Kerala vernacular architecture pdf

Continue If you look around then you would be able to discover that India was and is still very rich on architecture and different parts of India has a different type of architecture. Among all the vernacular architectures is that of a type that is associated with architectures that are composed of locally available materials. is the only state in India that has specialized in vernacular architecture or you can say that it is the only state that has still kept such architecture preserved. These buildings are far from professional buildings and are made with the knowledge of the inhabitants and are often the best for survival. These buildings are nothing complicated rather everything in this type of buildings is very simple and beautiful at the same time. Often people build this type of house for living and storage purposes as well and this type of house is still widely used for pets in many parts of India and neighboring countries. This type of home is inactive for those who are concerned about the environment as these kinds of homes are environmentally friendly. If you're wondering more about Kerala's vernacular architecture then here's everything you need to know about Kerala's vernacular architecture: Facts about Kerala's vernacular architecture: You'd be surprised to know that Kerala is the only state that has still supported this kind of architectural houses and people here revel in living in such houses. It is beautiful to see how intelligently the people of Kerala have preserved the houses as well as the concept of vernacular architectural designs. Source: pinterest.com This kind of architectural designs has not been used for residential homes from the beginning rather rather temples were built this way. People at the time when very spiritual and they always tried to keep their god in luxury and that is the reason why they came up with such a concept of building design for God. The evolution then took place and the design of the temple began to evolve and then after a while, people also came up with such housing designs and since then Kerala has vernacular architecture. There were some basics of this kind of house and people back tried to keep the designs as simple as possible so that construction could be done in the least amount of time. Now the thing is different and people have become a little creative, but at the time the house has either circle, rectangular or square body with a sloppy roof and the house is ready to live in in. there were no such rooms and sections for different purposes rather a huge room was there for every possible thing. Source: thehindu.com Now the can't be denied that Kerala could support this kind of homes because kerala's weather allowed that. These kinds of houses are best suited to the climate state of Kerala and this house would make survival easy in Kerala which is why people build such houses. The most important thing about this construction is the availability of material and the good thing is that Kerala is such a state that has almost all the raw materials that may be needed for house building. From the clay timer and stones with leaves and woods, kerala has it all. How do these types of homes prove perfect for the climate state of Kerala? If you try to analyze the climatic conditions of Kerala then you would discover that this place is high in humidity and at the same time this state faces heavy rains most of the year. The house in this area must therefore be built in such a way as to be able to withstand the heavy rains of the state. The roof of this house is tilted which prevents rainwater from being stored rather than it is made in such a way that rainwater would always wash the roof. This kind of roof also helps to keep the house cool, even in the hot kerala weather which is a great thing for sure. This friendly home of the house often has a veranda that is perfect for savoring fresh air and nature views. Source: rereeti.org If you visit Kerala then you will find that the state has this kind of house in every corner and rich as well as, the poor like to be in such a house. However, the designs, as well as the exterior, vary from house to house, but the overall concept and structure seem to be the same for most vernacular houses in Kerala. Here you could see both single-floor homes as well as double-floored houses and there the maximum number of floors is two because these kind of houses often have the low base that can't stand more than two floors. These houses in Kerala are often covered with greenery which makes it a paradise for a nature lover. The concept as well as, looks of this kind of houses is so beautiful that nowadays even the resorts are built inspired by such housing designs and techniques. Most of the time the size of the house varies and since the floors cannot be restored much so people often build rooms one after the other and this is the reason why a large family would need a large area if this family is interested in this kind of home. Source: pinterest.com Most homes are built in such a way that there could be at least one kitchen, living room and bedroom and they usually have toilets built outside the home. These are all you need to know about Kerala's vernacular architecture and learn more about these things that you can browse Architecturesstyle. At a recent presentation on Friday Sugar Cube, Srinivasan - one of our newest architects on staff - describes the traditional styles, materials and construction methods of buildings located in his home state of Kerala, India. Located on the southwest coast of Malabar, Kerala's climate is tropical with a which in recent years has caused major flooding. August 27, 2019 Posted by: Chris Hill Category: Blog His houses, while varying in style according to the region, follow a typical pattern based on vaasthu shastra, an ancient Indian science of architecture that balances the five elements of nature. It is a vaguely organized square, with verandas at the perimeter and living spaces in the middle surrounding an open inner courtyard. Large overhangs offer protection from rain and sun, and all spaces are open to refreshing breezes. Traditional building materials include stone, wood, clay and palm leaves, which are used for roofing. Granite forms foundations and the walls are laid with a porous red stone called laterite. Teak, rosewood and jackfruit are widely used for the framing and work of mills, often finely carved by skilled craftsmen. The floors are made of stone or an exotic combination of sand, egg whites, charred coconut shells, unrefined sugar and vegetable juice extract. One of Minnu's sketches of the Vadakkunnathan Temple. A sample of the architectural ornament Padmanabhapuram Palace. In addition to the houses, Minnu explained the common arrangements for the temples, which house separate shrines surrounded by open seats and walls adorned with small lamps lit by the faithful. India's national tree, the banyan, shades a central gathering place. Minnu accompanied his speech with photographs of buildings and their details, steep mountains, lush valleys and hills, barges that crisscross lagoons and picturesque rivers, architectural plans, and his own pencil sketches. Header photo credit: Arayilpdas in Malayalam Wikipedia This article has multiple problems. