Article on Bohnenberger’S Machine)
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from the ion historian, marvin may Navigation Controversies The Gyroscope: The earliest known gyroscope-like instrument was made by German Johann Bohnenberger, who first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the “Machine” (refer to ION Virtual Museum article on Bohnenberger’s Machine). Bohnenberger’s machine was based on a rotating massive sphere. In his original publication of 1817, Bohnenberger indicates at the beginning that several copies of the first Machine had been manufactured in Tübingen, and at the end of the article he names the manufac- turer and the price of the Machine. Despite Modern statue on Amalfi of Flavio Gioja, legendary mariner and popularizer of the new, improved magnetic this hint, all of the initial specimens of compass, circa 1300. Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons. Bohnenberger’s Machine seemed to be lost. Fortunately, in December 2004 one of ne of the more onerous responsibili- A.D. Although the first known reference to a CONTROVERSIES continued on page 8 Oties of historians is to ascribe proper magnetic compass in Europe occurred over attribution to achievements. It is simply 150 years later, it was the Italian maritime human nature to desire recognition for one’s cities that refined and exploited the achievements and often human ego drives use of the compass. In particular, from man to go to extraordinary lengths to ensure 1295-1302, along the Italian Amalfi his perceived credit. This historical respon- coast, a true innovation took place. sibility is often confounded by the lack of According to medieval and modern credible references, the inability to define the sources, a “perfection” of the magnetic achievement concisely, conflicting evidence, compass, transforming it from a needle multiple nearly simultaneous discoveries, floating in water or supported in air into and fraudulent claims. The art and science of the compass we know today: a round navigation has had no shortage of controversy box in which a compass card with a when it comes to deciding which individual wind rose divided into 360 degrees or team deserves credit for an achievement. rotates, attached to a magnetic element. In this article, we will briefly delineate a few Subsequently, enabled by the navigation of these navigation related controversies. capabilities of the magnetic compass, the Italians became the predominant The Magnetic Compass: European maritime power. Every year, According to acclaimed science writer Amir the citizens of Amalfi have a lavish D. Aczel, author of Fermat’s Last Theo- celebration memorializing the invention rem and The Riddle of the COMPASS, the of the compass. Despite the fact that the Léon Foucault’s gyroscope, built by Dumoulin- magnetic compass is the most important Chinese invented the compass, the Ital- Froment, 1852. Photo taken at National technological invention since the wheel. It ians consider their refinements of such Conservatory of Arts and Crafts museum, Paris. Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons. is documented definitively that the Chinese significance as to claim principle credit invented the magnetic compass before 1040 for its development. ION Newsletter 7 Winter 2010-2011 CONTROVERSIES continued from page 7 volume application for it. The gyrocompass World War II. Theoretical and electrome- was truly an example of “necessity is the chanical advances in Europe and Russia in them was rediscovered during a stocktak- mother of invention” as the new iron ships the 1920s and 1930s led to the extensive ing at the Kepler-Gymnasium (high school) of the early twentieth century required a use of inertial sensors in the German V-2 in Tübingen. In 1832, American Walter R. non-magnetic source of heading. The Sperry ballistic missile, a system that achieved Johnson developed a similar device that was Corporation of Brooklyn, N.Y. and the infamy beyond that of almost any military based on a rotating disk. The French math- Anschütz Corporation of Berlin, Germany technology of the period except the atomic ematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, working both pursued the lucrative market of gyro- bomb. Although the V-2 had debatable at the École Polytechnique, Paris, recom- compasses for ships during the armament military effectiveness and did not fully mended the machine for use as a teaching buildup prior to World War I. The Anschütz implement inertial navigation (it was used aid, and thus it came to the attention of Corporation sued the Sperry Corporation to determine a cutoff velocity to begin the Léon Foucault. In 1852, Foucault used it for patent infringement in a high profile, ballistic trajectory phase), its knowledge in an experiment involving the rotation of high stakes court encounter. Albert Einstein, base on ballistic missile guidance with the Earth. It was Foucault who gave the who at the time was struggling with the inertial instrumentation was passed on device its modern name, in an experiment mind boggling intellectual challenges of to the Soviet Union and the United States. to see (Greek skopeein, to see) the