Crown land. management on Crown land.

3.2 Federal Legislation The Fisheries Act - This Act requires the tered by the Ministry of Transport, protection of fish habitat; administered Canadian Coast Guard. in Ontario by the Ministry of Natural Resources. The Railway Act - Construction and regulation of matters related to Navigable Water Protection Act - railways come under this legislation, Under this Act, any construction in or including railway crossings; over a navigable water body requires administered by the National an application and approval; adminis- Transportation Agency of Canada.

3.3 Provincial Legislation Crown Timber Act -Authority to cut Forest Fire Prevention Act -A Work wood on Crown land, including right- Permit, to authorize any work on Crown of-way clearing. It has penalties to deal land and to ensure that adequate forest with wasteful practices and the fire precautions and equipment are in destruction of timber; administered by place, is required; administered by the the Ministry of Natural Resources. Ministry of Natural Resources.

Environmental Assessment Act - Activities of the Government of Ontario, The Lakes and Rivers Improvement including the construction of roads, fall Act - Approval is required for the under this legislation. Timber construction of a "dam" across a management in Ontario, including the watercourse. A bridge or culvert may act construction of roads by the forest as a dam in certain circumstances. A industry, is subject to the provisions of technical review is necessary to this legislation; administered by the determine if an application is required; Ministry of the Environment. administered by the Ministry of Natural Resources. Environmental Protection Act - Contains regulatory requirements The Mining Act - a Quarry Permit is pertaining to air, water, land and noise required to develop and operate a pollution; covers the required approval borrow or gravel pit in areas of the of sewage and solid waste disposal sites; Province excluded from the Pits and administered by the Ministry of the Quarries Control Act; administered Environment. by the Ministry of Natural Resources. 3.0 Applicable Legislation

Occupational Health and Safety Act - The Pits and Quarries Control Act - Regulation 692 contains provisions a Quarry Permit is required to develop applying to timber haul roads, such as and operate a borrow or gravel pit in road signs and the structural capacity areas of the Province where this Act of bridges. The Act also covers safety applies; administered by the Ministry of on construction sites; administered by Natural Resources. New legislation is the Ministry of Labour. proposed to replace this Act with the Aggregates Act which will apply to the Ontario Heritage Act - Permits are whole Province. required for excavation or alteration of archeological and historical sites; Public Lands Act - Authority to administered by the Ministry of Culture construct roads on Crown land; authority and Communications. for Crown cost-sharing of company roads; sets out limitations on liability, Ontario Water Resources Act - The tenure for private forest roads, camp Act prohibits the discharge or deposit of areas, defines applicability of the any material into any waterbody which Highway Traffic Act on access roads; may impair the water quality or may authority for use restrictions; cause injuries to any person or living administered by the Ministry of Natural thing; administered by the Ministry of Resources. the Environment. The Public Transportation and Pesticides Act - Regulates the Highway Improvement Act, and availability, sale, use, transportation, associated Cabinet Approved Policy storage and display of all pesticides. Statements - These address Provincial The use of herbicides on access roads Highways, District, County and requires that the pesticide be federally Municipal roads. Since some roads registered, provincially classified and fall under the "Controlled Access applied by a licensed applicator. The Criteria", entrance permits will be use of certain pesticides requires a necessary and applications must be special use permit; administered by the made to the appropriate government Ministry of the Environment. agency controlling such roadways; administered by the Ministry of Transportation. 4.0 Mandatory Standards

The following list sets out standards that are considered mandatory to protect the natural environment within which access roads and water crossings are built. These standards must be adhered to by anyone planning, constructing, maintaining and abandoning access roads or water crossings as part of timber management on Crown land in Ontario. Their use is encouraged on access roads for purposes other than timber management.

• All applicable legislation, as identified include locations where particular in Section 3, must be complied with. values are to be protected and Those persons responsible for environmentally sensitive areas which construction must ensure the necessary require special attention. Appropriate approvals and permits are in mitigation techniques must be followed place before physical site work begins. throughout the planning, design, Conditions of those approvals and construction, maintenance and permits must be met. abandonment of the road.

• A use management strategy for each • Other uses of Crown land identified in primary and secondary road or for advance (e.g. staked corner posts for each timber management unit must be mining, trenches, grid markers, trapper's developed; this is to include cabins, boat caches) must not be consideration of other uses and disturbed unless approval to do so has abandonment when the road is no been given by the lessor and by the longer needed for its original purpose. Ministry of Natural Resources.

• Areas of concern identified during the planning process must be adequately addressed. Areas of concern 4.0 Mandatory Standards

Preservation and restoration of vegetation is necessary to protect water quality.

• Water crossing proposals must be • The use of heavy construction reviewed by the Ministry following the machinery on streambeds is not permitted Guidelines and Procedures for Approval during spawning and incubation periods Under the Lakes and Rivers and must be kept to an absolute minimum Improvement Act. This review may lead at other times. to a determination of: construction time restrictions; a minimum waterway • Waterways must not be blocked so as opening size; special mitigation to impede the free movement of water requirements for preventing flooding and fish. and/or minimizing detrimental impacts on fish habitat and water quality. To • Clearing and grubbing of low avoid delays, this review should occur vegetative cover within 100 m (350 well ahead of the proposed road feet) of a water crossing, or other construction. water body identified as being sensitive by the Ministry, must be kept • During the construction and to the absolute minimum necessary for maintenance of access roads and water constructing the project. crossings, appropriate measures must be taken to prevent contamination of water • Exposed mineral soil within 100 bodies by foreign materials such as metres (350 feet) of a water body must lumber, nails, logs, brush, fuel, oil, lime, be graded to a stable angle of repose to cement, asphalt, calcium chloride, prevent erosion. sodium chloride, oil base wood preservatives and herbicides. No • Appropriate erosion control and/or herbicides are to be sprayed within 10 sedimentation control measures are to metres of a water crossing. be undertaken to protect water quality.

• Clearing operations in rights-of-way • Access routes to lakes and streams must conform with the requirements of outside the road right-of-way limits the Crown Timber Act, including the must not be constructed without the harvesting and utilization of salvageable approval of the Ministry. wood. • Permanent diversion or • Materials moved during channelization of an existing water construction, such as grubbing, earth course is generally inadvisable and, if fills and earth cut materials must not be undertaken, must not create any more piled where they block drainage disturbance of the natural environment courses. than absolutely necessary. Waterway size and erosion resistance of the new channel 4.0 Mandatory Standards

must be comparable to those of the • Staff, as part of their normal field natural channel unless a special duties are expected to observe, on an engineering analysis and design justifies annual basis, the condition of water an alternative approach. The new crossings on maintained roads, channel must be constructed in the dry to particularly with respect to the potential the maximum extent possible. for washouts or blockages of culverts. Problems are to be reported to the • Fill material placed below high appropriate road authority. water level within the floodplain of water bodies must be erosion resistant. • "Naturally abandoned roads" will be inspected at least once every three years • Construction techniques used at water and more frequently where crossings must be selected to protect circumstances, such as abnormal water quality. This may require the rainfall, warrant. selection and use of special mitigation techniques. • When a road is "physically abandoned"(1) appropriate measures are • Fill slopes and waterway banks to be taken to prevent significant disturbed during construction must be erosion and sedimentation of water trimmed to a stable angle of repose. bodies. These measures may include Upon completion of a water crossing, the removal of culverts and bridges and any temporary fill, culverts, refuse, etc. grading of slopes to stable angles of must be removed from the construction repose. area and disposed of in a satisfactory manner. (1) Refer to Section 5.11 for definition of these terms.

Inadequate opening size can lead to washout during floods.

Washed out culvert was replaced with new arched culvert having sufficient opening. 5.0 Access Roads – Good Practices

The construction of access roads can 5.1 Introduction course prior to and during the cause significant disturbance to the management of access road projects. natural environment. The seriousness of Access road activities can be the impact depends on many factors, subdivided into a series of operations including: that take place in a chronological sequence. Using this sequence, the good • type of natural environment practices have been grouped into the • terrain difficulty following components: • soil types along the route • construction materials used • road planning and location • geometric road standard • a clearing • construction and maintenance • grubbing practices • earth grading • a mitigation techniques implemented • a rock grading • road abandonment practices • drainage ditches and culverts • swamp treatments The good practices described in this • graveling section apply to all types of roads. It is • road maintenance recognized that not all guidelines may be • road abandonment relevant to all roads, however even low standard tertiary roads have the potential for causing significant harmful effects. The practices described should be consulted as a matter of 5.0 Access Roads – Good Practices 13

5.2 Road Planning and Location This phase comprises the preconstruction • Gentle grades (1-4%) are desirable components of the corridor study, road for proper drainage and economical location and road design. construction. The level of technical evaluation, • Long, sustained grades should be layout and design required on a avoided since they allow excessive particular road depends on the geometric runoff buildup in ditches and can lead to standard, the terrain through which erosion. the road will be built and the method of construction. At this stage, the final • Keep roads away from recreational alignment of the road is selected. areas, water bodies and wetlands, except Decisions about the location of a where water access or aesthetic viewing particular road have an important is an objective of the road. influence on the impact the road will • Buffer zones of undisturbed have on the natural environment. vegetation between access roads and Good Practices - Location: water bodies should be maintained and should increase in width proportionally • Ensure areas of concern in the to the increase in slope of land entering planning stage have been identified and the waterway. dealt with. This may require special mitigation techniques such as protection • Minimize the number of water of canoe routes, erosion control at water crossings. crossings, building neat push-outs for • Geometric road standard should be aesthetics, avoidance of osprey nests. appropriate for the intended use and for • Select the location of water crossings the duration of use of the road. well in advance of construction, Construction to a higher standard than particularly those identified in Timber necessary increases costs and has the Management Plans. potential for more environmental damage. • Avoid unfavourable construction areas as much as possible. These include hilly • Identify sources of material for road terrain with steep grades (10% or more); construction, and consider locating the areas with insufficient gravel; deep road near these sources, in order to swamps; bedrock; erodible soils; and minimize haul distances and provide shallow soils areas. better materials to work with. • For environmental as well as • Landings, loading areas and practical considerations, road turnarounds should be located when the alignments should follow the contours road is being laid out. Landings should of the land. be on high ground to avoid rutting and blocking of drainage paths.

Higher standard roads cost more money and result in greater environmental change. 5. 0 Access Roads - Good Practices

5.3 Clearing Clearing consists of cutting and 100 metres (350 feet) of a water removing standing trees to make room crossing, or a water body identified by for construction of the road. It is normal the Ministry as being sensitive. practice to specify a minimum width of clearing. This is done for several • Away from water crossings, a reasons: to allow space for construction minimum width of 20 metres (66 feet) equipment to operate without knocking should be cleared to ensure the road down standing trees; to provide safe will dry out, and to provide sight lines sight lines around curves; and, to allow for safety. drying of the roadway in wet weather and spring break-up. Maximum widths • Trees should be felled away from should also be specified to minimize the standing bush and water bodies. areal extent of disturbance caused by road construction. • Push-outs should be pre-cut. Locate The equipment normally used for them on the low side of the road, but clearing includes chainsaws, bulldozers, without blocking drainage. wheeled skidders and other loading, slashing and haulage equipment for • Landings should be pre-cut, on high wood handling. ground, off the right-of-way, and in Good Practices - Clearing scrub brush areas if possible. • Do not clear an area larger than • Salvage merchantable timber from necessary to meet the geometric standard right-of-way clearing. for the road; control clearing width using marked sidelines. • Clear in winter months to reduce rutting. Timber cut from the right-of-way clearing should be utilized. • Reduce clearing width to the minimum needed for construction • Slash debris should be disposed of within as part of the grubbing operation.