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the discussion page. (Find out how and when to delete these template messages) This article contains a formulation that promotes the subject in a subjective way without transmitting real information. Please remove or replace this wording and, instead of making proclamations about the importance of a topic, use the facts and attribution to demonstrate this importance. (March 2018) (Find out how and when to delete this template message) This article or section should specify the language of its non-English content, using 'lang', with an appropriate ISO 639 code. See why. (July 2020) This article needs additional quotes for verification. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-source materials can be and removed. Find sources: Architecture of Kerala - news Newspapers Books scholar JSTOR (October 2015) (Learn how and when to delete this model message) The entrance to the Poornathrayisa temple in Tripunithura, redesigned in 1921 by Sri Eayara Warrier Tripunithura Hill Palace, which was the administrative office of Cochin Rajas. Kerala's architecture is one of the most architectural style that is mainly found in the Indian state of Kerala. The architectural style of Kerala is a unique architecture of the Hindu temple that has emerged in the southwestern part of India, in its stark contrast to the Dravidian architecture that is normally practiced in other parts of . Kerala's architecture was realized/followed according to Indian Vedic architectural science (Vastu Shastra) and part of Dravidian architecture, one of the three styles of temples mentioned in the ancient books of Vastu Shastra. Tantrasamuchay, Thachu-Shastra, Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are important architectural sciences, which have had a strong impact in the style of Kerala architecture. The Manushyalaya-Chandrika, a work devoted to domestic architecture is one of those sciences that has its strong roots in Kerala. The architectural style has evolved from the particular climate of Kerala and a long history of influences from its main maritime trading partners such as the Chinese, Arabs and Europeans. British Residence in Kollam - This is a splendid two-storey palace built by Colonel John Munro between 1811 and 1819. It is a mixture of European-Indian-Tuscan architectural styles Origins The regional expression characteristic of Kerala's architecture is the result of geographical, climatic and historical factors. Geographically, Kerala is a narrow strip of land located between the west coast of peninsular India and confined between the imposing western ghats to the east and the vast Arabian Sea to the west. Favoured by the heavy rains due to the monsoon and the radiant suns, this land is lush and green and rich in animal life. In the rugged terrain of this region, human habitation is spread widely in the fertile lowlands and little towards the hostile highlands. Heavy rains have brought large bodies of water in the form of lakes, rivers, backwaters and lagoons. Climate factors have thus made significant contributions to the development of architectural style, to counter the wettest climatic conditions coupled with high humidity and harsh tropical summers. The story also played its own contributions to Kerala's architecture. The imposing Western Ghats to the east, managed to prevent the influences of neighboring Tamil countries in today's Kerala in later times. While the Western Ghats isolate Kerala to a greater extent from the Indian empires, the exposure of the Arabian Sea to the east brought close contacts between the ancient peoples of Kerala with the main maritime civilizations such as the Chinese, Egyptians, Romans, Arabs, etc. Rich cultures Kerala brought it to the centre of world maritime trade until the modern period, helping several international powers to actively engage with Kerala as trading partners. This helped bring the influences of these civilizations into kerala's architecture. [1] Prehistoric Era History Location Location Kerala has influenced social development and indirectly the style of construction. In ancient times, the Arabian Sea and the Ghats formed impenetrable barriers helping to the evolution of an isolated culture of the Proto-Dravidians, contemporary of the Harappan civilization. The first remains of the buildings in Kerala belong to this period which took place in 1900 BC. J.C. to 300 BC They can be grouped into two types: funerary cells and megaliths. Rock-cut grave cells are usually located in laterite areas of central Kerala, for example in Porkalam, . The tombs are pretty much oblong in the foreground with single or multiple bed chambers with a rectangular courtyard to the east from where the steps rise to ground level. Another type of burial chamber consists of four slabs placed at the edges and a fifth covering them like a hooded stone. One or more of these dolmens are marked by a stone circle. Among the megaliths are the umbrella stones (kudakkal), resembling umbrellas of palm leaves handles used to cover the pits enclosing the burial urns. Two other types of megaliths, hat stones (thoppikkal) and menhirs (pulachikkal), have no funerary appendages. They seem to be more of a commemorative stone. Megaliths are not of great architectural importance, but they speak of the custom of primitive tribes erecting memorials on sites of mortuary rites. These places later became the annual meeting places of the tribes and gave birth to occult temples of ancestral worship. While the custom of father worship can be seen in these cases, the protective deities of the villages were always in female form, which were worshipped in open groves (kavu ). These hypathral temples had trees, stone symbols of mother goddesses or other naturalistic or animist images as objects of worship. The continuity of this primitive culture can be seen in the folk arts, cult rituals, tree worship, snakes and images of the mother in kavus. Hindu/Kerala Architecture, Architecture in Buddhism The Chuttuambalam Pavilion at the Temple built in the classical style See also: Tamil Buddhism Dravidian Architecture The version of Dravidian architecture found in Kerala in the extreme southwest is significantly different. Very large temples are rare, and sloping roofs with eaves in its projection dominate the outline, often arranged in a number of levels. As in Bengal, this is an adaptation to heavy monsoon rains. There is usually a stone core a wooden superstructure. Jain monuments are more numerous in Kerala. They include rock shelters at Chitral Jain Cave near Nagercoil, a rock- cut temple at Kallil near , and remnants of structural