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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses Weathering and brittleness in shale ll dams and embankments Hardwick, Angela M. How to cite: Hardwick, Angela M. (1992) Weathering and brittleness in shale ll dams and embankments, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6081/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be pubUshed without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. WEATHERING AND BRITTLENESS IN SHALE FILL DAMS AND EMBANKMENTS. by Angela M. Hardwick BSc. FGS A thesis presented for the degree of Master of Science in the University of Durham. August 1992 H JAN 1994 Abstract Research and industrial concern has been expressed about the behaviour of mu- drocks when used in engineering structures. In particular the loss of strength in shale fills caused by chemical weathering processes and by progressive failure arising from overstressing and brittleness is an important consideration in design. A literature review into use of the term 'brittleness' to describe this loss of shear strength has revealed infrequent references, but those that were found refer to a wide scope of failures including liqufaction events and long term slope stability problems. The use of large size shear box equipment has been reviewed as an appropriate method of testing the brittleness of shale fills in the laboratory. A range of materials, from fresh shale to shales retrieved from dams of different ages in the north east of England, has been collected for shear strength testing and for chemical and mineralogical examination to determine the condition of the fill. Research has concentrated on such rocks as it was possible to obtain. Although the samples have not exhibited wide Hthological and geotechnical variations the work has highlighted several significant features including the need for resolving appropriate methods of testing. The results of the work were generally in accor• dance with earlier research on Carboniferous rocks by suggesting similar material trends in, on the one hand, Namurian shale dams and associated spoil heaps and, on the other hand, colliery spoil heaps of Westphalian shale as had been previously observed. Ackowledgements This work was initiated by Dr Roy Taylor. I am grateful that I had the benefit of his guidance and experience for a year before his untimely death in 1987. Whether the end result bears any resemblance to his initial idea will unfortunately never be known. Thanks go to Professor Peter Attewell for taking on the role of supervisor, and to Dr Dave Hirst for his supervision and encouragement throughout the work. I am extremely grateful to the following for providing information and access to the various sites for sample collection: Richard Orange Bromhead of Rendel Palmer and Tritton (Gale Common); Peter Lisle, Alistair Keddie and Jim Prentice of Northumbrian Water (Pennine dams and associated spoil heaps); Richard Apted of RH Cuthbertson and Partners (Cod Beck Dam) and George Rocke of Babtie Shaw and Morton (Carsington Dam). The work would not have been possible without the assistance of various mem• bers of the School of Engineering and Applied Science and the Department of Geological Sciences. In particular I would like to thank Bernard McEleavey and Steve Richardson for help with laboratory testing and for braving all weathers in the cause of sample collection; Allen Swann for construction of the stainless steel shear boxes; Ron Hardy for his time and patience with XRD and XRF analysis; Jenny lUingsworth for help with use of the SEM. The assistance of Peter Oakley of Newcastle University and Alison Warren of Royal HoUoway and Bedford New College in connection with AAS and ICP-AS is also gratefully ackowledged. It is not possible to list all the people who have provided encouragement during my time at Durham but mention must be made of Sue Bilhng and Cohn Watson who helped me find my feet when I first arrived; Ian Billing and Stuart Marsh with whom I shared an office; and Wendy Lister. Finally, special thanks go to my parents for their continual love and support; and