5.4 Grubbing Grubbing, or stripping, consists of the Full width grubbing is done where road- removal and disposal of stumps, building materials are expected to come roots, brush, small trees, embedded logs from the right-of-way area. and organic material overlying the Occasionally, in certain soil conditions mineral soil. and on low standard roads, the grubbing Grubbing is done to expose the material is pulled to the centre and mineral soil for three reasons: trampled down to form part of the roadbed. On some roads, especially in • To prepare for earth grading deep fill areas, it is acceptable to not operations. grub; this will minimize impact on natural environment. It should be kept in • To improve roadway performance by mind that it is the grubbing operation eliminating weak organic material in the which exposes mineral soil to erosion zone carrying wheel loads; and and compaction. The equipment usually used in the • To minimize future sight distance grubbing operation are bulldozers and problems that roadside vegetation backhoes. Special blades have been could cause. 5.O Access Roads – Good Practices

developed for bulldozers, featuring rake- • Swamps should not be grubbed. like teeth or small shoes that elevate the blade to allow collection of the brush • The stumps in swamp areas should and stumps while leaving the organic be shear bladed in winter if possible. topsoil on the right-of-way. It is useful to use this equipment to retain low • If some organic material is left in vegetation and to minimize erosion place, it will make nutrients available to problems. ensure rapid re-vegetation of the right- Good Practices - Grubbing: of-way. This can be done by using special blades or attachments on a • To ensure that trees on the bush line bulldozer and by grubbing in winter are not under-cut, a cleared but not when the blade can ride on the frost. grubbed buffer should be left along the edge of the right-of-way. • In areas of fine grained soils (clays, silts and fine sands) which are subject • Grubbing should not proceed too far to erosion, the area to be grubbed ahead of construction. This will limit the should be minimized. time that the mineral soil is exposed to erosion. • Grubbing in fine grained soil should be avoided during wet weather. This • Grubbing material should not be will prevent severe rutting and piled where it will block drainage unnecessary disturbance of the clay or courses. silt soil. Postpone the grubbing operation until drier conditions prevail, • If windrows are used, they should be or close-cut the trees and do not grub. kept behind roadside ditches and breaks should be provided so animals can move across the right-of-way, say 5 metres every 65 metres (16 feet every 200 feet).

• If push-outs are used, they should be pre-cut to a large enough size to avoid knockdown of standing trees.

5.5 Earth Grading Earth grading reshapes the original material selection and creates less ground contours to the shape of the road, disturbance. Rather than having the in profile and cross-section. material pushed into position, a backhoe The operation includes the picks the material up, moves it, then excavation of earth cuts and the places it where needed; this gives the fill construction of earth fills. Lower a chance to dry out and consolidate standard roads tend to follow the before it has to carry heavy traffic. original ground contours more closely, The use of well-drained, granular because their geometric requirements soils produces strong roadbeds that are are less critical; this means that cut and easier to construct, and that will be fill depths will be less than those for a erosion resistant. By paying close higher- standard road constructed along attention to the shaping of the earth the same route. cross-section and the selection of The equipment normally used materials, and by providing for good includes bulldozers, front-end loaders, drainage, initial costs will be minimized, backhoes, dump trucks and scrapers. In maintenance costs will be reduced and poor soil areas, the use of backhoes for potential detrimental impacts on the building fills - by pulling in material environment will be prevented. from within the right-of-way - is a preferred method. It allows for better 5.0 Access Roads – Good Practices

Good Practices -Earth Grading: (three feet) above the original ground should be satisfactory for most roads, • Soil instability due to soft clay, if the terrain is favourable. springs or erosion can result in road failure. Treat soil instability by reducing the loading (fill height) or • Grade and crown the earth grade as it is being constructed, to shed water with counterbalancing side berms. Treat persistent springs with sub- and minimize ponding in ruts. surface drainage. • Fills should be constructed in shallow, • Where there are potential serious full width layers with stable side slopes consequences of soil instability or (1-5 to 2.0:1). Equipment should be made to travel the full width of each erosion, erosion control techniques layer to compact it and make the fill should be used promptly. more dense. This will minimize slope erosion and soft shoulders. • Retain natural vegetation near water crossings as long as possible, to reduce • When building fills on side slopes, the time that the soil is exposed; i.e., benching into the original ground will delay cut excavations under the road- prevent slippage along the interface. bed until the last moment.

• Do not dump waste material in areas • When borrow from outside the right- that may block the flow of water. of-way must be trucked in, try to obtain granular material. It makes a strong • Fill in or around water bodies should roadbed, drains well, is easy to compact, be constructed with earth-free rock or and is erosion-resistant. clean, well-graded, granular material; this will help reduce the impact on fish • Limit the number of pits to minimize habitat and water quality. the area of disturbance.

• Install drainage culverts as part of • When obtaining material by the earth grading operation. excavation within or adjacent to the right-of-way, try to drain low pockets. • Excavate cuts uphill to improve This may not be necessary when drainage and make material more standing water does not create any workable. Complete ditches as cuts are problems, e.g., in deep fill areas. being excavated. • Maintain adequate control over • Keep earth fills and earth cuts as grading operations to ensure the road is shallow as possible, consistent with the not over-built or under-built. This geometric standard being constructed. A usually requires some survey layout, road surface about one metre staking limits of cuts and fills, and supervision by a grading foreman. 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

• When working with wet, fine- Use of the backhoe for this operation grained soils (clays, silts), it may be may speed the drying time and reduce necessary to push the material up and damage to the original ground. leave it to dry for some time. When dry, such otherwise unsuitable materials can make an acceptable roadbed.

Fill construction in shallow, full-width Benching will help stabilize slopes when layers ensures a stable road bed. constructing fills on steep side hills.

5.6 Rock Grading Rock grading is the removal and Good Practices - Rock Grading: movement of solid rock or large boulders to the desired gradeline. The • Plan rock fracture to produce usable operation involves stripping the size particles for rip rap and other overburden, drilling, blasting, needs on the construction project. excavating, transporting and placing of the material into rock fills. • Plan drilling patterns and limit As with earth grading, the desired explosive loadings to an appropriate road profile determines cut and fill level that will shatter the rock and heap it requirements. For economic reasons, up vertically, but will not throw the rock cut areas are avoided if at all material into the bush. This will limit possible during location of the road. In damage outside the right-of-way and the construction of access roads, it is make the material available for fill or accepted practice to make a road more other uses. winding, or to steepen road grades to avoid rock excavation. • Where ditches leading downhill Rock grading equipment normally from rock cuts pass over earth material, includes compressors, air track rock rip rap should be provided to protect the drills, backhoes, front-end loaders, earth/rock interface from erosion. bulldozers with ripper attachments, rock trucks and dump trucks. • Where bedrock projects into the ditch line of a roadside ditch, construct an off take ditch into the bush, install a cross culvert, or excavate through the rock knob. 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

Fill construction in shallow, full-width Benching will help stabilize slopes when layers ensures a stable road bed. constructing fills on steep side hills.

5.7 Drainage Ditches and Culverts

A well drained roadbed can support heavier loads than an improperly drained road, and can be used for more of the year.

Drainage consists of the excavation of Good engineering practice is usually roadside ditches, the installation of cross good environmental practice. Soft culverts and the provision of off-take roadbeds, washouts and sedimentation ditches. It is important to differentiate are generally the consequences of between drainage culverts and water improper culvert installations or lack of crossings. The drainage culverts ditching. discussed in this section are those required to pass local surface flows Good Practices - Culverts: channelized by the road construction. • Use permanent materials on There is no defined channel prior to permanent roads (e.g., csp culvert). If construction and there are no fish in these the road is temporary, culverts and fill channels. Water crossings occur where deposited in the floodplain should be the road crosses a natural water course removed when no longer required. that has a defined channel, they are dealt with in Section 6. All culverts should be • Installation should be done in driest installed in a manner which minimizes possible time of the year. sedimentation as the downstream receiving water will eventually be fish • Installation should be carried out bearing. ahead of fill construction or as part of it. With proper drainage and protection from standing water, most soil types can be used to make economical access • Culverts should be placed so that ten roads. A well-drained roadbed can percent of their diameter is below the support heavier loads, and will be usable original ground elevation. A high culvert for more of the year, than an improperly will cause ponding upstream and outlet drained road. Furthermore, it can usually erosion downstream. Too low a culvert be constructed with less material than will fill with sediment and may freeze would be needed if good drainage was over in the winter. A single larger pipe not provided. Proper roadside drainage may be preferable to several smaller reduces erosion and damage to inundated ones, because it should be less trees and vegetation. susceptible to blockage or icing. The usual equipment for this operation includes bulldozers, backhoes, In swamps, culverts should be placed front-end loaders, graders and dump • where the organic depth is least to trucks. minimize settlement. 5.0 Access Roads -Good Practices

• Where cross-culverts are used on Good Practices - Ditches: down grades to divert flow and minimize ditch erosion, they should be • Ditching should be carried out as angled across the road so water will part of earth grading, to encourage flow easily. good drainage early and to minimize soil disturbance. • When foundation conditions are such • Ditches should be constructed that a sagging of the central portion of uphill, to avoid trapping rainwater. the culvert is anticipated, the central portion should be installed with an upward camber. Anticipated sag will • All roadside ditches should flow to then tend to restore the culvert to a an outlet downstream of the road constant gradient. right-of-way. • Ditches should be sized to handle the • Culvert length should be selected to expected runoff from the area draining ensure ends will not be blocked by fill onto them. Large drainage areas may slopes. require deeper or wider ditches than are normally provided. • The minimum culvert size used on roads needed for more than ten years should be 500 millimetres (18 inches) • On all-weather roads, ditches should in diameter. ensure that the water level is maintained at least one metre (three feet) below the • Rip rap should be placed on the road surface. upstream fill slope around the culvert inlet, to the top of the pipe, to prevent • Cross culverts and off take ditches fill washout during high flow periods. are required to ensure adequate roadside drainage. The recommended spacing of these depends on ground • If scour of the streambed down- slope and soil type, as indicated in stream of the culvert is expected due to Table 1. the high flow velocities, an erosion resistant apron or energy dissipater should be provided. 5.0 Roads - Good Practices

Table 1: Spacing Guide for Cross Culverts and Off-take Ditches

Erodible Normal Soils, Rock Soil, Sand Ground Slope Silt-Clay Loams & Gravel

Gentle 300M 600m No Limit (Under 5 %) (1000 ft) (2000 ft) Moderate 150m 300m 600m (5 - 10%) (500 ft) (1000 ft) (2000 ft)

Steep 100m 150m 300m (Over 10%) (350 ft) (500 ft) (1000 ft) Distance shown is from height of land to outlet or on a long continuous slope, the distance between outlets. If erosion protection or check dams are provided in the ditches, these distances may be increased.

• Roadside ditches should not discharge directly into waterways; rather, off take ditches should divert flow into the bush so the water filters through natural vegetation before entering the waterway. Construction of diversion berms in the ditch-line may form part of the off take ditch scheme; refer to the appropriate guidelines in Section 7.

• Interceptor ditches may be necessary to divert water away from steep cut or fill slopes.

• Long roadside ditches on slopes over three percent may require check dams, intermediate cross culverts or offtake ditches, to reduce flow velocity and water quantity if erosion is a problem.