temples at Alathoor near and Sultanbathery. Jainimedu Jain Temple is a 15th century Jain temple located in Jainimedu, 3 km from the centre of Palakkad. [2] Sculptured Kerala Jaina and Dravidian figures of Mahavira, Mahavira, and other thirthankaras have been recovered from these sites. This remained a Jain temple until 1522CE before being consecrated as a Hindu temple. Sultanbathery also has the remains of a Jaina basti, known as Ganapati vattam, being an example of a cloistered temple built entirely of granite. The great gopurams of the temples of Kerala at Vazhappally Thorana is a gateway provided in the palisade seen in the vertical and horizontal limbs of the vilakkumadam. In its most primitive form, this construction is seen in hypathral temples enshrining trees and later on the exterior walls of clean shrines. With the stylistic development of the Hindu temple, this form of palisade is removed from the structure of the shrine (srikovil) and taken as a separate building beyond the temple cloister (chuttamblam). The one-storey temple complex from to Kollam Gopuram adorned with several floors of the Dravidian Kovil of the Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Hinduism coexisted with the indigenous Dravidian cultural and social practices of Kerala. The literature of the Beginning of Tamil G Sangam says that in the first century AD, the Cheras are all present-day Kerala, parts of Tulunadu and Kodagu, and Kongu lands (now the region of Salem and Coimbatore). It had several capitals simultaneously administered by different lineages of the Family, its main capital being Vanchi, identified with the Thiruvanchikulam near . At that time, both ends of the Kerala region were administered by two Velir families. The southernmost part administered by the Ay chiefs of Thiruvananthapuram and the northernmost parts by the Nannans of Ezhilmalai. The Nannan line was a branch of the Ay native to the Thiruvananthapuram region and both were representatives (or vassals) under the Overlordy of the Cheras (and sometimes the Pandyas or Cholas or Pallavas). The fusion of different cultures and religious philosophies has helped to change the architectural styles of Kerala's temples. This was very conducive to architectural development and the renovation of a large number of temples. After the decline of the Cheras, several small principalities developed throughout Kerala. In the 15th century, Kerala was largely covered by the overlords of four chiefs - the leaders of Venad in the south, Maharajas in the centre, the of in the north and Kolathiri Rajas in the far north. They were leaders who condescended architectural activities. It was this period, Kerala Architecture began to shape its own distinctive style. A regional character in construction incorporating dravidian craft skills, forms Buddhist buildings, vedic-era design concepts and canonical theories of Hindu agamical practices in locally available materials adapted to climatic conditions eventually evolved in Kerala. The theory and practice of construction were also compiled during this period. Their compilations remain like classic texts of a living tradition to this day. Four important books in this area are; Thantrasamuchayam (Chennas Narayanan Namboodiri) and Silppiratnam (Sreekumara), covering the architecture of the Vastuvidya Temple (anon.) and Manushyalaya Chandrika (Thirumangalathu Sri Neelakandan), dealing with domestic architecture. A number of minor works in Sanskrit, Manipravalam and refined Malayalam, all based on the above texts have found popularity in Kerala with craftsmen and professionals related to the subject. Kerala is designated as one of the border kingdoms of the Maurya empire. It is possible that Buddhists and Jainas were the first groups in northern India to cross the borders of Kerala and establish their monasteries. These religious groups were able to practice their faith and receive patronage from local kings to build shrines and viharas. For nearly eight centuries, Buddhism and Jainism seem to have coexisted in Kerala as an important faith, contributing in its own way to the social and architectural development of the region. Composition and structure A complete view of Kanakakkunnu Palace to the Kerala architecture of Thiruvananthapuram can be largely divided into 2 distinctive zones based on their functionality, each guided by different sets of principles; The roof and gable ceiling works are the main feature of the architectural style of Kerala Religious Architecture, mainly patronized by the temples of Kerala as well as several old churches, mosques, etc. Domestic architecture, mainly seen in most residential homes. There are distinctive styles in this area, such as palaces and large mansions of feudal lords different from commoner houses and also a marked difference exists between religious communities. Vadakumnatha Temple, Trissur is a fine example of Kerala style Dravidian Architecture Composition The primary elements of all trends structures remain the same. The basic model is normally circular, square or rectangular plain shapes with an evolved ribbed roof from functional consideration. The most distinctive visual form of Kerala's architecture is the long, steeply sloping roof built to protect the walls of the house and to withstand the heavy monsoon, normally laid with tiles or a thatched maze of palm leaves, supported on a hardwood and wooden roof frame. Structurally, the roof frame was supported on the pillars on the walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground to protect against moisture and insects in the tropical climate. Often, the walls woods are also abundantly available in Kerala. Gabled windows were evolved at both ends to provide attic ventilation when the ceiling was incorporated for room spaces. Most of Kerala's buildings appear to be low in visual height, due to the over-slope of the roofs, which are intended to protect the walls from the rains and vastu's belief system plays a very important role in the development of architectural styles. The underlying fundamental belief is that every structure built on earth has its own life, with a soul and personality that is shaped by its environment. The most important science, which has Kerala developed purely indigenously is Thachu Shastra (Science of carpentry) as the easy availability of wood and its intensive use of it. Thachu's concept emphasizes that wood is derived from a living form, wood, when used for construction, has its own life that must be synthesized in harmony with its environment and the people who live inside. Materials Natural building materials available for construction in Kerala are stones, wood, clay and palm leaves. Granite is a solid and durable building stone; however, its availability is limited mainly to the highlands and only marginally to other areas. Because of this, skill in quarrying, dressing and carving stone is rare in Kerala. Laterite, on the other hand, is the most abundant stone found