to my husband Dave WiUiams not only for seeing me through the last few years, but for many helpful discussions, help with typing and spotting spelling mistakes. List of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Failures in Shale-Fill Structures 1 1.1.1 Carsington Dam 1 1.1.2 Aberfan 3 1.2 Summary and Ideas for Research 4 1.3 Outline of Project 5 1.3.1 Reasons for Project Work 5 1.3.2 Materials and Testing 6 1.3.3 Structure of Thesis 7 Chapter 2 Man Made Earth and Rock Fill Structures 12 2.1 General 12 2.1.1 Spoil Heaps, Waste Tips and Mine Tailings 12 2.1.2 Embankments and Earth Fill Dams 13 2.2 British Earth Fill Dams 15 2.3 Earth-Fill Dam Failures 18 2.4 Types of Fill - Marine versus Non-marine 21 Chapter 3 The Properties of Fresh Shale 27 3.1 Classification and Terminology 27 3.1.1 The Property of Fissility 31 3.2 The Composition of Mudrocks 33 3.2.1 General 33 3.2.2 Chemistry 33 3.2.3 Mineralogy 35 3.2.3.a Non-clay minerals 36 3.2.3.b Clay minerals 37 3.3 The Engineering Properties of Fresh Mudrocks 39 and shales 3.4 Distribution, Formation and Environment of 39 British mudrocks and shales 3.5 Geology of The Shales Used in this Study 43 3.5.1 Geology of the Westphahan Shale at Tanners Hall, 43 County Durham 3.5.2 Geology of the Kimmeridge Clay at Foxholes 44 Quarry, North Yorkshire 3.5.3 Geology of the WestphaUan Shale at Gale 45 Common PFA Lagoon, South Yorkshire 3.5.4 Sampling of Dams 49 3.5.5.a Geology of the area surrounding Grassholme 52 and Balderhead Reservoirs 3.5.5.b Geology of the area around Burnhope Reservoir 52 3.5.5.C Geology of the area around Waskerley, Smiddy 53 Shaw and Tunstall Reservoirs Chapter 4 Weathering of Shales 68 4.1 Introduction 68 4.2 Weathering Processes and Factors Influencing 69 Weathering 4.2.1 Physical Disintegration 69 4.2.2 Chemical Deterioration 70 4.3 Weathering Classifications 72 4.4 The Effects of Weathering on Geotechnical 73 Properties 4.5 Weathering In Earth-Fill Dams 74 4.6 Weathering Studies 76 4.6.1 Moisture Content 76 4.6.2 Particle Size Analysis 77 4.6.3 X.R.F. Analysis 80 4.6.4 X.R.D. Analysis 81 4.6.5 Mineralogy and chemistry 85 Chapter 5 Brittleness and Progressive Failure 101 5.1 Introduction 101 5.1.1 The Property of Brittleness 101 5.1.2 Rock Deformation in the Laboratory 102 5.2 Brittleness in Soils 104 5.2.1 Cohesive Soils 104 5.2.2 Granular (non-cohesive) Soils 105 5.3 Definition and Use of the Brittleness Index 105 5.4 The Influence of Brittleness on Mode of Failure 116 5.5 Progressive Failure 117 5.5.1 Definition and Mechanism of Progressive Failure 117 5.5.2 Factors Aff'ecting Progressive Failure 118 5.5.3 Methods of Stability Analysis 119 Chapter 6 Direct Shear Box Testing 124 6.1 Introduction 124 6.1.1 The Principle of Direct Shear Testing 124 6.1.2 Limitations of Direct Shear Box Testing 125 6.1.3 Use of the Shear Box to Measure Residual 127 Strength 6.2 Use of the Shear Box in the Current Research 128 6.3 Practical Method 129 6.3.1 Sample Sites 129 6.3.2 Sample Collection 130 6.3.3 Preparation and Testing of Samples 131 6.4 Results 132 6.4.1 Tests to check apparatus precision 133 6.4.2 Tests on 'standard materials' - Fresh Coal 135 Measures Shale and Fresh Kimmeridge Clay 6.4.3 Gale Common - Weathered WestphaUan Shale 139 6.4.4 East Pennine Dams - Weathered Namurian Shale 142 6.5 Chemical Aspects of Shear Box Testing 144 6.5.1 The Problem 144 6.5.2 Modifications to the Shear Box Apparatus 146 6.5.3 Method of Testing 147 6.5.4 Results and Discussion 148 Chapter 7 Discussion 175 7.1 Integration of geotechnical and mineralogical data 175 7.1.1 Shear Strength and Geotechnical Properties 175 7.1.2 Shear Strength and Mineralogy 177 Chapter 8 Summary and Conclusions 183 References 190 Appendix I XRF Precision Tests Appendix II XRF Results Appendix III XRD CaUbration charts Appendix IV XRD Results Appendix V Results of AAS and ICP-AS List of Figures 1.1 Map of Great Britain showing locations of dams mentioned in Chapters 1 and 2. 1.2 Carsington Dam; (a) Location plan and (b) Plan of reservoir and dam area showing local geology and extent of upstream slip.
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