Earth’s General Relativity, was a consultant on the Within the post-World War II burgeoning rotation (Greek gyros, circle or rotation), case. Eventually the Anschütz Corporation U.S. economy, flourished the pioneering which was visible in the 8 to 10 minutes won the case and is generally given primary efforts of M.I.T. Instrumentation Laboratory before friction slowed the spinning rotor. credit for the development of the gyrocom- (subsequently renamed the Charles Stark Foucault’s widely demonstrated gyroscope pass. Despite the historical attribution and Draper Laboratory), the Autonetics Division generally gains him recognition as the legal recognition given to Anschütz, the of North American Aviation, and Northrop inventor of the gyroscope despite the fact Sperry Corporation and its successors, has Corporation. In addition to the formidable the Bohnenberger’s sparsely publicized in- continued to thrive for almost a century on technological challenges conquered by strument preceded it. In 2002, the Institute its gyroscope related technology. these organizations, characteristics of the of Navigation celebrated Foucault’s 1852 charismatic personalities of leaders such demonstration as the 150th anniversary of The Inertial Navigation System: as Draper and John Slater of Autonetics the invention of the gyroscope. As a natural evolution of the gyrocom- were critical ingredients to the overall pass, practical inertial navigation system successful recipes. By around 1950, the The Gyrocompass: development began during the early years of black-box navigation work at Autonetics and It wasn’t until about sixty years after the invention of the gyroscope that the naviga- tion community found a high value, high Anschütz Corporation gyrocompass. Photo credit: The ballistic-missile submarine USS George Washington (SSBN 589) during her launching Wikimedia Commons. ceremony. The sub conducted the first Polaris missile launch while submerged on July 20, 1960. Photo credit: U.S. Navy. ION Newsletter 8 Winter 2010-2011 the Instrumentation Laboratory resulted, The dispute fundamentally is focused about It is considered that neither Dr. Parkin- respectively, in the XN series of inertial navi- the efforts, during the early 1970’s, of Dr. son’s team, nor Dr. Easton’s team, would gators for the Navaho missile and the FEBE Brad Parkinson and his team prior to the object to the less contentious attribution (after the sun God, Pheobus) stellar inertial formulation of the GPS Joint Program Office of credit for the development of the Navy bomber navigation system. Donald MacKen- in 1974, and the related contributions of Navigation Satellite System (NNSS/TRAN- zie, in his “Inventing Accuracy” chronology Dr. Roger Easton and his team centered at SIT) to the John Hopkins’ Applied Physics of inertial instrumentation, emphasizes the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. At the Laboratory and its contractors such as West- that the creation of the new technology of crux of the dispute is not only which team inghouse, Bunker Ramo and Magnavox Cor- inertial navigation cannot be captured by did what first, but also what is the essence porations. During the late 1950’s and early the traditional notion of invention, with its of GPS: Is it the utilization of multiple 1960’s, the TRANSIT system was developed single crucial “eureka moment.” Rather, it satellites simultaneously to obtain a fix? Is at a time when computers were esoteric is described as a triumph of “heterogeneous it the employment of pseudorandom codes electronic wizardry, and phenomena such engineering” encompassing the accom- to perform ranging? Is it the utilization of as the effects of gravity anomalies, solar plishments of a vast number of individuals atomic clocks in all the satellites? Is it the pressure, relativistic effects, tropospheric and organizations. In this context, historical overall Space, Control and User Segment and ionospheric disturbances were at the attribution for the achievement of inertial architecture? Is it the garnering of enough cutting edge of scientific exploration. navigation cannot readily be given to an financial and political support to demon- individual or team, but rather to a societal strate the concept? The expectation is that characteristic-the need for an autonomous future efforts of historians will uncover a Marvin B. May is the Chief Scientist of the navigation device. fertile body of references that enables a fair Pennsylvania State University’s Applied relative assessment of the contributions of Research Laboratory’s Navigation R&D The Global Positioning System: both of these teams. Center in Warminster, PA. Because of satellite navigation’s timeliness and its stature as a worldwide utility, the dispute as to GPS’s principal early contribu- tors is of particular historical interest and significance. Indeed, this historian has been solicited by several parties over the last two years to “weigh in” on the controversy. My initial superficial investigation con- vinced me that this examination would, and should, necessitate a commitment in time and resources well beyond my capability. World War I Naval battle view from the decks.