as outcrops in most areas. Soft lateritis available at a shallow depth can be easily cut, dressed and used as building blocks. It is a rare local stone that becomes stronger and more durable with exposure to atmospheric air. The laterite blocks can be glued into shell lime mortars, which have been the classic binding material used in traditional buildings. Lime mortar can be improved in strength and performance by vegetable juice mixtures. These enriched mortars have been used for plastering or as a base for murals and low relief work. Wood is the leading structural material abundantly available in many varieties in Kerala - from bamboo to teak. Perhaps the skilful choice of wood, precise carpentry, the clever assemblage and delicate carving of woodwork for columns, walls and roof frames are the unique features of Kerala architecture. Clay has been used in many forms - for the wall, to fill the wood floors and make bricks and tiles after vomiting and tempered with mixtures. Palm leaves have been used effectively to thatch roofs and to make partitions. Typical wooden sculptures made on the ceilings of the Sree Padmanabhapuram Palace From the limits of materials, a mixed construction method has been developed in Kerala architecture. Stonework was limited to plinth even in important buildings such as temples. Laterite was used for walls. The structure of the wooden roof was covered with thatched palm leaves for most buildings and rarely with tiles for palaces or temples. The exterior of the laterite walls were left as such or plastered with lime mortar to serve as the basis for mural painting. The stone sculpture was mainly cast in horizontal stripes in the plinth part (adhistans) while the wooden sculpture covered all the elements - pillars, pillars, ceiling, rafters and supports. Kerala murals are paintings with plant dyes on damp walls in subdued shades of brown. The indigenous adoption of available raw materials and their transformation as a lasting medium for architectural expression have thus become the dominant feature of the Kerala style. Structure DevangDevang Devang' Religious Architecture Of the Temple Madhur Temple, , Kerala The variety of temples, numbering more than 2000 dot the state of Kerala has no correspondence with other parts of India. The temples of Kerala developed in strict compliance with two temple building theses, Thantra-Samachayam and Sliparatnam. While the first deals with the development of structures that regulate energy flows so that positive energy flows, while negative energy does not tend to remain delayed in the structure; while the latter deals with the development of stone and wood architecture in such a way that each sculpted structure ensts a life and personality of its own. [4] The standard layout of the Kerala temple. Elements and characteristics of the temple of Kerala Sri-Kovil The circular style Sreekovil of the temples of Kerala The inner sanctorum shrine where the idol of the deity that presides is installed and adored f. It is an independent structure, detached from other buildings without connection, and having its own roof shared with none. The Sri-kovil has no windows and has only one large door that opens mainly to the east (sometimes it arrives to the west, while some temples have a north-facing gate as a specialty, while no temple will have a south-facing gate). The Srikovil can be built in different plane shapes - square, rectangular, circular, or apsidel. Among these, the square plan shows a uniform distribution throughout Kerala. The square shape is essentially the shape of the Vedic fire altar and strongly suggests Vedic mooring. It is classified as the nagara style of the temple in architectural texts. The rectangular plan is favored for the Ananthasai Vishnu (Lord Vishnu in the reclining posture) and the Matrikas Sapta (Seven Mother Goddess). The circular plan and apsidel plan are rare in other parts of India and unknown, even in the civil architecture of Kerala, but they constitute an important group of temples. The circular plan shows a greater preponderance in the southern part of Kerala, in regions formerly under the influence of Buddhism. The apsidel plan is a combination of the semicircle and the square and is seen distributed sporadically throughout the coastal region. Circular temples belong to the Vasara category. A variation circle is also considered an exception in the sanctuary of Siva in Vaikkom. The polygonal forms belonging to the Dravida category are also rarely adopted in temple plans, but they find use as a characteristic of shikhara. According to the Thantrasamuchayam, each Sreekovil Sreekovil be built neutral or face-to-face. For unitary temples, the overall height is taken as 13/7/ at 2 1/8 of the width of the sanctuary, and classified into 5 classes as i.e.; santhika, purshtika, yayada, achudha, and savakamika - with the increasing height of the temple shape. The total height is essentially divided into two halves. The bottom half consists of the basement, pillar or wall (stambha or bhithi), and the bottom half (prasthara) in the ratio 1:2:1, in height. Similarly, the upper half is divided into necks (griva), roof tower (shikhara), and fonial (Kalasham) in the same report. The adisthana or foundation is usually made of granite, but the superstructure is built of laterite. The roofs will normally be higher than the other structures of the temple. The structural roof of the sanctuary is built like the masonry dome; however, in order to protect it from the vagaries of the climate, it was superimposed by a functional roof, made of wooden frame covered with planks and tiles. This sloping roof with its caves in its projection gave the characteristic shape to the temple of Kerala. The fenial or Kalasham, in copper, provided the coronation arrow denoting the shrine accent in case the idol was installed. The flag post normally seen in all the temples of Kerala Normally Srikovil is on an elevated platform and has a flight or 3 or 5 steps to be. The steps are called Sopanapadi and on the sides of the Sopanapadi, two large statues known as Dwarapalakas (Gate Guards) are eager to keep the deity. According to the style of Kerala rituals, only the main priest (Thantri) and the second priest (Melshanti) allowed only entry into the Sri-kovil. Namaskara Mandapam The namaskara mandapa is a square-shaped pavilion with an elevated platform, a set of pillars and a pyramidal roof. The size of the mandapa is determined by the width of the sanctuary cell. The pavilion in its simplest form has four corner pillars; but larger pavilions are equipped with two sets of pillars; four on the inside and twelve on the outside. The pavilions of circular, elliptical and polygonal shapes are mentioned in the texts, but they are not seen in the temples of Kerala. The Mandapams are used to conducting Vedic-thantical rites. Nalambalam The outer grounds of the Temple, called Chuttuambalam The shrine and the mandapa building are enclosed in a