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Causal Inference in Empirical Archival Financial Accounting Research Accounting, Organizations and Society xxx (2013) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Accounting, Organizations and Society journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aos Causal inference in empirical archival financial accounting research q ⇑ Joachim Gassen Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät, C.A.S.E - Center for Applied Statistics and Economics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10099 Berlin, Germany abstract This study discusses the challenges and opportunities of establishing causal inference in empirical archival financial accounting research. Causal inference requires identification of a theoretically predicted causal mechanism in a research setting optimized to avoid endogenous causes and using a suitable statistical inference strategy. After briefly describ- ing potential research design strategies, I analyze the frequency of causal studies published in leading business and economics journals. I identify causal studies by their abstract including an explicit reference to their causal nature and find that they are significantly more common in the areas of economics and finance compared to other business-oriented research disciplines like accounting. Also, the extent to which research designs are opti- mized for causal inference differs significantly between causal empirical archival studies in the area of financial accounting and finance. I discuss potential reasons for this gap and make some suggestions on how the demand for and supply of well-designed causal studies in the area of empirical archival financial accounting research might be increased. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction study is designed so that the reader can be reasonably con- fident that the observed empirical relation is indeed Identifying causal relationships in archival data is cru- caused by the proposed mechanism. This aspect of re- cial whenever a researcher is interested in understanding search design is also being referred to as the internal valid- whether theoretical predictions manifest themselves in ity of a study. data. Thus, positivistic empirical studies that aim beyond Basing causal conclusions on archival data is challeng- description should allow the reader to conclude whether ing since archival data are not the result of a perfectly con- the observed effect is likely to be caused by the mechanism trolled random experiment. As an example: Assume that a proposed by the study, or, in short: they should allow for researcher is interested in understanding whether manag- causal inference (Angrist & Pischke, 2010; Leamer, 1983). ers that face an earnings-linked bonus plan tend to artifi- Causal inference requires ruling out alternative expla- cially inflate reported earnings numbers.1 We could try to nations. An observed correlation or significant coefficient address this research question by comparing the accrual pat- in a multivariate regression does not imply causality since terns of earnings reported by managers with earnings-linked it can be the result of reverse causality, omitted correlated bonus plans with accrual patterns reported by managers variables or a miss-specified functional form. A causal without such a bonus plan. If we can assume that bonus plans are randomly assigned to managers then such a re- search strategy would be suitable to draw causal inferences. q I am grateful to an anonymous reviewer, Ulf Brüggemann, Chris Chapman (editor), Rolf Uwe Fülbier, Christian Leuz, Bill Rees, Thorsten Sellhorn and seminar participants at the Queensland University of Technology as well as at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin for helpful 1 See Armstrong, Jagolinzer, and Larcker (2010), which investigates the comments and suggestions. impact of equity incentives in managerial compensation on accounting ⇑ Tel.: +49 (0)30 2093 5764. irregularities, as an example for a recent study in this field addressing the E-mail address: [email protected] challenge of causal inference. 0361-3682/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2013.10.004 Please cite this article in press as: Gassen, J. Causal inference in empirical archival financial accounting research. Accounting, Organizations and Society (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aos.2013.10.004 2 J. Gassen / Accounting, Organizations and Society xxx (2013) xxx–xxx Obviously, the central identifying assumption of the shortcomings of the second-best research design (Angrist above example (that bonus plans are randomly assigned) & Pischke, 2008; Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2001). is courageous to say the least. In reality, bonus plans and managers are endogenously and simultaneously deter- Causal studies: A publication analysis mined by, e.g., the recruiting and compensation commit- tee. What this means is: Certain types of managers and Time trends across areas of research certain types of firms will have a tendency to agree on cer- tain types of compensation packages: The bonus plan will While several methodological surveys stress the rele- be endogenous to the problem at hand and not random. vance of causal studies and voice the demand for a meth- What can a researcher do to address this challenge? Four odological shift towards studies optimized for causal options seem feasible. inference (Antonakis, Bendahan, Jacquart, & Lalive, 2010; First, one could decide not to address the problem. In a Chenhall & Moers, 2007; Larcker & Rusticus, 2007; Larcker carefully written paper, this would mean choosing a non- & Rusticus, 2010; Lennox, Francis, & Wang, 2012; Roberts experimental descriptive research design, avoiding any & Whited, 2012; Tucker, 2010) until now little evidence ex- causal interpretation of the findings and explicit caveats ists about the relative importance of causal studies in the at prominent places throughout the paper. literature across time and research fields. I aim to fill this Second, the researcher can try to model the bonus plan gap by providing descriptive evidence about the share of choice. If the researcher assumes (another identifying causal studies in leading journals in the area of Business assumption) that the bonus plan decision is based on ob- and Economics. servable variables only, then matching or regression ap- To identify causal studies I conduct a content analysis of proaches of standard micro-econometrics can be used to all abstracts of articles published over the 2000–2012 per- address the endogenous nature of the bonus plan. Again, iod in business and economics journals included in the cur- the assumption that the determinants of the bonus plan rent Financial Times 45 journal list and indexed by the choice can be observed is questionable. As an example, it Social Science Citation Index. The content analysis classi- seems reasonable that the unobservable psychological nat- fies an article as causal whenever the abstract contains ure of a manager has a direct impact on earnings manage- the keyword strings ‘‘causal’’, ‘‘endogenous’’, ‘‘endogene- ment behavior. It also seems likely that compensation ity’’ or ‘‘natural experiment’’.2 Each journal for which at committees cater to the psychological profile of a manager least one article is classified as causal over the 2000–2012 when designing the compensation package. period is included in the subsequent analysis (42 journals, If the researcher feels that the endogenous choice at see Appendix A for a list of the included journals). Publica- hand is at least partly based on unobservable variables, tion, classification and abstract data are taken from Thom- the third potential strategy is to identify an instrumental son Reuters Web of Knowledge. The analysis includes a variable or a set of instrumental variables that are corre- total of 30,097 studies of which 906 are classified as causal lated with the endogenous choice but have no direct im- (3.0%). I verify this measurement approach by re-evaluating pact on the outcome variable of interest (here, the a sub-set of 136 studies that the mechanism identified as earnings management choice). The problem that a re- causal to identify the likelihood of generating false positives. searcher faces when identifying a suitable instrument lies I find 6 false positives, indicating that the number of false with the impossibility to test for the validity of an instru- positives is below 5%. ment. The use of an instrument must be justified theoreti- Nevertheless, this approach likely generates a signifi- cally. In the area of social science, a tight theoretical cant amount of false negatives (causal studies miss-classi- argument seems fairly unlikely in many cases. fied as non-causal). These false negatives can be because Thus, a critical empirical researcher might be tempted authors do not stress that their results allow for causal to resort to strategy number four: Identifying a setting inference in the abstract or because they use a different where bonus plans can be assumed to be exogenously im- terminology. Whereas I address the second concern by posed on firms. For example, it might be possible that some experimenting with the search strings that identify causal legislation(s) at some point in time introduced a regulatory studies, I am unable to rule out the first concern without ban of earnings-based bonus plans. Such a natural experi- evaluating the research design of 30,097 studies in detail. ment allows for research designs that help causal inference It might also be that authors get increasingly aware about by exogenously manipulating the treatment of interest. the difference between causal and descriptive archival
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