• To ensure that drainage ditches are Ditching is carried out as part of earth not blocked, side roads should be grading, to encourage good drainage early located on high ground, or entrance and to minimize soil disturbance. culverts should be installed. • Side slopes of the fill and cut back- slopes should be flat enough to be stable in the long term, so that slumping and filling of the ditch does not occur. 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

5.8 Swamp Treatments Swamps are a common terrain feature • If possible, limit fill depths over the in Ontario. In constructing roads over swamp to 1.3 metres (four feet) or less. swamp areas, there are two main considerations: • When fill heights (swamp loadings) cannot be limited to shallow depths, • Do not exceed the load-carrying the swamp should be sounded with a capacity of the soft material; and steel rod to a solid bottom, so that future performance can be predicted. • Provide adequate cross drainage. • The root rant under the roadway Loading the swamp too much could lead should be protected from equipment to excessive settlements or rotational damage. This can be done by: failure. In either case, it can prove to be diverting through traffic to the edge of very difficult and costly to correct. Cross the right-of-way; close cutting or shear culverts should be placed in swamp blading stumps instead of grubbing; areas in order to equalize the water and, using special wide-pad levels on both sides, and thus minimize equipment. any change in the water table. The equipment normally used • Avoid ditching in deep swamps includes bulldozers, perhaps with unless absolutely necessary (say over special-sized tracks, wood-moving one metre thick (three feet)). equipment such as skidders and loaders with grapples, and graveling equipment. • If the consequences of the natural mat failing are serious, use Good Practices - Swamp Treatments: reinforcement materials such as • Deep swamps should be avoided if at geotextile fabric, geo-grid mats, brush all possible, due to the risk of failure and mats or log corduroy. the potential cost of repair. • Fill used on swamp crossings, where the road is floated on the natural mat, • Select a crossing location where there should be free from large boulders or is a well-developed root mat supporting rocks that can puncture the mat. tree growth.

• Construction of swamp treatments in • Provide frequent cross culverts, the winter has several advantages: it approximately every 300 metres (1000 permits shear balding of stumps; feet), to ensure that surface water is heavier construction equipment can equalized on both sides of the road. The cross without getting bogged down or culverts should be located where disturbing the root mat; and, organic deposit thickness is least (thus construction can also proceed beyond less settlement). If culverts must be the swamp without having to wait for placed on top of deep organic material, the treatment to be completed. it is best to leave their installation until late in the road construction, after some • The most common swamp treatment settlement has already occurred. method on access roads is to float the road fill on the natural root mat and minimize disturbance of the organic deposit. This is economical and, of the methods available, causes the least disturbance to the natural environment. 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

Elements of a Swamp Treatment, cross- section showing ”floating the road"

5.9 Graveling This operation refers to the placing of stones is preferred. It can be easily sand and gravel materials to form the placed and compacted to the desired structural road sub-base and surface that shape and will be more stable under load supports the wheel loads. than a poorer quality material. Well- A sand cushion may be used as a graded gravel tends to be erosion sub-base under the gravel surface if the resistant, and its use will reduce the underlying earth cut or fill materials are amount of road maintenance required. poor and of low strength. The operation generally involves • Shape, compact and crown the earth importing select material from a gravel grade before placement of the gravel pit nearby. layer. This will minimize the amount of The equipment normally used gravel needed and it will shed water includes front-end loaders, dump trucks, seeping through porous gravel during bulldozers, graders and backhoes. wet periods. Occasionally, crushing units, compaction equipment and water trucks • Avoid rutting by providing an are also used. adequate depth of gravel so the road Good Practices - Graveling will be able to carry the types of vehicles expected to be travelling over it • For the top 150 millimetres (six during the times it will be needed. inches), a well-graded gravel with particle sizes evenly distributed between clay size and 25 millimetre (one inch)

5.10 Road Maintenance Access roads are maintained during the either be maintained at minimal levels for period of time they are required. light recreational and other traffic uses or The level of maintenance on an access abandoned in an environmentally sound road varies depending on its use at any manner as described in Section 5.11. given time. For example, during wood The operations carried out for road extraction operations, when numerous maintenance can be broken into two main heavily loaded trucks are using a road, it groups: routine and non-routine. is maintained to keep the riding surface Routine operations include those day-to- very smooth. Later, if the road is no day activities necessary to longer used for timber management, the road use may change. It can 5.0 Access Roads – Good Practices

Proper grading techniques will minimize erosion of the roadfill material.

maintain the road for the traffic using it. • During grading operations, loose These may include grading, snow materials should be brought back plowing, and the maintenance of towards the center of the roadway to drainage by cleaning out blocked ditches prevent the creation of berms that and culverts. could channelize run-off down the Non-routine maintenance includes road and erode the fill slopes. major repairs and restoration. Since roads gradually deteriorate with time, • Nuisance beaver activity around there is a periodic need to restore the culverts should be dealt with (refer to condition of roads serving a long-term mitigation techniques in Section 7). need. These roads may require major maintenance or re-construction to • Heavy equipment should not be used restore their original condition every ten on roads during spring breakup, as this to twenty years. Example operations will lead to rutting, gravel falling into this category include: brush contamination and possible erosion. control with mechanical and chemical The spring breakup usually methods; replacement of gravel corresponds with the period of half- surfacing material; repair of major flood load restrictions on secondary damage, and, replacement of sub- highways. standard bridges. If a road is not maintained, it should • In winter, sand is preferred over be abandoned in accordance with the chemical de-icing salts. Where used, use-management strategy for the road. alts should be applied sparingly. Refer to Section 5.11, dealing with road abandonment. • Salt should be stored in dry sheds, to prevent infiltration into the water Good Practices - Maintenance: table. • The usefulness and permanence of an access road depends on a good drainage • During snow clearing operations, system. Maintenance of drainage snow banks should be winged back. This includes: regular inspection, clean-out of will decrease the time to melt the snow, blocked ditches and culverts, grading to and minimize spring saturation and remove ruts and crowning of the road to erosion of the roadbed. It will also avoid shed water. creating an obstruction to wildlife movements. 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

• Remove roadside vegetation that • If herbicides are used for vegetation shades the road, for safety (visibility) control, the person applying the and for drying of the road. In erodible herbicide should be licensed and a 10 soils, do not expose the mineral soil metre buffer zone must be maintained during the brushing operation. adjacent to all water bodies. Mechanical means of vegetation control are usually • Special mitigative techniques such as preferable environmentally and are often sediment traps and check dams should economically competitive. receive regular maintenance as long as they are needed. • Following timber management • Calcium chloride may be used to operations along the roadside, the stabilize the road surface and control roadway cross section should be restored dust problems. It should always be by repairing damaged slopes, culverts applied in accordance with the and ditches. manufacturer's recommendations.

5.11 Road Abandonment A Use Management Strategy is Consideration should be given to developed for primary and secondary regeneration of the road right-of-way roads as part of the Timber Management to make the area productive for Plan or other planning process. The Use growing trees and to prevent erosion. Management Strategy addresses the This will lead to a more rapid re- duration of use for the road and what establishment of natural conditions. actions are proposed when that use ends. The strategy may call for abandonment Erosion Control of the road when its original purpose Preventative measures can be taken to ends. There are two forms of minimize erosion of the road fill abandonment: and subsequent sedimentation in the watercourse. When a road is not Physical Abandonment occurs when maintained, frost and runoff will lead to there is a deliberate act to render a road loosening and erosion of fill and road unusable by vehicular traffic. Physical surfaces. In the area of water crossings, abandonment could include taking steps the roadway slopes downhill, towards the which will minimize the environmental stream. Water flowing down the road can impacts of non-maintenance. erode the gravel surface and underlying fill. Preventative measures can be taken to minimize erosion of the road fill and Natural Abandonment occurs when subsequent sedimentation in the road maintenance has ceased, yet steps watercourse. are not taken to prevent the use of the Water bars can be used to control road by vehicles. With natural surface water runoff and minimize abandonment, no physical changes are erosion of the road surface and fill. Water made to the road. bars are transverse ditches excavated across the road surface to intercept runoff In either case, abandonment should and deflect it towards the ditches instead be carried out in an environmentally of flowing down the road surface. The sound manner. Erosion and decay outlet of a water bar should be extended processes can lead to sediment into an area that is erosion resistant and problems in the area of water that will filter out sediment. This control crossings. of runoff will prevent surface erosion and lead to quicker re-establishment of vegetation on the road. 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

Preventative measures can be taken to minimize erosion of an abandoned road. There are two types of water bars, as log bridges) should be removed when the shown on the sketch. One uses a log to road is abandoned. Structures built of divert water while still permitting "permanent" materials, such as steel or passage by vehicles over it, the other treated timber, that have been would be used where there is no traffic maintenance free, may be left in place. on the road. Water bars should be Removal of structures will involve spaced closer together in steeply excavation of all materials below the sloping terrain. Spacing similar to that high water mark. This may include shown in Table 1 in Section 5.7 would bridge piers, stringers, decking, culverts be appropriate. and roadway fill. It is not necessary to excavate stable bridge abutments and Removal of Structures erosion protection works. Often removal Water crossing structures that have of piling from the river bed is not required on-going maintenance to possible. Excavated keep functioning, or which have deteriorate with time and may collapse into a waterway (for example untreated

Water bar installations 5.0 Access Roads - Good Practices

material should be trucked away to a suitable disposal site at least 100 metres (350 feet) away from the water course. The banks and approach fills should be graded and trimmed to a stable angle similar to the adjacent natural river banks. The banks should then be provided with erosion control treatment if necessary to prevent erosion. Exposed soil on the river banks should have seed and fertilizer applied to speed re- vegetation.

Failure to maintain culverts and ditches may lead to a road washout. 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

6.l lntroduction

Water crossings can have an important impact on the environment, and thus require special care in their design and construction. Water crossings are locations where an • They can have a significant impact access road crosses a natural water on fish habitat (e.g., spawning areas), course having a defined channel. Any water quality (e.g., turbidity) and fish water crossing has the potential for migration. significant detrimental impacts on water quality. Through good design, adherence • Protection and maintenance of to good construction practices and use of aesthetics, fisheries habitat and wildlife special mitigation techniques where habitat values are usually important required, disturbances during considerations. construction can be minimized and the site can be stabilized to prevent long • Failure of water crossing structures term changes. can have serious consequences in terms Water crossings have several of public safety, property damage, characteristics in common: damage to the natural environment and inconvenience to road users. • Selection of the water crossing location has a significant effect on the This section is divided into the type of structure required and its cost. following four components: • site selection and design • They require a properly engineered • fords and temporary bridges structure to safely carry the load. • construction • site clean-up • They usually involve water diversion and de-watering to allow construction in a dry condition, with foundations extending below the creek bottom.