rectangular structure called nalambalam. Functionally, the back and side halls of nalambalam are used for various ritual worship activities. The entrance hall is pierced with the entrance, dividing it into two parts. These two rooms; Agrasalas who used to feed Brahmans, performing yagas and Koothuambalam are used for staging temple arts such as koothu and temple murals. In few cases, the Koothuambalams are separated as an individual structure outside Nalambalam. Balithara The Dwajasthampam or Temple Flag, in Chuttuambalam At the entrance to Nalambalam, a in the shape of an altar in raised stone called balithara can be seen. This altar is used to make ritual offerings to demigods and other spirits. Inside Nalambalam, several small stones, called Balikallukal can be seen, intended for the same purpose. Chuttuambalam Goppuram or Gatehouse The exterior structure within the walls of the temple, is known as chuttuambalam. Normally Chuttuambalam has main pavilion known as Mukha-Mandacam or Thala-mandapam. The Mukha-Mandapam will have the Dwajastambam (Sacred Flag-post) in the center of it and has several pillars supporting mandapam. The temple is now completely enclosed in a massive wall (Kshetra-Madillukal) pierced with door houses or gopurams. The gopuram is usually two-storey, which has been used for two purposes. The ground floor was an open space usually used as a platform for temple dances such as kurathy dance or shullal ottan during festivals. The upper floor with wooden paths covering the sides functioned like a kottupura (a room to beat the drums). The Chuttuambalam will normally have 4 doors from the outside to the entrance on all sides. A paved stone walkway will be seen around Chuttuambalam to allow devotees to roam around the temple, which for some large temples are covered with supported roof with massive pillars on both sides. The Chuttuambalam will have Dwajavillakku or giant streetlights in several locations, mainly in Mukha-mandapams. Ambala-Kulam Temple Pond or Ambala-Kulam in Ambalapuzha Sri Krishna Temple Each temple will have a sacred temple pond or water lake located in the temple complex. According to the rules vastu, water is considered as a source of positive energy and balance of synthesis of all energies. Therefore, a pond of the temple or Ambala Kulam will be made available in the complex of the temple. The temple pond is normally used only by priests as a holy bath before the beginning of the rituals as well as for various sacred rituals in the temple. In few cases, a separate pond will be built to allow devotees to bathe before entering the temple. Today, several temples have Mani-Kenar or Holy Wells in the Nalambalam complex to obtain sacred waters for the purposes of Abisekham. Thevarapura Koothuambalams are privileged places for the conduct of temple dances and other art forms. The height of the roof of Koothuambalam are much more similar to the pyramids, makes it more majestic and gives a distant feeling of the temple Normally in Nalambalam, a separate complex will be built for cooking food intended to serve for divinity and distribution among devotees as holy prasadam. These complexes are called Thevarapura, where fire or Agni is invoked. Phases of Evolution In its stylistic development, the architecture of the temple can be divided into three phases. The Nalukettu A Madappura complex (stand alone Kovil) in Northern Kerala where Theyyam rituals are performed seasonally. Remarkable for its unique, unique tile roof structure. All Muthappan Muthappan structured in the same style. These structures are mainly found in the region of Kerala The first phase is that of temples carved into the rock. This oldest form is contemporary with Buddhist cave temples. The temples carved into the rocks are mainly located in southern Kerala, in Vizhinjam and Ayiurpara near Tiruvananthapuram, Kottukal near Kollam and Kaviyoor near . Of these, Kaviyoor's is the best example. The temple of the Kaviyoor cave dedicated to Siva includes a sanctuary room and a spacious ardhamandapa arranged axially facing west. On the pillared façade as well as on the walls inside the ardhamandapa are carved reliefs of the donor, a bearded rishi, a seated four armed Ganesh and dwarapalas. The other temples of the cave also have this general pattern of a shrine and an antechamber and they are associated with the Siva cult. In the north, similar saiva culture temples are observed in Trikkur and Irunilamkode in Trissoor district. Historically, cave architecture in India begins with Buddhism and the technique of rock-carved architecture in Kerala seems to be a continuation of works similar to Tamil Nadu under the Pandyas. The temples carved into the rock are all dated before the 8th century AD. The structural temples appear in the second phase stretching from the 8th to the 10th century, and sponsored by the chiefs of Chera, Ay and Mushika. The first temples had a unitary shrine or a srikovil. In rare cases, a porch or ardhamandapa is seen attached to the shrine. A detached namaskara mandapa is usually built in front of the srikovil. A quadrangular building, nalambalam that encloses the srikovil, the mandapa namaskara, balikkal (altar stones) etc. has become part of this basic plan composition of the temple of Kerala began to emerge in this phase. The middle phase of temple evolution is characterized by the emergence of the Sandhara Shrine. In the unitary sanctuary of the previous type, Nirendhara (single level of srikovil), there is a cell with only one door to the cell. But in the sandhara shrine the cell has two wells leaving a passage between them. There are also often four functional doors on the four cardinal directions and pierced windows to provide dim light in the passage. Sometimes the functional door on the sides and back are replaced by pseudo doors. The concept of the multi-storey temple is also seen in this phase. The tower of the shrine rises to the second floor with a separate upper roof forming a dwitala temple (two floors). There is a unique example of (three-storey temple) is at the Shiva Shrine in Peruvanam with two floors square plan and the third floor of octagonal shape. In the last phase , (1300-1800 a.d.) stylistic development reached its peak with greater complexity in the layout of the temple and the elaboration of details. The vilakkumadam, the palisade structure fixed with rows of oil is added beyond the nalambalam as an outer ring. The stone of the altar is also housed in a pillared structure, the Balikkal mandapam in front of the agrasala (valiyambalam). A deepastambham and dwajasthambham (the lamppost and flagpole) are added in front of the balikkal mandapam. In the prakara, but beyond the vilakkumadam, were the secondary sanctuaries of parivara devathas (sub-gods) in their assigned positions. These were unitary cells, in general, although in some cases each became a sanctuary in its own right, as in the case of the Krishna Shrine in the Siva Temple in Tali, Kozhikode. The