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From Digital Divide to Digital Opportunities? a Critical Perspective on the Digital Divide in South African Schools

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From Digital Divide to Digital Opportunities? a Critical Perspective on the Digital Divide in South African Schools From digital divide to digital opportunities? A critical perspective on the digital divide in South African schools Greta Björk Gudmundsdottir Dissertation submitted for the degree of Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Sciences UNIVERSITY OF OSLO 2010 © Greta Björk Gudmundsdottir, 2011 Series of dissertations submitted to the Faculty of Education, University of Oslo No. 136 ISSN 1501-8962 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. Cover: Inger Sandved Anfinsen. Printed in Norway: AIT Oslo AS, 2011. Produced in co-operation with Unipub AS. The thesis is produced by Unipub AS merely in connection with the thesis defence. Kindly direct all inquiries regarding the thesis to the copyright holder or the unit which grants the doctorate. Unipub AS is owned by The University Foundation for Student Life (SiO) Acknowledgements This study has been funded by the Department of Educational Research at the University of Oslo and by additional grants from the Icelandic Development Agency and the Icelandic Research Council grant for graduate students. Moreover, Umntu ngumntu ngabantu The isiXhosa proverb above includes the essence of the African concept of Ubuntu and translates as “a person is a person through other persons”. Needless to say, I would never have been able to finish this work without the support of many special persons. First of all, my grateful acknowledgements go to all the learners, teachers, principals, Khanya officials and other South Africans who welcomed me in their beautiful country. I humbly thank you – dankie – enkosi. In particular, I would like to extend my gratitude to my good friends and colleagues at the UWC: the dean of the Faculty of Education, Professor Zubeida Desai, the isiXhosa specialist Dr. Vyokazi Nomlomo and the helpful and ever- smiling Rhona Wales and her family. Not to forget Keith, Monde and Rosetta. To my friend Lynette Saunders and her family for kindness and support, to the caring couple Fred and Edna Groener and to my fellow PhD candidates Cheryl Brown and Tony Carr at the UCT for endless advice on ICT issues in South Africa. Furthermore, to everyone connected to the LOITASA research team in Tanzania, in particular Dr. Martha Qorro and Dr. Mwajuma Vuzo. Three very special ladies have followed me through the whole research process. Two were my supervisors, Dr. Birgit Brock-Utne and Dr. Solveig Jakobsdottir. I have benefited enormously having such excellent scholars from different research traditions guide me through the process. Birgit has shared her experience in Africa and network of friends as well as introduced me to the language issue and its importance for learners on the whole continent of Africa. Tusen takk Birgit, for your generosity, your support and great culinary and cultural experiences through the years. Solveig has been my mentor and a great inspiration since we first met when I was her student at the University of Iceland many years ago. Solveig has spent endless hours discussing, giving feedback, mailing, Skyping V and finding time in her busy schedule whenever I have needed her advice. Solveig is not only a great colleague but has through the years become a valued friend. Kærar þakkir Sólveig fyrir allan stuðninginn í gegnum árin. The third very special lady is another fellow Icelander, Dr. Halla Björk Holmarsdottir. Halla was the first person I met in connection with the CIE programme at the University of Oslo. She was my supervisor during the writing of my Master’s thesis in Namibia, and ever since, she has been of tremendous help. We have shared joys as well as frustrations, but no matter what, Halla is the eternal optimist and the best colleague and a friend one can ask for. Halla mín ég get ekki þakkað þér nóg! At the Department of Educational Research, numerous people have provided their professional support and advice as well as being sources of inspiration and motivation. First of all, I would like to thank my fellow PhD students who have increased my Norwegian “cultural capital” – En varm takk til dere alle sammen. Especially, Christian, Dorothy, Janicke, Kenneth, Torill, and Øystein. Moreover, my officemate on the second floor, Kristin “the Wise”. Thanks for all the lunches, talks and tears that we have shared through the years, not to mention the beautiful friendship that I cherish very much. I would also like to extend my thanks to other colleagues at the Department of Educational Research who have provided their help and encouragement in different ways. Special thanks to Lene Buchert, Berit Karseth, Ola Stafseng and Tone Solbrekke. To Tone Kvernbekk and Ola Erstad for reading the manuscript and giving valuable feedback at different stages. To the administrative team and the specialists at the IT support office my sincere thanks. Finally, at the University College in Oslo, special thanks to Anders Breidlid for his useful comments on earlier drafts and good discussions through the years. The lively team of CIE girls, Lihong, Halla, Mette, Kristi, Sheri, Heidi and Jennifer – I would like to thank you all for wonderful gatherings in Oslo and around the world, for your friendship, encouragements, constructive debates and always lots of laughter. And finally, my heartfelt thanks to my family, who have tolerated periods of long working days and mental as well as physical absences. To my parents for giving me the opportunity to experience the world, but most importantly, I am eternally indebted to my dear Terje and my marvellous quartet, Úlfur, Íris, Kristófer and Sunneva. This work is dedicated to you with never-ending love and admiration. YOU are simply the best! VV Table of Contents PART I - EXTENDED ABSTRACT List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. v List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. vi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................. vii! ! ! 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 THE COMPARATIVE TRADITION ................................................................................................................... 2! 1.2 AIMS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................ 4 1.3 RESEARCH CONTEXT - THE HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................ 5 ! 1.3.1 The apartheid period .......................................................................................................................... 6! 1.3.2 Education and apartheid .................................................................................................................... 6! 1.3.3 Recent post-apartheid educational reforms ....................................................................................... 8! 1.4 ICT IN THE WESTERN CAPE ........................................................................................................................ 9! 1.5 ICT USE AND COMPETENCE ....................................................................................................................... 11 ! ! ! 2.0 CONTEXTUALIZING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE ...................................................... 15 2.1 GLOBAL DIVIDES .............................................................................................................................. ......... 16! 2.2 LOCAL DIVIDES ......................................................................................................................................... 19 2.3 DEFINING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE .................................................................................................................. 21 ! 2.3.1 The relevance divide ......................................................................................................................... 25! 2.4 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. ............... 28! ! ! 3.0 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ICT IN EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................................ 29 3.1 THE UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURE AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY ............................................................... 30! 3.2 THE UNDERSTANDING OF LANGUAGE IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT ..................................................... 32 3.3 THE UNDERSTANDING OF POWER .............................................................................................................. 34! 3.3.1 Power, knowledge and discourse ..................................................................................................... 36! 3.4 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT ......................................................... 37! 3.4.1 Global and local initiatives on development, education and ICT .................................................... 39! 3.5 ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT - THE CAPABILITY APPROACH .................................................... 41! 3.6 CRITICAL APPROACHES ............................................................................................................................
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