• They are usually quite expensive. 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

6.2 Site Selection and Design A preferred site for construction is in a • Occasionally, islands can be used in a rapids section of a stream or river. These rapids or at waterfalls, to break a long areas are often of high value for span into two or more shorter spans. fisheries as spawning areas; as well, This also makes de-watering much rapids are important for recreation. The simpler, since one channel can be area adjacent to a rapids may contain completely closed at a time. historical or archaeological material. Although these other values must be • If recreation or fisheries values are considered and protected, from an high in the area, the crossing location engineering viewpoint a rapids site may have to be adjusted to a site that offers the following advantages: minimizes the impact on these values. For this reason, alternatives to the • Soils are usually resistant to erosion preferred site should be considered. at high flow velocity. • Select a structure appropriate to the • Foundation conditions are usually site. Commonly used alternatives are: good, requiring less river bottom disturbance. - Bridges with crib abutments, single span or multiple spans • The effects of upstream backwater, corporating piers in the river. due to the constriction created by the crossing, will be limited to a short - Bridges with pile-supported length of river. abutments of single span or multiple spans. • Water depths are usually shallow, and the encroachment for cofferdams to - Single corrugated steel pipe culvert construct abutments or piers will be or multiple csp culverts; these minimal. could be either circular pipe with couplers or field-assembled Good Practices - Site Selection and structural plate. design • Avoid poor crossing sites if at all - Arch-type culverts incorporating possible. A poor site would be one two side footings and a corrugated where: steel arch to support the fill. This - Water depths at abutments and piers type of culvert leaves the natural are great, i.e., over two metres (six streambed between the footings on either side. feet). - Soils are erodible and/or require - Box culverts with closed or open expensive foundations to distribute bottoms. the load, i.e., clay, silt or fine sand. - Water surface widths are quite wide • For streams which are used for fish migrating or spawning areas, bridges or and flow velocities are low. arch culverts, which retain the natural - Steep high banks or hilly approaches stream bottom and slope, are preferred could make satisfactory road over pipe culverts. construction to the water crossing very costly. • The crossing should have structural - There are areas of bank instability, capacity to carry the vehicle loads erosion or bends in rivers. expected to cross it. • The waterway opening size should be selected to minimize the risk of washout during the expected life of the structure. 6.0 Water Crossings – Good Practices

Alternative water crossing structures

• Hydrologic and hydraulic analyses • Culvert size should be selected so should be in accordance with design normal water levels rise no higher than procedures developed for Ontario use; half the diameter of the pipe. refer to the Ministry of Transportation Drainage Manual. This conforms with • If possible, align the road so it review criteria under the Lakes and crosses the waterway at right angles. Rivers Improvement Act. Bridge abutments and piers should be aligned parallel to the direction of • The waterway opening size should be flow. selected to ensure that upstream water levels will be acceptable, and that flow • It may be appropriate to place a dip in velocities will not be too high to prevent the approach grade to allow water fish migration. Multiple smaller pipes spillage over the road if the pipe will have lower flow velocity and may capacity is exceeded. This would also be preferred for fish migration purposes lower repair costs if a washout occurred. but may be more susceptible to blockage by ice or debris. The maximum number • Select adequate lengths of culverts of culverts at a water crossing should be and use wing walls on bridges, to keep no more than three. fill from spilling into flowing water, and to reduce maintenance costs. • Design mitigative techniques to accommodate any special requirements identified through the planning phase, or by Ministry staff during their review of the proposed construction. 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

The crossing must have structural capacity to carry the vehicle loads expected to cross it.

Flow over the road in a shallow fill area prevented washout of this culvert during a flood.

If suitable material is available, an economical water crossing can involve both piped flow and spillage over the road 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

6.3 Fords and Temporary Bridges

Ice bridge - temporary water crossing for winter access (a) Fords Good Practices - Fords Fording, or driving through a water • Crossings should be at right angles course, may be an alternative used for access in limited specific to the stream. circumstances. Sites favourable for use • The road width should be not more as a ford are those where: than 10 metres (32 feet) wide and it should be well marked to be visible to • The streambed has a firm rock or drivers. coarse gravel bottom and where the approaches are both low and stable • If necessary, stabilize the approaches enough to support traffic. by using non-erodible material to 15 metres (50 feet) up the bank on both • Use of the ford will be temporary sides of the ford. and limited to low volumes of light • Fords should be constructed and vehicles such as initial access during used during the driest times of the clearing operations, or for mining year. exploration equipment. • Minimize the amount of vegetation • The water depth should be less than removed adjacent to the water crossing. one metre (three feet). • Fish passage should be accommodated by maintaining a water depth of at least The natural carrying capacity of a 200 millimeters (eight inches) or the stream bottom can be improved by natural stream depth at the location. constructing an underwater roadbed using log corduroy, coarse gravel, rock fill or gabions. If used, these materials should be set into the bottom so the driving surface will be flush with the stream bed to minimize erosion and to allow fish passage. 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

Temporary access bridges and cofferdams are important elements of bridge construction. • Any material used within the stream flows during the time they will be in to improve the crossing should be clean, place without unduly backing up non-erodible and non-toxic to aquatic water. Ice bridges are constructed in the life. winter to take advantage of frost and ice in the waterways, to reach areas which • Do not use the ford during fish may be otherwise inaccessible. spawning, incubation or migration Bridges serving a short-term need periods. may be constructed economically, using untreated log poles, however their • Equipment crossing the ford should strength diminishes with time as be mechanically sound with no oil or bacterial decay destroys the wood gas leaks. fibre. Untreated wood should not be used for bridges required for more than ten • When the ford is no longer required, years of service. Temporary bridges restore the stream channel and banks usually span the water surface width, just to their original contours by removing above normal water level. Piers may be material placed to construct the ford. placed on the river bottom to break a wide river into short spans that log poles (b) Temporary Bridges can bridge. Temporary bridges are constructed It is important that temporary bridges across waterways to serve a short-term be removed when their use is finished. purpose. Typical examples include This is necessary since the waterway access for bridge construction, and opening and the materials used for access for several months of timber construction may be unsuitable for a harvest and extraction. permanent crossing. The crossings would not normally be designed to pass extreme flood events; they are usually intended to be in place for only a short period of time and then to be removed. They should have an adequate opening for expected 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

6.4 Construction

Construction of large culverts "in the dry" is a key to proper installation. Considering the effort that is normally Often there may be access to only one invested in site selection and design side of a water crossing, and it will be prior to construction of a major water necessary to construct a means of crossing, those responsible for on-site temporary access to facilitate work should be aware of potential construction. environmental impacts, and should take If a culvert is to be installed in a appropriate precautions to ensure those flowing stream channel, the water should impacts under their control are kept to a be diverted around the work site during minimum. Normally, this precaution construction. Isolating the work site from adds little or no additional cost to the the flow of water is necessary to project. minimize the release of soil into the In most cases, the satisfactory water course and to ensure a satisfactory construction of a water crossing requires installation in a dry environment. Two that flowing water be diverted away methods of water diversion are from work areas so that the structure can commonly used for culvert installations: be constructed under dry conditions. construction in the stream bed, or Excavation for a bridge in the river bed, construction in a new channel, these are or placement of a large culvert, should detailed in the sketch. not be done in flowing water. Rather, If a bridge is to be installed it is the work area should be isolated with a usually not possible to divert all of the cofferdam or stream diversion.

A cofferdam allows abutment construction in an area isolated from flowing water.

Water diversion for construction of water crossings 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

Elements of a good culvert installation flowing water, so partial diversions are • Work in the river should be constructed using cofferdams around the scheduled for the driest time of the work areas. year, usually July and August, unless this would create noise or visual Good Practices- Water Crossing impact problems for users of the Construction waterway. • Cofferdams for bridge construction • Borrow material should not be should not block more than one third excavated from the watercourse, except of the waterway at a time. as part of a designed channel improvement. • Provide sufficient waterway size for a diversion channel and temporary • Equipment and materials should be openings. Use erosion-resistant stored well back from the water's edge. material, i.e., gravel fill with rip rap or geotextile lining. • Pump water should outlet into vegetative areas for filtering during de- • Restrict clearing width, and do not watering operations. grub the right-of-way between the road and bush line within 100 metres • The number of equipment crossings (350 feet) of the waterway. Preserve in the river should be minimized by vegetative cover as long as possible. constructing a temporary bridge.

• Waste debris from grubbing should • Culverts should be installed in be hauled back and disposed of more accordance with manuals available from than 100 metres (350 feet) from the the pipe manufacturers. To ensure waterway. satisfactory performance, particular attention should be paid to bedding, • Every effort should be made to invert elevation, backfill material quality, complete water crossing construction as placement of backfill in even shallow quickly as possible once the work lifts on each side, backfill compaction and erosion protection. begins. Limit the duration to minimize environmental impacts. • Culverts should be installed so the • Construction of water crossings must pipe has at least ten percent of its not take place during spawning/ diameter below the streambed. This incubation periods or major fish will encourage formation of a shallow migration periods, as determined by the sediment layer in the pipe, and should Ministry. ensure enough flow depth for fish 6. 0 Water Crossings - Good Practices

migration. During flood periods, the • Field cuts and drill holes should be sediment will quickly erode. This painted liberally with preservative to practice will also minimize the chance prevent decay; care should be taken to of undercutting at inlet or outlet. avoid contamination of the water by field-applied preservatives. • Control materials on the job so that loose boards, nails and other debris • If the project is a bridge replacement, will not enter the waterway and flow remove the old stringers and decking. If downstream. A log boom should be reasonably possible, also remove used downstream of the bridge site if foundation piers and abutments unless there is a chance that debris (lumber) these may be useful to break up ice or could fall into the water and be protect against erosion. carried downstream. • If culverts are founded on soft • Do not clean concrete buckets, material, a granular bedding shaped wheelbarrows, shovels in water bodies. with a camber should be provided, so Instead, wash them with hoses so that that when settlement occurs, the pipe run-off is filtered through vegetation. will function. Prevent the entry of lime, cement or fresh concrete into waterways. • For pier construction in open water, in which there are erodible river bottom • Oil-based treated timber (pentach- sediments and where water quality must lorophenol, creosote) used below or near be protected, silt barrier curtains floating water level should be reasonably dry, on the surface and anchored to the without excessive surface oils. Timbers bottom should be installed around the with oil base preservative treatments work area. should be ordered early to allow air drying before use. Those with abundant surface oils should be used at the back of the cribs, against the approach fill.

6.5 Site Clean-up

If proper construction procedures are followed, the impact of bridge construction is short term. The final stage of construction is clean- to prevent erosion and make the up of the site. An extra effort on the part crossing more attractive in appearance of construction staff can assist in the to those who view it from the road or restoration of stable ground contours the water. and protective vegetative cover, 6.0 Water Crossings – Good Practices 36

Considering the time and money spent • Restore or enhance fish habitat on the physical structure to carry traffic (spawning beds or aids to migration) if over the waterway, a few days of effort required by the Ministry; suggested on site restoration, while the resources methods are described in Section 7. are available, is a good investment for mitigating the long term environmental • All temporary imported material on impacts of a water crossing. the site should be removed, including any debris which has floated downstream of the crossing. Good Practices - Site Clean- Up • Disturbed areas within 100 metres • Heavy rock rip rap material should (350 feet) of a water body should be be placed around abutment faces stabilized and re-vegetated to prevent exposed to flowing water. This will erosion and to intercept sediment. minimize the possibility of undercutting and will help provide • River banks and fill slopes should be stability to the abutment. trimmed to a relatively flat angle that will be stable, i.e., 2:1 or flatter. • Rip rap should be placed on fill areas exposed to flowing water below the expected high water level. This includes areas around the inlet end of culverts.

• Place an erosion-resistant rip rap apron in the river bed downstream of the pipe, where increased flow velocities could cause serious scour. The apron should extend six culvert diameters beyond the end of the pipe and it should be sloped toward the centre of the channel to allow fish migration at low water flows.

Inadequate erosion protection can lead to problems in maintaining road width, and washout before capacity of this culvert is reached. 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

7.l lntroduction The environmental guidelines presented Even though special methods and in the previous sections are measures exist for mitigating the impact recommended practice for all access of road construction, they may not be road construction. In addition, there will applied unless a need for them be occasions when special mitigation is apparent and a rational decision is techniques are needed to deal with a made requiring their use. potentially serious problem, or to protect Considerations for assessing the specific values that have been identified degree and extent of mitigation as needing protection from the impacts techniques required should include the of construction. following: This section is intended as a source • compliance with standards and of information for those involved in road applicable legislation construction who require technical detail • the value of the tangible and concerning such mitigation techniques. intangible resources to be protected The need to implement a special • the cost of supplying the protection technique in order to prevent serious • the pre-construction conditions in the problems from developing could arise in environment, i.e., natural water situations such as the following: turbidity, natural erosion.