last phase resulted in the concept of composite sanctuaries. Here, two or three shrines of equal importance are seen cloistered within a common nalambalam. The typical example of this is the Vadakkumnatha Temple in Trissoor, where in three shrines dedicated to Siva, Rama and Sankaranarayana are located inside the nalambalam. The prakara can also contain temple tanks, vedapadhasalas and dining rooms. Paradoxically, some shrines do not have a single secondary sanctuary, the only example being the Bharatha Shrine in . An important feature of the large temple complexes is the presence of a theatre hall known as Koothambalam, intended for dance, musical performance and religious recitals. It is a unique building of Kerala architecture, distinct from the natyasabha or natyamandir seen in the temples of northern India from this period. Koothambalam is a large pillared room with a high roof. Inside the room is a stage structure called Rangamandapam for shows. The stage and the pillars are decorated in an ornate manner. Visual and acoustic considerations are incorporated into the layout of the pillars and construction details so that the shows can be enjoyed by the spectators without discomfort or distortion. Koothambalam's design appears to have been based on the cannons given in the Natyasastra of Bharata Muni. In southern Kerala, the architecture of the temple was also influenced by developments in Tamil Nadu. In Sucheendram and Tiruvananthapuram, this influence is clearly visible. Here, high enclosures, carved corridors and ornate mandapas, all made of granite stone, practically hide the view of the original main shrine in the typical Kerala style. The entrance tower, Gopuram also rises to high heights in a style distinct from that of the humble two-storey structure seen elsewhere. Technically, the most important feature of Kerala temple architecture is the construction technique using dimensional normalization. The core Temple plan is the shrine containing the garbhagrhiha cell. The width of this cell is the basic module of the dimensional system. In the composition of the plan, the width of the sanctuary, the open space around it, the position and size of the surrounding structures, are all related to the standard module. In the vertical composition, this coordination is extended to the smallest details of construction such as the size of the pillars, the wall plates, the rafters, etc. The canonical rules of the proportionate system are given in treaties and preserved by skilled craftsmen. This proportionate system ensured uniformity in the architectural style regardless of the geographical distribution and scale of the construction. The architecture of the temple is a synthesis of engineering and decorative arts. The decorative elements of Kerala's temples are of three types - mouldings, sculptures and painting. The molding is usually seen in the plinth where in the horizontal hands circular and rectangular projections and cavities in varying proportions help to emphasize the shape of the adisthana. Occasionally, this plinth is raised on a secondary platform - upapeedam - with a similar treatment. Mouldings are also observed in the mandapam, the manual rails of the steps (sopanam) and even in the drainage channel (pranala) or the sanctuary cell. The sculptural work is of two types. One category is the bas-relief made on the exterior walls of the sanctuary with masonry placed in lime mortar and finished with plaster and paint. The second is the carving of the wooden elements - the ends of the chevron, the supports, the wooden columns and their capitals, the door frames, the wall plates and the beams. The decorative sculptural work is seen best in the ceiling panels of mandapas. The exquisite work of red and black brick lasca has been adopted for wood-turned columns. Metal crafts have also been used in sculpture idols, motifs, coating and finishes. All sculptural works were made strictly according to the canons of proportions (ashtathala, navathala and dasathala system) applicable to different figures of men, gods and goddesses, prescribed in the texts. The paint was executed in organic pigments on the walls when the plaster was still moist - in soft, subdued colors, making them in a class designated as Kerala murals. The theme of these paintings is invariably mythological and the epic stories unfold as one revolves around the temple. The mouldings, sculpture and painting are also taken in vertical compositions to emphasize the different floor heights, projecting skylights that break the sloping roof and the coronation finish. But in any case, the decoration is secondary to the structural form. The sculpted walls are protected by the caves in its projection which keep them in the shade in marked contrast with the bright sunny exterior. This allows the overall perceptual experience of the and shadow revealing details that gradually to an attentive observer. Islamic Architecture The Mithqalpalli in Kozhikode is a classic example of Kerala's indigenous mosque style with gabled roofs, sloping wooden window panels and no minarets The Arabian Peninsula, cradle of Islam also had direct commercial contact with the Kerala coast from very very very times, as far as Muhammad's time or even before. As is the local Muslim legends and tradition, a king of Chera embraced Islam and made a trip to Mecca. On his return trip accompanied by many Islamic religious leaders, including Malik ibn Dinar, he fell ill and died. But he had given introductory letters for the party to go to Kodungallur. Visitors came to the port and handed the letter to the reigning king who treated the guests with all respect and expanded the facilities to establish their faith in the land. The king arranged for the craftsmen to build the first mosque at Kodungallur near the port and mark the area surrounding it for their settlement. The original mosque has undergone extensive repairs, but traces of the original construction can be seen in the base, columns and roof that are in the ancient traditional styles of Hindu temples. An example of traditional kerala style from the Thazhathangady Mosque in Undoubtedly Islam has spread in Kerala through the migration of new groups from the Arabian Peninsula and the gradual conversion of the indigenous population into permissive and accommodating Indian cultural and social establishment of Kerala. In the 12th century AD, there were at least ten large Muslim settlements spread from Kollam in the south to Mangalore in the north, each centered on the mosque. Also a branch of the reigning kingdom in Arakkal, was converted to Islam. The primacy of trade, the spread of faith and the experience of the sea have made Muslims a leading class dear to the rulers, especially the Kozhikode Zaborins. Therefore, by the 15th century, Islamic constructions reached considerable heights. Muchundi Mosque with classical Kerala styles The architecture of the Kerala Mosque does not exhibit any of the characteristics of