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Time and Information Technology: Temporal Impacts on Individuals, Organizations, and Society

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Time and Information Technology: Temporal Impacts on Individuals, Organizations, and Society The Information Society, 18:235–240, 2002 Copyright c 2002 Taylor & Francis ° 0197-2243/02 $12.00 + .00 DOI: 10.1080/0197224029007508 4 Time and Information Technology: Temporal Impacts on Individuals, Organizations, and Society Heejin Lee Department of Information Systems and Computing, University of Melbourne, Australia Edgar A. Whitley Department of Information Systems, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, United Kingdom Time has recently become a central issue of discourse and society. In so doing, we draw on Bolter’s (1984) con- in social sciences and management studies. Partly due to cept of “de ning technology” and compare modern infor- the advent of the new millennium, scholars in social sci- mation technology with the mechanical clocks of the 17th ences and management studies have become fascinated and 18th centuries. Then, we present temporal impacts of with the notion of time and come to appreciate its com- information technology at three levels (individual, organi- plex nature. This newly awakened interest in time can be zational, and social), as well as broader, theoretical issues. seen in the recent conferences and journal special issues These four areas will be used as a framework onto which on the topic.1 In particular, much of this rising interest the ve papers included in this special issue will be posi- can be seen in an awareness of changing time in this tioned. Finally we suggest areas for future research in the “information age.” Information technology, recently repre- study of time and information technology. sented by the Internet, is “transforming time,” the way time is perceived, used, managed, and disciplined. Although it DEFINING TECHNOLOGIES: THE CLOCK is generally accepted that information technology is affect- AND THE COMPUTER ing temporal aspects of contemporary society, all too often the relationship between time and information technology According to Bolter (1984), some technologies occupy a fails to acknowledge the complexity of their relationship special place in their age. The clock and the steam engine and is simply understood in terms of cliches´ such as “IT in Western Europe in the 17th and 19th centuries, respec- enables us to overcome barriers in time and space.” While tively, not only changed the world in a material sense, but one key aspect of the effect of technology on time is that they also provided new ways by which people viewed and many things are getting faster, we believe the accompany- understood both their physical and metaphysical worlds. ing changes are much more fundamental. Clockwork was the model of the universe showing the This special issue on time and information technology movements of heavenly bodies; the steam engine became aims to provide this deeper understanding, and thereby to the metaphor for the universe in the 19th century (Bolter, further research and discussion on time and information 1984, p. 32). technology. In this editorial, we review why we believe These were de ning technologies that de ned the age that time and information technology should be a focal when they were invented and rst widely used; in the same point in understanding current changes in organizations way, information and communications technologies, in- cluding the Internet, are the de ning technology of our age. They not only change many aspects of our material existence, but also affect the way we view the world. For Received 15 May 2002; accepted 17 May 2002. example, the computer is often used as a metaphor for the Address correspondence to Heejin Lee, Department of Information human mind or brain in notions like the input and output, Systems, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010 Australia. E-mail: and even the hardware and software of the brain (Bolter, [email protected] 1984, p. 11). 235 236 H. LEE AND E. A. WHITLEY As a de ning technology, both the clock and the com- He further insists that clocks in the 17th century not only puter affect temporal aspects of individuals, organizations, affected industrial organizations, but also affected every and society on the one hand, and the way people view time, aspect of the society: literature, philosophy, theology, and on the other. Clocks affected every aspect of temporality therefore, our way of thinking and our view of the world. not particularly because they were time-measuring ma- The computer is, in its simplest form, a tool for cal- chines, but because they were the de ning technology. culation. However, it is “the contemporary analog of the The mechanical clock, in its simplest form, was a tool clocks” (Bolter, 1984, p. 10). Information technology is for measuring time. However, it had two fundamental affecting every facet of contemporary society. Time is differences, which enabled it to make huge impacts on no exception. “Our appreciation and