This document does not presume to • water crossings where there are determine when, where and at whose important fish habitat, such as spawning cost, mitigation techniques should be beds, that could be destroyed if used; these are the perogative of those sediment levels are high. involved in the decision-making process preceding approval of road construction • areas of concern identified during on Crown land. Whenever such choices the planing phase. must be made by those directly and indirectly involved in a project, their • special values identified in advance value systems, preferences, traditions that are to be protected from potential and customs all have an effect on the negative impacts (e.g. tourism). ultimate decisions. Thus, one group might go to great lengths to protect and • unexpected conditions identified preserve a resource that would get little during construction that require attention in another area. The treatment or protection (e.g. erosion, considerations and criteria for special archaeological material). mitigation techniques should therefore be viewed by those making the decisions in light of their own perceptions of what The subject is not treated here in an is valuable, what is right and what is exhaustive manner; rather, commonly acceptable in the public interest. occurring treatments are described, and Through the use of written references are provided for those who description, illustrative sketches and require more information. photography, the objective here is to The techniques described are provide sufficient generic design currently used in Ontario on access information on the recommended roads and, if properly implemented, can techniques so as to minimize the need mitigate the specific impact of road for further reference to other documents. construction being addressed. The material covered in this section includes:

• erosion and sediment control • control of beaver problems • fish habitat protection • aesthetic considerations 7. 0 Mitigation Techniques

7.2 Erosion and Sediment Control Erosion is the natural process of undisturbed areas. On a well- wearing away of the land surface by constructed access road, with water, wind, ice and gravity. The appropriate use of mitigation techniques construction of access roads exposes when and where required, restoration of the mineral soil to the action of these stable erosion resistant conditions is forces, particularly erosion by water. possible within a few years. Erosion rates from construction sites are much higher than the average rates in

7.2.1 Erosion and Sediment Control - Erosion is essentially a two-part process. displacement and transport under the Causes of erosion One part is the loosening of soil particles action of rainfall and flowing water. caused largely by raindrop impact. The Generally coarse soil particles, soils with other part is the transportation of soil a well-graded mixture of particle sizes particles, largely in flowing water. The and cohesive clay soils are more stable principal factors influencing the than fine single-particle sized soils. existence or extent of soil erosion are The volume of water flowing over a precipitation (duration and force of soil and its velocity are determined by loosening agent), soil characteristics the topography of the area. Important (susceptibility to erosion), topography variables are the upstream drainage area (duration and force of transporting and the slope of the ground at the agent), and ground cover (protection). particular point. Roadside ditches on Any erosion control treatment must long steep slopes are especially address at least one of these factors to be vulnerable to erosion because the effective. A brief explanation of each drainage area can be large, and flow factor will aid in understanding the velocities can be quite high as the runoff mitigation techniques suggested. builds up momentum. Precipitation is the driving force Vegetation is one of nature's methods behind erosion. Raindrops falling on of erosion control. Ground cover protects exposed soil dislodge individual the mineral soil from the erosive action particles. The duration, intensity and of falling raindrops and flowing water. It raindrop size all influence the erosive also slows the velocity of runoff, it holds force exerted by rainfall on the soil. soil particles in place and it maintains Soil characteristics that affect erosion the soil's capacity to absorb water. include permeability and stability. Soil porosity affects the infiltration of rainwater into the soil and its capacity to store water before overland flow begins. Soils exposed to compaction by equipment and vehicles driving over them will have less porosity than undisturbed soils. Soil stability is the resistance of the individual particles to 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

7.2.2 Erosion and Sediment Control - The principles of erosion and sediment most soils encountered in access road Design Principles control design are based on simple construction in Ontario, this means cut common sense. Erosion control is and fill slopes should be shaped to a done to prevent or minimize the erosion slope between 1.5 and 2.0 horizontal to of soil. Sediment control is the trapping 1.0 vertical. of suspended soil particles being transported downstream in flowing 5. Encourage re-vegetation water to prevent their discharge into the A properly re-vegetated soil will be aquatic environment of a stream. protected from erosion indefinitely Erosion control is obviously the only without any need for human attention. effective long-term solution, whereas Re-vegetation will occur naturally if the sediment control is a short-term remedy slope is stable. Re-vegetation can be to minimize the impact of unavoidable encouraged by leaving some organic erosion that does occur during the material mixed in the uppermost soil construction period. layer and/or by seed and fertilizer The eight principles of erosion and treatments. sediment control are: 6. Divert runoff away from exposed soil 1. Fit the road to the terrain In the planning, design and Surface water drainage that would construction of access roads this naturally flow over the exposed soil means: avoid erodible soil sites; follow can sometimes be diverted away from the ground contours as much as the area. Runoff collected in roadside possible; and, do not construct deeper ditches should be diverted to an outlet fills and cuts than the geometric road off the right-of-way. The frequency of standard requires. outlets and cross-drains to carry water from upstream to downstream side of 2. Minimize the duration of soil the road should be designed to fit the exposure ground slope involved. Limit the duration of exposure by scheduling the work so construction 7. Keep runoff velocities low coincides with the dry season and The energy of flowing water complete grading operations soon increases with the square of the velocity. after the grubbing operation exposes the Thus, less erosion will occur if the water soil. is moving slowly. Flow velocities can be kept low by lining erodible soils with 3. Retain existing vegetation where rough surfaces such as vegetation, rip rap feasible and brush. The construction of check Very little erosion occurs on soil dams in ditches will break the flow covered with undisturbed natural momentum and reduce velocities. vegetation. Re-establishment of Flattening the steepness of a slope and comparable coverage after construction creating roughness in the flow path of can take a long time. Limit the soil water will reduce velocities. Ditch sizes exposed by grubbing to the area where should be selected to handle the expected construction will actually occur. runoff from precipitation - this means that larger ditches are needed to handle 4. Grade disturbed soil to a stable slope runoff from larger drainage areas. A slope which is inherently unstable will be unable to develop a satisfactory vegetative cover until it has eroded back to a stable angle of repose. For 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

8. Trap sediment before it can cause barrier made with slash debris on the damage lower slope area can also create a Some erosion during construction is filter. Sediment traps can be made by unavoidable. In order to prevent excavating a depression downstream of sedimentation of streams it is desirable the sediment source that will pond water to trap sediment on land before it so suspended soil can settle out. Another reaches the aquatic environment. The method of trapping sediment is to filter most common method used on access the runoff from an area through a "silt roads is the diversion of runoff into the fence" made of geotextile fabric or adjacent forest floor where suspended straw bales. The water passes through soil particles are filtered out as runoff but silt and sand is filtered out. flows through the surface vegetation and litter. The placement of a brush

7.2.3 Erosion and Sediment Control - The technology for erosion and sediment The techniques described below are: Mitigation Techniques control is well developed. Accepted, • rip rap proven techniques are described in detail • slope modification in the Ministry of Transportation • re-vegetation Drainage Manual and The Erosion and • check dams Sediment Control Handbook (see • sediment traps references). In this section, techniques • brush barriers which are particularly suitable for use on • silt fences access roads in Ontario have been • a forest floor filter selected for detailed presentation. Flexibility in the construction of Each of these techniques is based on one access roads allows individuals the or more of the principles described opportunity to exercise innovation in previously. The implementation of mitigating the effects of erosion and economical control measures, when and sediment in a variety of ways. Relatively where required, will reduce the simple and inexpensive techniques environmental damage caused by developed in a local area can be just as erosion and sedimentation. The effective as more expensive methods effectiveness of the mitigation found in a textbook. techniques described may be increased by combining more than one method. For example, the use of a brush barrier, together with seed and fertilizer, will be more effective than either method on its own. 41

Erosion Control Using Rip Rap Locations: Design and Construction Information: Rip rap may be used on any exposed Rip rap linings can be made to mineral soil subjected to flowing water withstand most velocities if the proper where the velocity of water flow, size of rock is selected. The construction seriousness of erosion, steepness of sequence would include surface grading, slope, or material type, prevents possible placement of a filter layer satisfactory establishment of vegetative (either geotextile or granular material) cover. Examples could include: and placement of the rip rap layer. Preparation of the surface to receive • Ditches in erodible soils on a slope of the rip rap layer is important. Slopes more than three percent could result in should be shaped to a steepness no flow velocities that will erode and greater than 2:1. transport ditch bottom material. Filters are required if there will be groundwater emerging from the soil • A fill slope at the entrance to a under the rip rap layer. The geotextile culvert, where the channel constriction filter placed under the rip rap can be causes high flow velocities during woven or non-woven material of flood flow that could erode the road relatively light weight. Sand or gravel fill and cause washout. may be used as a filler. Blasted rock fragments, available • A river bank in the vicinity of a from rock cut areas, make the most bridge or culvert where soil erosion suitable rip rap material because of their could undermine the bridge or its rough angular shape and because they approaches. can be made to the desired particle size. If rock cut material is not available, Although all water crossings will boulders from a borrow pit may be used. require rip rap erosion control to some They will tend to roll on each other and extent, other applications for rip rap a flatter slope may be necessary than may arise during construction of the would be the case if blasted rock were road. available. The desirable particle sizes for use in Function: access road construction are as follows: Rip rap lining slows down the flow of water. This reduces the erosive forces acting on the soil, and provides a lining of competent material too large for the water to displace. The reduced flow velocity encourages water infiltration into the ground and vegetative growth between the rip rap particles.

Application Range or Sizes Median Size River Bank Protection 50 mm to 500 mm 200 mm (2:1 Slope or Flatter) (2 in to 20 in) (8 in)

Roadside Ditch 10 mm to 200 mm 100 mm Lining (<5 % Slope) (.5 in to 8 in) (4 in)

Roadside Ditch 10 mm to 400 mm 150 mm Lining (>5% Slope) (.5 in to 16 in) (6 in) 7.O Mitigation Techniques

The rip rap material is placed by suitable pit boulders available, its use machine, usually a backhoe. It is levelled may be impractical. to a uniform layer thickness approximately one and a half times the Approximate Cost (1987 dollars): median particle size. In a ditch bottom The cost of this treatment depends lining, the protection should extend up on the availability of suitable material. the side slope and backslope above the The quantity of area to be treated also expected high water level in flood. has an important effect on the unit costs applicable to a specific site. Disadvantages: The following are approximate Although quite effective, the treatment figures: is very expensive, and in some areas where there are no rock cuts or

If there are rock cuts within 20 km $12 per square metre (blasted rock available free): ($10 per square yard)

If there are no rock cuts and rock $24 per square metre must be quarried: ($20 per square yard)

If there are no rock cuts and boulders $24 per square metre are available within 20 km: ($20 per square yard)

Erosion control using rip rap

Rip rap is erosion resistant, it slows the velocity of flow, and filters out sediment. 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Erosion Control Using Slope Locations: Once a stable angle of repose is Modification Slope instability and erosion of reached, there is little benefit in further earth cuts and fills can be reduced by flattening; this will just increase the area flattening the gradient. of soil exposed to erosion. Changes in slope angles should be Function: rounded in shape to reduce erosion A cut or fill slope constructed too potential and to blend with the natural steeply, steeper than the soil's natural landscape. Rounding is particularly angle of repose, will mean that the important at the top of cut excavations. surface soil particles are inherently unstable and satisfactory re-vegetation (b) Surface Roughening: would not be possible. Surface Graded areas can be roughened in a roughening, using special grading variety of ways. One of the simplest is techniques, can reduce the amount of to drive a bulldozer or other tracked runoff travelling down-slope, reduce the machine up and down the slope. This flow velocity, increase infiltration, and process, called track walking, leaves a intercept some of the sediment before it pattern of tread imprints parallel to slope reaches the toe of slope. contours. The tread indentations are ideal for trapping seeds and encouraging Design and Construction Information: plants to become established. The tracks (a) Slope Flattening: also slow the velocity of runoff. Graded slopes, such as earth cuts and fills, should not be too steep - preferably 2:1 (two metres [six feet] horizontal to Disadvantages: one metre [three feet] vertical) or flatter. These methods may not be the most The chance for successful re-vegetation economical for the road builder since will be greater on gentler slopes. more material has to be moved to create Flattening a steep slope involves flatter cut and fill slopes. adding more fill, or taking out more cut material, than would otherwise be the Approximate Cost: case, to create a more stable angle. For The cost of this treatment is reflected example, an earth cut slope in fine sand in the additional material that must be material excavated at 1:1 would likely excavated and placed in fills. The cost be unstable and subject to a serious on any particular access road depends on erosion problem. Flattening the same the depth and length of cuts and fills. It slope to 2:1 will result in better stability should be recognized that a steep, and quicker attainment of re-vegetation. inherently unstable slope, will continue to regress and flatten naturally until the The best time to do this work is during stable angle of repose for the soil and initial rough grade construction. moisture conditions is reached. This Although a steep cut may be trimmed means that if not properly shaped back economically, it is very costly to initially, the road cut or fill will create flatten an existing road fill that is too maintenance problems until it stabilizes. steep. It is best to construct stable fill In this regard, proper initial grading is slopes from the bottom up. usually more economical in the long run. 7. 0 Mitigation Techniques

Graded slopes, such as earth cuts and fills, should not be too steep; the chances for early successful re-vegetation will be greater on gentle slopes. Had this slope been flatter, it would be covered with vegetation like the ditch is.

Poor soil, like the fine sand in this cut, should be flattened to its natural angle of repose.

Elements of a stable cut 7. 0 Mitigation Techniques

Erosion Control Using lutely necessary, will increase the odds Re-Vegetation of successful re-vegetation by holding the seeds in place until germination can occur. Mulches used in Ontario include straw, shredded paper, wood chips, matting and slash debris. Criteria to be considered in the selection of seed mixture include: • complete soil protection • fast growing • easy to plant • adapted to the soil type • adapted to local environment • regrowth in subsequent years • available commercially • low maintenance • low cost The mixture should be selected to meet Seeding, to re-establish vegetation, is often done in the area of water crossings. as many of the above criteria as possible. Having a variety of species, rather than a Locations: single plant type, will increase the Seeding, to re-establish vegetation, is chances for success. often done in the area of water The time of planting is important. crossings. It may be used in other areas, The best time to plant is when for aesthetic reasons, to limit the time temperatures, moisture and sunlight are soil is exposed to erosion, or to establish adequate - usually in spring and fall. a growth of acceptable grasses in The key factor in seeding is to get the preference to brush which could obstruct seeds evenly distributed and in contact sight lines. with the soil. Best results are obtained when seeds are covered with Function: a shallow layer of soil, about 10 Seeding advances the time for re- millimetres (. 5 inches) in thickness. Low vegetation by ensuring that sufficient cost seeding of small areas, such as water seed is on the exposed soil at the end of crossings, can be done using hand construction. Quick re-vegetation will broadcast seeders. minimize erosion by providing suitable Hydraulic seeding and mulching is protection of mineral soil against efficient for larger areas. It is a one erosion. With proper selection of the step process for spraying a slurry of seed, seed mixture, a specific vegetative cover fertilizer, wood fiber mulch and water. with desirable properties for an area can The critical factor in hydroseeding is the be used. ability of the fiber to adhere to the soil and hold the seed in place during rainfall Design and Construction Information: and wind. Re-vegetation normally consists of the application of grass and legume seeds, and fertilizer to provide nutrients for growth. A wide variety of seed is available (see recommendations below). Mulch, although not abso-

Re-vegetation around a water crossing will help to filter sediment. 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Fertilizer is essential to the other purposes, such as shading. establishment of vegetation, particularly Techniques are also available for using where organic soil has been removed in live and dead plant material for erosion grubbing. The key elements are nitrogen, and sediment control. Such techniques phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. The are known as "bio-engineering"; these amount and type of fertilizer depends on are characterized by low material and local soil and water conditions. equipment costs, but they are quite The use of shrubs, trees and other labour intensive. Information on these live plantings along water ways or lake methods is contained in the references shores may be desirable for aesthetic or listed in Section 9.

Grass Seed Mixtures and Fertilizer Recommended For Northern Ontario

Sandy, Infertile Sites with Little Materials Per Hectare Per Acre Topsoil Norlea Perennial Rye Grass 25 kg. 22 lb. Birdsfoot Trefoil (inocu- 32 kg. 28 lb. lated seed)* 20 kg. 18 lb. Canada bluegrass 18 kg. 16 lb. Tall fescue 10 kg. 9 lb. Creeping red fescue 10 kg. 9 lb. Creeping foxtail (coated) 5 kg. 5 lb. Biljart hard fescue 5 kg. 5 lb. Alsike Clover 8-32-16 standard fertilizer 310 lb. mixture 350 kg. 0-40-0 super phosphate 180 lb. fertilizer 200 kg. 200 kg. 180 lb. 0-0-60 muriate of potash *Do not use in farming areas

Loamy to Clayey, More Fertile Materials Per Hectare Per Acre Alsike clover 20 kg. 18 lb. Creeping red fescue 55 kg. 50 lb. Canada bluegrass 27 kg. 24 lb. 14 lb. Perennial rye 15 kg. 3 kg. 3 lb. White clover 350 kg. 312 lb. 8-32-16 fertilizer Source: Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Maintenance Branch.

Disadvantages: Stimulation of re-vegetation by seed and mulch applications is quite expensive and, except near water courses, the benefits of quicker re-vegetation than would occur naturally may not justify its use on most access roads. Approximate Cost (1987 dollars) For broadcast seeding: $1,150 per hectare ($460 per acre) For Hydroseed and wood fibre mulch: $3,000 per hectare ($1,200 per acre) 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Erosion Control Using Check Dam Locations: The weir size must be adequate to Check dams are used in ditches to prevent washing around the edges create an overflow weir that slows through the native soil. down velocity, thus reducing ditchline The maximum height of a check erosion. They may be either temporary, dam should be less than 600 millimetres until vegetation is established, or (two feet) and the centre should be at permanent. The drainage area of the least 150 millimetres (six inches) lower ditch being protected should not exceed than the outer edges. The spacing of four hectares (10 acres). check dams in a ditch should be close enough to control flow velocity. Function: Check dams prevent channel erosion Disadvantages: by maintaining low flow velocities and Close spacing on steep grades is catching sediment. Runoff is stepped required. Frequent clean-out is needed down the sloping ditch at check dam for best performance. Unless properly locations where erosion resistant designed and keyed at the side and material is provided. bottom, erosion around the edges may occur. If the dam washes out, it may Design and Construction Information: cause more sedimentation downstream Check dams can be constructed using than would have occurred if the check virtually any material available on site, dam had not been used. such as logs, shot rock, boulders, sandbags, gabions, wood planks or other Approximate Cost (1987 dollars): erosion resistant material. Assuming suitable boulder They are constructed by placing material is available within a 10 selected material across the ditch kilometre (six mile) haul, an channel normal to the flow. It is approximate cost would be $200 per important to properly embed the dam to dam. prevent undercutting by flow under the dam.

Two types of check dams 7.0 Mitigation Techniques 48

Sediment Control Using Sediment Locations: The outlet end of the sediment trap Traps Sediment traps are used down- should be adequately protected against stream of erodible soil sites, such as erosion since it acts as an overflow weir. earth cuts, to keep sediment from For areas larger than two hectares flowing downstream and entering water (five acres), fairly sophisticated courses. The trap should be located structures known as sediment ponds may close to the source of sediment, be used. Design techniques, formulas for preferably in natural low areas or in estimating sediment loads and pockets used for borrow extraction. recommended pond sizes may be They are effective for drainage areas obtained from the references in less than two hectares (five acres). A Section 9. sediment trap should not be located in a water course. Disadvantages: Function: Sediment traps do not eliminate all The traps reduce the flow velocity as sediment and turbidity; they only water passes through the small pond. remove large particle sizes. They This allows larger suspended material, become ineffective when filled with such as sand size particles, to settle out. sediment. The trap is a temporary measure until erosion stops.

Design and Construction Information: Approximate Cost (1987 dollars): The trap is constructed by excavating If the soil material within the right- a hole in the ground or by creating an of-way is suitable for constructing fills, a impoundment with a low-head dam. sub-excavation to provide a sediment The trap size and the spacing trap will not cost anything; rather, it will between traps should be selected so that provide an economical source of borrow. sediment from expected erosion areas If the roadside material is unsuitable for fills the traps about the same time that use in fills, the trap described above may vegetation is re-established to prevent take a backhoe about one hour to further erosion. Otherwise, periodic re- construct and trim, thus costing about excavation of deposited material is $100.00. needed. The length to width ratio should be 2:1 or larger. A typical trap for a two hectare (five acre) area may measure four metres (15 feet) in length by two metres (six feet) wide by 600 millimetres (two feet) in depth. 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Dug sediment trap

Erosion Control Using Brush Locations: Construction is accomplished in two Barriers Brush barriers can be used at any phases. First, during clearing, suitable location where sediment in surface water material is stockpiled along the edge of requires filtering. The maximum slope the cleared right-of-way. The material length upstream of a barrier should be requirements include large anchor logs no more than 30 metres (100 feet). A and slash debris consisting of tops, limbs typical treatment may be specified for and brush not exceeding 150 millimetres the fill slopes on both sides of the road (six inches) in diameter and four metres approaching the water crossing and (12 feet) in length. Stumps should not be extending about 100 metres (350 feet) included. on each side of the waterway. The location of stockpiles should be planned so they are not in the way of Function: road construction or wood salvage The brush barriers filter the water operations, and so they will be readily runoff by reducing flow velocity and accessible to construction equipment trapping sediment in the branches and sitting on the completed road. The limbs of the brush pile. Detailed stockpiled slash should not block comparative studies on U.S. Forest drainage courses. Service access roads have monitored the The second phase occurs after earth effectiveness of this method. A fill construction is completed, a large conservative estimate of the sediment cull log is moved from the stockpile and trapping efficiency of the windrows is placed in position at the toe of the fill, 75 to 85 percent. The brush barriers also parallel to the direction of the road. It is serve to protect the fill slopes from anchored in position by placing it against erosion. stumps, rocks or trees. Stockpiled slash Design and Construction Information: is then placed on the fill slope above the This sediment control technique cull log. The windrow is compacted by utilizes natural materials, provides tamping the slash with the backhoe immediate protection, requires no bucket. This additional disturbance width, is aesthetically acceptable in remote areas, and is inexpensive. The material used includes logs, brush and other slash debris. 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

produces a relatively dense windrow being aesthetically offensive. If not embedded in the fill surface. It is properly anchored and embedded in important that the slash be embedded to the slope, the brush material may be prevent flow under it. ineffective and could come loose to In addition to use on the toe of block ditches or culverts. slopes, slash debris can be used to reduce erosion and sediment transport Approximate Cost (1987 dollars): from any area of erodible soil. Slash Studies have shown that a track- debris can be spread over the exposed mounted Caterpillar 235 backhoe was mineral soil and then trampled into place able to construct windrows at a rate of using tracked construction equipment. 52 metres per hour (170 feet per hour) (from Cook and King). This would equate to $0.65 per lineal foot treated. Disadvantages: This figure does not count the cost Some people view the presence of savings in not having to dispose of the logs and brush along the roadside as brush in push-outs.