our evaluation of human life and civilizations, compared to its predecessors the passage of time is changing in the computer age” such as the sundial, water clock, hourglass, etc. First, the (Bolter, 1984, p. 100). Information technology can affect mechanical clock, which had became reliable since the ap- and change temporality, people’s perceptions of time, its plication of the regular swing of a pendulum in 1657 by measurement, and the way time is organized. As Rifkin Christiaan Huygens, was incomparable in accuracy. Be- (1987) argues, fore 1657 clocks could not keep time more closely than to It is likely that within the next half century, the computer will about 15 minutes per day; within 20 years they kept time help facilitate a revolutionary change in time orientation, just with a variation of less than 10 seconds per day (Macey, as clocks did several hundred years ago when they began the 1980, p. 33). Now it became a reliable tool which could process of replacing nonautomated timepieces as society’s direct, and provide criteria for, the organization of hu- key time-ordering tools. : : : the new computer technology is man activities. For example, before the clock, it was not already changing the way we conceptualize time and, in the possible to consider and apply notions of accuracy and process, is changing the way we think about ourselves and punctuality as we do now. the world around us. (p. 13) Second, the mechanical clock freed time from nature. The articles in this special issue demonstrate that Rifkin’s Before accurate mechanical clocks, time had always been prediction has come true, far sooner than his 50-year time measured in relation to physical and biotic phenomena, for scale. As we demonstrate, these impacts can be analyzed example, the rising and setting of the sun and the growth of in terms of individuals, organizations, and society as well plants. By those temporal indications from nature, people as the broader theoretical points they raise. organized and conducted their activities. They woke up and started to work when the sun rose and harvested their ARTICLES IN THE SPECIAL ISSUE crops when the days drew in. This “time was not something xed in advance and divorced from external events” and There are ve excellent articles in this special issue of with the advent of the mechanical clock, time became “a The Information Society on Time and Information Tech- function of pure mechanism” (Rifkin, 1987, p. 85). People nology. Our call for papers attracted 15 submissions on a wake up when the clock strikes seven, not because the sun diverse set of topics around the notion of temporality and rises. Therefore we can argue that clocks “dissociated time information technology. After an initial review to ensure from human events” (Mumford, 1934, p. 15) and “human that they addressed the aims of the special issue, the arti- events from nature” (Landes, 1983, p. 16). cles were sent out for review. Despite the broad range of At the organizational level, Thompson (1967) investi- research approaches found, ranging from quantitative ex- gated the impacts of the mechanical clock on labor disci- perimental studies to ethnographically in uenced studies plines in early industrial capitalism when the “task orien- of situated work practices, we were able to obtain three tation” of time organization by which work proceeded in high-quality reviews for each article and are grateful to all “natural” rhythms gave way to “labor timed by the clock” our reviewers for their excellent work in this area. For each (pp. 59–60). article we tried to have two reviewers who were familiar Mumford argued that “The clock, not the steam-engine, with the broad research approach used in the article, and is the key-machine of the modern industrial age” (1934, one representing an alternative tradition. On the basis of p. 14) because the clock was “a model for many other these reviews, we selected the articles that are included in kinds of mechanical works, and the analysis of motion the special issue. that accompanied the perfection of the clock, with the var- The special issue therefore re ects much of the di- ious types of gearing and transmission that were elabo- versity in research approach, research subject, and geo- rated, contributed to the success of quite different kinds of graphical focus of current research on information tech- machine” (p. 15). Macey (1980) suggests that the British nology and time. We have articles from Europe, the United supremacy in the horological revolution of 1660–1760 States, and Asia; articles focusing on individuals, on or- contributed greatly to the British industrial revolution, ganizations, and on societies. The research looks at how which is usually considered to have begun about 1760. time impacts the developers of software systems alongside TIME AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 237 the implementers and users of new computer systems, on worldwide clock for the internet in the same way that GMT the direct impact of technology on temporal activities of works for the real world.
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