Brush barrier at toe of hill

Sediment Control Using Slit Fences Locations: Function: Silt fences are installed to collect Silt fences act like a strainer; silt and sediment from small areas during sand are trapped on the surface of the construction. Typically, they would be fence while water passes through. Silt built at the toe of an embankment slope, fences also reduce the velocity of sheet along the bank of a sensitive stream, or flow and thereby induce the deposition at the downstream end of an erodible of sediment. earth cut area. The maximum slope length behind the barrier should be no Design and Construction Information: more than 30 metres (100 feet), and it Silt fences are relatively inexpensive should be no steeper than 2:1. filtering devices in the form of permeable or semi-permeable fences or dams. 7. 0 Mitigation Techniques

They may consist of woven geotextile Disadvantages: filter fabric or straw bales placed in the Silt fences are flimsy, lightweight path of flowing water. structures suitable for filtering small The fence should be installed before volumes of water flow, therefore their earthmoving operations commence. use is limited to small drainage areas. If one fence fills with sediment They should not be placed across a another can be built behind it. drainage path that carries high-volume Construction of a silt fence with or high velocity flow where washout geotextile fabric includes the following could occur. Failure of a silt fence due to steps: improper installation may allow a considerable quantity of accumulated sediment to pass down-stream. Straw • Vertical wood posts are embedded in bales are difficult to obtain in many the ground at a spacing not greater than areas where access roads are constructed three metres (10 feet). and they only last from three to six months. • Geotextile fabric is fastened on the upstream side of the posts. To prevent Approximate Cost (1987 dollars): undermining, the geotextile must be A silt fence, 10 metres (30 feet) in anchored in a trench I 00 millimetres length, may require four wood posts (four inches) in depth and width and about 20 square meters (200 upstream of the barrier. Details on silt square feet) of geotextile fabric. The fence construction using straw bales can estimated cost for materials and labour be found in the references. costs would total about $100.00.

Construction of a silt fence 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Sediment Control Using Forest Floor Filter

Diversion of run-off into the forest will make use of the forest floor as a natural filter medium to trap sediment. Locations: water is diverted out of the ditch and not The forest floor adjacent to the right- allowed to flow over the berm. Where of-way provides a natural sediment filter used, it is important to check that the at virtually any location on the water will, in fact, drain away from the downstream side of the road. Use of this right-of-way at a slope of at least one natural filter is particularly important percent. Berms should have a top width near water crossings, so that turbid and height of at least 500 millimetres (20 runoff does not flow down the ditch and inches) and side slopes of 2:1 or flatter. stream banks into the water directly. Since the diversion berm will be The drainage area upstream of the redirecting flowing water, the upstream diversion berm should be less than two surface should be resistant to erosion hectares (five acres). from the expected flow velocities. The recommended spacing Function: between ditch outlets depends on the The natural forest floor, with its litter slope of the ditch and the erodibility of and vegetative material, can be used to the soil; refer to Table 1 in Section 5.7. serve as a filter medium to trap sediment The length of forest floor required before it reaches a water course. for effective filtering and sediment entrapment is generally recommended as 30 metres (100 feet) for slopes less than Design and Construction Information: 15 percent, and up to 90 metres (300 This treatment may require feet) on steeper slopes. construction of an earth diversion berm across the ditch line, and excavation of a channel to carry water to the edge of the right-of-way. A diversion berm is different from a check dam because 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Disadvantages: Approximate Cost: Ditch channel, berm size and outlet A nominal cost may be incurred to channel must be of adequate size to construct the berms and provide off- handle expected flow, including flood take channels, however this would be flows. If not properly sized, the berm offset by a savings in downstream ditch will overtop and flow will continue size and elimination of the possible need down the ditch line. for erosion protection.

Diversion berms can be used to redirect flow off right-of- way

7.3 Beaver Problems Road culverts are ideal sites for beavers have been used for years as a screen. to construct dams for backing up water More sophisticated attachments include a and creating habitat. Blockage of wire mesh culvert protector that is a culverts by direct beaver activity, and three metre (10 foot) upstream extension the failure of beaver dams that cause the of the culvert, made of heavy wire mesh sudden release of water, have led to rolled to the diameter of the culvert. many road washouts. There are two Patented culvert attachments are also types of action that may be taken to available from several suppliers. These minimize the problem: devices attract the beaver to build in a certain location where periodic removal (a) Special Design Techniques: of debris is not as difficult as from inside In new construction taking place in a pipe. Some of the attachments must be beaver areas, the use of larger culvert removed to ensure free flow of water pipe diameters will tend to make dam during flood periods. As long as the construction more difficult. Battery beaver is active in the area of the culvert, operated electric wire fences, such as maintenance will be required. those used for farm animals, have also been successful in discouraging beaver activity by giving them an electrical (b) Beaver Removal: shock at the culvert inlet. If the above methods are Devices can be installed upstream of unsatisfactory or undesirable, it is the culvert inlet to prevent dam recommended that, through the Ministry, construction in the pipe itself. Bed the services of the local licensed trapper springs 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Diversion berms can be used to redirect flow off right-of- way

be enlisted to remove the beavers or to value will be reduced; thus, some keep the culvert area clear. Beaver, as compensation may have to be paid to the fur bearers, are protected under trapper. Removal of beavers and legislation; their removal is subject to breaching of beaver dams often proves to factors such as seasons, quotas and be a temporary solution since other license requirements involving beavers in the area may move in and take trappers. If beavers are trapped over if the habitat is favourable. outside of peak season, the fur quality and its

7.4 Fish Habitat Good water crossing construction ably sized rock to create spawning practices should protect fish spawning areas using the following guidelines: areas. However, if erosion and sediment control measures have not prevented silt • For walleye and white suckers from damaging spawning beds, then the (spring spawners), and lake trout and rehabilitation of fish habitat may be whitefish (fall spawners), choose rubble required. This may require restoration of or clean boulders 75 to 250 millimetres a degraded spawning area to a condition (three to ten inches) in diameter, that sustains the incubation of fish eggs. deposited to a depth of three to four In other cases, spawning areas may layers, ensuring that there will be at least be affected by the physical presence of a 200 millimetres (eight inches) of water water crossing, and thus some habitat above the rocks during the spawning development may be required. This may period. involve the creation of new spawning beds in areas where they did not • For rainbow trout and brook trout, previously exist. Sometimes, if use 25 to 75 millimetre (one to three spawning areas are limited, the inches) and 6 to 50 millimetre (one construction of a water crossing may quarter to two inch) sized gravel provide the opportunity to create respectively, placed several layers additional spawning areas. deep. There are two main techniques used to rehabilitate and develop • Larger rocks - 250 to 750 millimetres spawning areas. One technique is to (10 to 30 inches) in diameter, depending clean spawning gravels with high upon water velocities, can be placed pressure fire hoses, beginning at the about two metres (six feet) apart. This upstream end and working down- creates resting areas or instream cover stream, pushing silt and dead algae for spawning fish, and also creates back ahead of the water discharge. eddies for egg deposition. For more The other technique is to add suit- information on creating spawning areas, contact the Ministry.

One technique for removing sediment from spawning areas is to clean spawning gravels with high pressure fire hoses. 7.O Mitigation Techniques

Streams with suitable spawning and migration and the annual flood period rearing areas will probably be fish are likely to coincide, as for spring migration routes as well. spawners such as walleye and suckers, The use of bridges or arch culverts is the simplest approach to determine of is recommended for fish migration routes to use mean monthly flow estimates for where the roughness of a natural stream the May-June period. This allows for the bed is desirable for reducing flow fact that fish normally wait for a day or velocity. In some cases, the same effect two after the flood peak has passed. can be achieved in pipe culverts by If migration is unlikely to coincide installing a layer of stone, provided the with the maximum annual flood period, stones are large enough not to be moved as for fall spawners such as brook trout by the design flood. Larger rocks, one to and whitefish, Qf should be assumed to ten metres (three to thirty feet) apart, can be equivalent to 30 per cent of the mean provide resting places for fish, providing annual flood discharge. If an average the rocks are alternated from side to side flow depth at the time of migration can to prevent long runs of fast water along be established, Qf may be calculated by the side. multiplying the average flow depth (d) The greater roughness of corrugated by the average width (B) and the interiors may be an advantage for fish estimated average velocity (V) in the passage, and for other situations where stream cross-section, i.e. Qf = BdV. barrel or outlet velocities must be (Examples are given in Chapter B, reduced. Design Flood Estimation for Small Bolt connections should be installed Watersheds, Ministry of Transportation with the bolt head on the culvert interior Drainage Manual). to prevent fish being damaged on the It is recommended that fish should sharp nut and bolt end. not be delayed longer than three days on Culverts on fish migration routes the way to their spawning grounds, but should not unduly hinder the passage of this depends on where the culvert fish during flow conditions likely to is located on the migration route. prevail at the time of migration. The Not all fish have equal swimming corresponding discharge, of or fish ability. Figure "A" indicates that trout passage design flow, is applied to the culvert after it has been sized to satisfy the normal flood flow criterion. If

Figure 'A'- Maximum flow velocity for Ontario fish species 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

can handle higher velocities than pike. at lower flows. Keeping the culvert Swimming ability is also based on fish gradients as flat as possible will size. Normally larger fish can handle encourage fish migration. If the fish higher velocities better than smaller velocity criterion cannot be met by ones, but smaller fish may be able to use modifying the culvert design, baffles, the zones of lower velocity water near which create resting areas at intervals the bottom or sides in culverts; this along the culvert, can enable fish to factor may obscure the relationship pass through. Offset baffles are the between swimming ability and fish most commonly used type: these are length. The graph shown as Figure "A" described in the Ontario Ministry of may be applied to culverts using the Transportation Drainage Manual mean water velocity at the fish passage (Chapter D, Sec. 2-10.2). design flow (Qf) and the culvert length For design information on culvert as the swimming distance. fishways, refer to the references listed Slope is the most important factor in Section 9. determining water velocities in culverts

7.5 Aesthetics Although the scope of these environment. For example, a major environmental guidelines is intended to access corridor that will carry long-term, deal primarily with the physical multiple-use traffic could be identified as environment affected by access road requiring special attention for aesthetics. construction, a brief discussion of Action required to improve the aesthetics is warranted because appearance of a road must be measured appearances affect people's attitudes. against other factors, such as a greater In the construction of highways and impact on the physical environment, streets in Ontario, aesthetics represent an increased construction costs, or a important consideration. These roads are reduction in safety for road users. part of the environment in which people For example, the disposal of slash live; many spend a measurable debris on roadside slopes and ditch areas proportion of their time travelling on has been shown to reduce soil erosion them. Aesthetics, or the appearance of a and downstream sedimentation by as roadside environment, is a personal much as 85 percent. This practice is subjective matter. economical and environmentally sound. Traffic volumes on the highway However, the appearance of brush, logs system are relatively high when and stumps windrowed along the edge of compared to access roads in "the bush". the roadway does not appeal to the Average traffic on an access road general public's perception of what a constructed for timber management "good" road should look like. Most activities might reach 50 vehicles per people would prefer to look at a roadside day during the most active harvesting where grubbing material is placed in period, and drop to perhaps five vehicles push-outs, although this practice removes per day after harvesting. For this reason, organic material from the right-of-way, the benefits of improved aesthetics on exposes soil to erosion and takes in a access roads do not usually justify the larger surface area for road construction high cost of landscaping the roadside activities. environment to make it pleasing to the Another example would be the eye. intentional placement of curves on the Current practice is to identify, during approach to a single lane bridge to the road planning phase, those roads and limit view of the road from the river. work areas that should be constructed to a higher aesthetic standard of appearance than is considered necessary to protect the physical 7.0 Mitigation Techniques

Although providing aesthetic benefits, • Seed and mulch the right-of-way the action will reduce safety for drivers from the clearing limit to the edge of and pedestrians. shoulder. As these examples illustrate, the guidelines for aesthetics should not be • In the design of a water crossing, the implemented unless there is an visual impact from the waterway may identified need. As part of the decision- be a consideration. Design techniques making process, the additional cost of available include the following taking special measures for aesthetics considerations: should be determined and weighed against the benefit. - The physical location and duration of time a structure is in Good Practices - Aesthetics view can mitigate the aesthetic • Cut, skid and pile non-merchantable impact of a crossing. species of timber in landings outside the right-of-way. - If possible, locate the river crossing away from attractive • Dispose of grubbing material in pre- scenic areas. This may mean cut push-outs off the right-of-way. The moving from a good construction push-outs should be angled away from site at a rapids to a more difficult the direction of traffic on that side of the non-rapids location. road. They should be trampled flat, with no logs protruding, and covered with organic material to present a neat appearance. 7. 0 Mitigation Techniques

- Locate the crossing structure in a - Access to the waterway by boat stretch of river that prevents its trailers in the roadside ditches view by boaters from a long should be physically prevented. distance away. This can be done effectively with boulders. If new water access is a - Narrow the clearing width within desired benefit of construction, 100 metres (350 feet) of the water. then a proper access point should be built. - The road can be constructed with curves placed a short distance from Additional information on designing for the crossing, so that the length of aesthetic values may be found in the road visible from the waterway is 1986 Ministry publication, "Timber minimized. Management Guidelines for the Protection of Tourism Values". - During the selection of a water crossing structure type and the construction materials to be used, consider how the completed crossing will blend in with the environment.

Good aesthetics on this road are created with a straight alignment, push-outs and good re-vegetation. 8. 0 Glossary of Terms

Abutment: The structure supporting Cofferdam: A temporary enclosure built the ends of a bridge and retaining the in a watercourse and pumped dry to approach fills. (See sketch) permit work on bridge abutments or piers, thereby separating the work area Access road: A road constructed by the from the water. public or private sector on Crown land under the authority of the Public Lands Corduroy: Logs placed over a swamp Act. These low volume roads generally to reinforce the natural root mat for the have a gravel surface. purpose of minimizing the risk of settlement or foundation failure. Alignment: The horizontal route or direction of an access road. It is made Crown: A road is 'crowned' when the up of straight line tangent sections and centre of the road surface is higher than curves. its outer edges to create a cross- gradient of about four percent. This Angle of Repose: The maximum slope enables water on the surface to drain or angle at which a material such as soil towards the ditches. (See sketch) or loose rock remains stable. Culvert, CSP: Corrugated steel pipe is Apron: Erosion protection placed below the common material used for culverts the stream bed in an area of high flow to convey water under an access road. velocity, such as downstream of a The term refers to the factory-assembled culvert. round shapes connected together with couplers. Bailey Bridge: A patented pre-fabricated type of bridge used since 1942 on low Culvert, Multi-plate: Multi-plate or volume roads. A variety of bridge structural plate culverts are those lengths and configurations can be which, due to their large diameter assembled from standard components (usually over 1800 millimetres [six and the unit can be 'launched' into feet]), are normally field-assembled in position. place. A series of interlocking steel plates are bolted together to make the Berm: A low earth fill constructed in required shape and length. the path of flowing water to divert its direction, or constructed to act as a Fish Habitat: Resources and conditions counter-weight beside the road fill to essential for the production of fish, reduce the risk of foundation failure. including water quality and quantity, spawning grounds, nursery, rearing, Camber: The vertical rise in profile, or food supply and migration areas on hump, such as at the centre of a culvert which fish depend, directly or indirectly, bedding, which allows for anticipated for their life processes. downward deflection. Foundation: The foundation for a Check Dam: A low head dam structure bridge may include the underlying constructed in a ditch in the path of soil and the lowest levels of any flowing water to reduce erosion. Water pier or abutment resting on it. flows over a check dam, so it is (See sketch) provided with a spill-over section that is erosion-resistant. 8.0 Glossary of Terms

Gabion: A patented woven wire basket Off-take Ditch: A ditch excavated to filled with stones of minimum size that carry roadside drainage away from the will not pass through the openings in the roadway to a point downstream and off basket. Individual baskets are laid in the right-of-way to which water place like building blocks, and then will flow. In flat terrain an off-take ditch filled to form retaining walls and may extend into the bush outside the erosion-resistant surfaces. right-of-way.

Geo-grid: A recently-developed Pier: On bridges of more than one product used as a soil reinforcement span, the intermediate supports agent. It is made of polyethylene and is between abutments are called piers. supplied in rolls about two metres (six feet) wide. The product has openings Profile Grade: See 'grade'. (See similar to security fencing. sketch) Geometric Road Standard: Engineering Push-out: Areas where slash debris, parameters that define the geometry of a stumps and organic material are particular road cross-section, alignment deposited in piles off the right-of-way. and profile grade, are called the geometric road standard. Access roads Qf: The quantity of flow to be used are generally built to conform with a when determining flow velocities certain minimum geometric road during fish migration periods. standard; the higher the standard, the higher the safe travel speed will be. Right-of-way: The cleared area along the road alignment which contains the roadbed, ditches, road slopes and back Geotextile: A recently-developed slopes. (See sketch) product used as a soil reinforcement agent and as a filter medium. It is made Rip Rap: A layer of boulders or shot of synthetic fibres manufactured in a rock fragments placed over a soil to woven or loose non-woven manner to protect it from the erosive forces of form a blanket-like product. It is flowing water. (See sketch) normally supplied in rolls that would cover four metres wide by 100 metres Scour: This is the term used to describe long (15 by 300 feet). soil erosion when it occurs under water, as in the case of a stream bed or river Grade or Profile Grade: The elevation bottom. of the top of the finished road is called grade or profile grade. The longitudinal Shear-blading: The operation of cut- cross-section of a road showing the ting off trees and brush at ground level elevation at various points along the by pushing a bulldozer blade along the length of a road is called the road frozen surface in winter. The stems and profile. trunks are sheared off at ground level.

Gravel, Pit-Run: The name given to naturally occurring graded material Subgrade: In a vertical cross-section of a deposited by the retreating glaciers in road, the subgrade is the surface of the flowing water (kames, eskers, spill- earth cut or earth fill before the ways). Gravel is a granular material placement of selected imported material ranging in size from fine sand to about to construct a sand cushion or gravel 50 millimetres (two inches) in diameter. surface. (See sketch)

Landing: An area where cut timber is piled before slashing and/or haulage. 8.0 Glossary of Terms

Swamp: For the purposes of this use, and travel restrictions, for a given document a swamp is a soft deposit of access road. Ministry access road organic or clay material. While the planning guidelines require that Use- surface may be dry, and even support Management Strategies be developed tree growth, the depth of underlying soft for all roads on Crown land. material may be up to 15 metres (50 feet) thick. Water Bars: Transverse ditches excavated in the surface of an Ten-year Flood: The maximum quantity abandoned road to divert surface flow of water flow per second expected at a towards the roadside ditches. particular water crossing, on average, once every ten years. It has a ten percent Windrow: A longitudinal pile of probability of occurring in any given material. For example "a windrow of year. Other return frequencies are gravel" is a pile of gravel formed by a defined in a similar manner. grader along the length of the road.

Use-Management Strategy: A process Wingwall: An extension of a bridge used by the Ministry to determine and abutment, constructed to retain the define the anticipated uses, duration of roadway fill material and prevent its entry into a water course. (See sketch) 9.0 List of References

Ontario Government Publications: Guidelines and Criteria for Approval Timber Management Guidelines for Under the Lakes and Rivers the Protection of Tourism Values, Improvement Act, Ontario Ministry of Ontario Ministry of Natural Natural Resources, 1977. Resources, 1986.

Highway Construction Practices and Class Environmental Assessment for Potential Environmental Concerns, Timber Management on Crown Lands in Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Ontario, Ontario Ministry of Natural Communications, 1978. Resources, 1985, revised 1987.

Class Environmental Assessment for Rehabilitation of Pits and Quarries for Access Roads to MNR Facilities, Fish and Wildlife, Ontario Ministry of Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Natural Resources, 1987. 1984. Sand and Gravel Pit Rehabilitation in Community Fisheries Involvement Northern Ontario, Ontario Ministry of Program Field Manual, Part One: Trout Natural Resources, 1987. Stream Rehabilitation, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1984. Guidelines on Erosion and Sediment Control for Urban Construction Sites, Evaluating Construction Activities Ontario Urban Drainage Impacting on Water Resources, Part 11 - Implementation Committee, 1987. Guidelines for Construction of Highways and Bridges, Ontario Ministry Timber Management Guidelines for of the Environment, 1984. the Protection of Fish Habitat, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1988. Resource Access Roads, Policy and Implementation Strategies and Guidelines, Ontario Ministry of Natural Timber Management Guidelines for Resources, 1985. the Provision of Moose Habitat, Ontario Ministry of Natural Turf Establishment Manual, Ontario Resources, 1988. Ministry of Transportation and Communications, 1986. Drainage Manual, Volumes 1, 2 and 3, Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Current.

Other Canadian Publications: Evaluation of the swimming Watershed Management Guidelines for performance of several fish species Logging and Road Construction in from the MacKenzie River, D.R. Alberta, R.L. Rothwell, Northern Forest Jones, J.W., Kiceniuk and O. S. Research Centre, Information Report Bamford, Journal Fisheries Research NOR-X-208, Canadian Forestry Service, Board of Canada, Volume 31: 1641- Environment Canada, Edmonton, 1978. 1647, 1974. Environmental Guidelines for A Study of Model and Prototype Resource Road Construction, Culvert Baffling for Fish Passage, C. Newfoundland Forest Research Katopodis, P.R. Robinson and B.G. Centre, Canadian Forestry Service, Sutherland, Environment Canada Environment Canada, 1978. Fisheries and Marine Service, Technical Report 828, December 1978. 9.0 List of References

A Review and Resolution of Fish Forest Access Roads, Planning and Passage Problems at Culvert Sites in Construction Manual, Nova Scotia British Columbia, B.G. Dane, Department of Lands and Forests, Environment Canada Fisheries and 1982. Marine Service Technical Report 810, September 1978. Erosion and Sediment Control at Road-Stream Crossings, R.C. Liard Highway Hydrology Study, M.M. Rothwell, The Forestry Chronicle, Dillon Ltd., Canada Department of April 1983. Indian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa, June 1979. Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway Construction Products, Bio-engineering for Land Reclamation Canadian Edition, American Iron and Conservation, Hugo Schiechtl, and Steel Institute, Washington, University of Alberta Press, 1980. 1984.

Proceedings of Resource Roads An Experimental Study of Offset Workshops, Whitehorse and Baffle Culvert Fishways, N. Yellowknife, March 16-20, 1981, Rajaratnam, S. Lodewyk and C. Canadian Environmental Protection Katopodis, Technical Report WRE 87- Service, Federal Activities Assessment 2, Department of Civil Engineering, Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa, University of Alberta, 1987. 1981. A Handbook for Fish Habitat Protection Nuisance Beaver Control, on Forest Lands in British Columbia, Saskatchewan Parks and Renewable Toews and Brownlee, Federal Resources brochure (undated). Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Vancouver, 1981.

United States Publications: Erosion Control on Highway Design of Sedimentation Basins - Construction, Synthesis of Highway Synthesis of Highway Practice, Practice, National Cooperative Highway NCHRP Report 70, TRB, Washing- Research Report (NCHRP), Report 18, ton, 1980. Transportation Research Board (TRB), Washington, 1973. Construction Cost and Erosion Control Effectiveness of Filter Windrows on Compendium 9, Control of Erosion, Fill Slopes, M. J. Cook and J. G. King, Transportation Technology Support Research Note INT-335, Inter- for Developing Countries, TRB, mountain Forest and Range Washington, 1979. Experiment Station, Ogen Utah, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Erosion Control During Highway Service, 1983. Construction, Manual on Principles and Practices, NCHRP Report 221, TRB, Washington, 1980. 9.0 List of References

Use of Corrugated Plastic Drainage Tubing for Controlling Water Levels at Nuisance Beaver Sites, K.J. Roblee, New York Fish and Game Journal, Volume 31, Number 1, January 1984.

Erosion and Sediment Control Hand- book, Goldman, Jackson and Bursztynsky, McGraw Hill, 1986.

Abilities of Trout to Swim Through Highway Culverts, D.A. Belford, M. Se. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, July 1986. 65

5192 (3 k P.R., 88 03 31) ISBN 0-7729-3532-7 ISBN 9-7794-2374-7 (electronic)