the Arabic style or those of the Indo-Islamic architecture of the imperial or provincial school in northern India. The reason is not far to be sought. The work of building the mosque was done by local Hindu craftsmen under the instructions of Muslim religious leaders who wanted to erect places of worship. The models of places of worship were only Hindu temples or theatres (koothambalam ) and these models must be adapted to new situations. The first mosques in Kerala thus resemble the traditional construction of the region. The Arabic style of architecture was introduced in the Malabar region of present-day Kerala, during the period of occupation by Hyder Ali and later by Tipu Sultan during the 18th century. A large number of temples were converted into mosques during this period, as in Kerala's traditional style of these structures. Miskal Mosque has three floors gabled roofs with windows that offers an alternative to minarets in the traditional style of Kerala In the plan of the mosque includes a large prayer room with a mihrab on the west wall Mecca is to the west of Kerala) and covered veranda all around. Generally, it has a high basement similar to the adhistana of the Brahmanic temple and often the columns are treated with the square and octagonal section as in the mandapa pillars. The walls are made of laterite blocks. The shape of the ark is seen only in an exceptional case for the Mosque and nowhere else in the top ten mosques in the country. The wood was widely used in the superstructure for the construction of the ceiling and roof. The roof is in many cases covered with copper sheets incorporating fenials into the ridge, complementing the temple shikhara shape with stupi. In Tanur, the Jama Masjid even has a door built in the manner of the gopuram temple, covered with copper leaves. This mosque itself is a three-storey building with a tiled roof crowned by five fenials. The Cheraman Mosque, which is the world's second largest mosque and first subcontinent was originally built in Kerala style, which was recently renovated to give an Arabic touch The pulpit in the mosque present the best example of wood carvings associated with the Islamic architecture of Kerala. The Jama Masjid in and the Mithqal Mosque in Kozhikode have the pulpit (mimbar) built by the captains of Ships of Arab ships. The Kannur Mosque symbolizes the slow transit of the Kerala style to the Persian style with additions of Minarets and other classic Persian features in the traditional Kerala style All other construction work was carried out by the same local craftsmen who built Hindu temples and residences. The Arab tradition of simplicity of the plan may have combined with indigenous construction techniques giving rise to the unique style of mosque architecture, found nowhere else in the world. In contrast, Indo-Islamic architecture was inspired by Turkish and Persian traditions and created a highly ornamental style in northern India. The typical mosques of Kerala are visible in Kollampalli, near Kollam, Panthalayani near , Kozhikode, Tanur, Ponnani and Kasargode as well as in most former Muslim settlements. However, the austere architectural features of the ancient mosques have been being replaced in recent times by Islamic architecture. The use of arched forms, domes and minarets of the Imperial School of Indo-Islamic Architecture is projected as visible symbols of Islamic culture. The Jama Masjid in Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram is the classic example of this new trend. Similar structures are coming throughout Kerala in modifying ancient mosques in recent decades. Perhaps of the Arab style of Kerala construction is seen in a subtle way in the secular architecture of Muslims. The bazaar streets lined with buildings on both sides, the living rooms on the upper floor overlooking the windows on the streets, the wooden screens used to provide privacy and shade in the (especially upper floors) etc., are some features superimposed on traditional construction. These built forms would have been modelled in the model of houses in Arab countries (such as Egypt, Basra (now Iraq) and Iran) having contacts with this region. This trend is most evident in market towns such as Kozhikode, , Kasaragode etc. But basically, Muslim domestic architecture as a whole follows traditional Hindu styles. The two ekasalas and n-lukettus are seen to be adopted for this. These buildings with vast alindams and verandas are also commonly seen surrounding mosques in Muslim settlements. Church Architecture It has been suggested that this section be divided into another article entitled Architecture of the Church of Kerala. (Discuss) (March 2020) The Syrian church Kadamattom Malankara near , is one of the oldest churches in Kerala, built in pure kerala style. The evolution of the ecclesiastical architecture of Kerala comes from two sources - the first of the work of the apostle Saint Thomas and the Syrian Christians and the second of the missionary work of the European settlers. Tradition has it that St. Thomas who landed in Muziris in 52 AD had seven churches built in Kerala at Kodungallur, Crayil, Palur, Paravur-Kottakkavu, Kollam, Niranom and , but none of these Syrian churches are now existing. It is possible that some of the temples were adapted as Syrian churches for services by the population that was converted to Syriac Christianity by St. Thomas. For example, the present Syrian church of Palur has retained the patra abhisheka (the letter of intonation) and some symbols of shaiva such as the relics of the ancient church which is said to have been a Hindu shrine suitable for Christian worship. A Syro-Malabar church with a mixture of Portuguese and Kerala architecture. Historical evidence suggests that the first wave of Christianity came from Edessa, Persia in the fourth century AD due to the persecution of Syrian Christians in the Persian Empire. According to the narration of the Byzantine monk Cosmas, Kerala had many churches in the 6th century AD. According to the inscription of Stanu Ravi in the 9th century, Syrian Christian communities enjoyed many rights and privileges. They have also played a vital role in trade and commerce. The domestic buildings of Syrian Christians were similar to indigenous architecture. Syrian Christians have most of their churches built in the traditional Kerala style, resembling kerala temples. This former Syrian church of the Orthodox and Syrian churches of Marthoma in was built in kerala style with stone lamps, and is a testament to the assimilation of Kerala Christianity with indigenous architecture. But the Syrians of origin who had emigrated to Kerala had brought with them some of the West Asian conventions in the architecture of the church. As a result, churches churches and the nave began to be built and it evolved a distinctive style of church architecture. The particularity of this style was the ornamental gable façade at the end of the nave, surmounted by a cross. Another feature of these early sanctuaries was an entrance porch (shala) in front of the nave. The baptistery was a small room inside the nave near the entrance. The belfies were built on one side of the nave, but in smaller churches the bell was hung in an opening in the gable of the nave. Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Roman Catholic Church, is a mixture of Portuguese, Kerala and Dutch architecture Elements of the architecture of the Church Kerala Church Altar-Kanjoor Unlike the temples of Kerala, there is no uniform or standard layout for all churches in Kerala. Rather most churches have different together to architecture according to various sects and their traditions apart from experimenting with new designs. Still most churches, especially the St. Thomas Christian churches in Kerala, share several common characteristics. The church had a gabled roof extending to the choir, the most sacred part of the church and the sacristy at its side. The tower above the choir flew higher than the roof of the shikhara-like nave above the garbhagriha in a Hindu temple. The priest's residence and parish hall were located on one side of the church and the cemetery was on the other side. The palace of the Syro-Malabar archbishop in Changassery is built by equating Dutch architecture with the indigenous styles of Kerala In their characteristic exterior Syrian churches preserved some of the indigenous features of the Hindu style. The church and auxiliary buildings were enclosed in a massive laterite wall. There was an open cross in front of the main entrance on a granite basement in the balikkal style, the altar stone. A church also had the flagpole, (the dwajastambima) opposite. In the Syrian Orthodox Church of , Peter and Paul occupy the place of the dwarapalas, the guardian deities of a Hindu shrine. Sometimes a walkway like the temple gopuram with a kottupura or music room on the upper floor was also provided. The Church of Marth Mariam in , originally built in 345 A.D. had undergone renovations several times. The church has a rich collection of ancient relics, including an idol of the Virgin Mary and a cross carved from granite. The Knanaya Valiapally of is another old church with the largest cross formed into a single piece of granite. Piravom Valiapally is also another old church with old writings Wood carving and murals, the two decorative supports of the temples are seen to be adopted in ancient churches too. A famous piece of wooden sculpture is a large sign depicting the last supper in St. Thomas Church, Mulanthuruthy. The Church of All Saints' Day in Udayamperur has a beam resting on wooden mouldings of elephant and rhinoceros heads. Floral Floral angels and apostles are the usual motifs of murals. This form of decoration had continued in later churches. In the Church of St. Sebastian in Kanjoor, a mural even depicts the struggle between the British and tippu sultan. The Dutch style assimilated into the architectural motifs of Kerala Colonial influences in the architecture of the church The Portuguese were the first to introduce European styles into the architecture of the Kerala church, followed by the Dutch and The British. The first church of its kind in India was built by Franciscan missionaries in 1510 A.D. at Fort Kochi. It is a small unpretentious building of the medieval Spanish type. When Vasco De Gama died in Kochi in 1524, his body was interned in that church and later transferred to Lisbon in 1538. The church is known as the church of Vasco De Gama. It was then seized by the Dutch and used for reformed services. Later with the British occupation of the Kochi, it became an Anglican church and currently belongs to the church of southern India. The Portuguese had introduced many innovations in the churches of Kerala. For the first time, the dominant tower above the altar, which was the adaptation of the temple's architecture, was thrown. Inside the church, granite images were not favored because of their association with Hindu art; instead of images of wooden saints were used to adorn the riches. In general, pulpits have been erected and altar pieces have been decorated in impressive ways. The ceilings and walls were painted with religious themes in the style of European masters. Sharp and rounded arches were introduced and stained glass windows were installed. The further development of church architecture in the British period also saw the introduction of a new design of the church. In place of the rectangular plan basilica, the cross-shaped plan became increasingly popular especially in places where a large congregation was to be accommodated. In addition to the obvious symbolism of the cross, this plan is more suitable for a better visibility of the altar from all points of the church. In addition, enough space was now available to transepts for additional altars for the services of several priests on important occasions like Christmas. In the exterior features, the central tower or rather the Roman dome now comes to the center of the transept giving a classical form of European architecture. Also on either side of the main entrance at the front, rose towers to serve as belfries. In the treatment of the exterior, typical features of the architecture of the church Gothic arches, pilasters and buttresses, rounded openings, classical mouldings and stained glass windows made the whole composition completely different from native architecture. Depending on the period of construction, one can also distinguish between churches made in the simplicity of the Gothic style as in the Palayam Palayam Tiruvananthapuram, and the luxury of Renaissance style as in the Church of Our Lady of Dolorous in Trissoor. Modern trends in church architecture While the character of the church's architecture is generally identified with the evolved form in medieval times, modernist tendencies in adapting new plane forms and structural forms are visible in the Kerala scene as well. This circular plan with domical shell roof was adopted in the Church of Christ College in Irinjalakkuda. The Cathedral Church of the Archbishop of Varapuzha in Ernakulam is a hyperbolic parabolic reinforced concrete with a bold expression in contrast to all traditional forms. Perhaps experimentation in religious architecture is manifested mainly in the architecture of the church compared to that of temples or mosques that adhere more or less to old evolved forms. Jewish Architecture Kerala's architectural scene has been influenced by many socio-cultural groups and religious thoughts from foreign countries. The Maritime Council had promoted commercial contacts with maritime nations such as Israel, Rome, Arabia and China even before the dawn of the Christian era. Commercial contact would have paved the way for settlements near old port cities and the gradual spread within. At the time of the second kingdom of Chera, the old port city of Makotai (Kodungallur) had different parts occupied by these groups. For example, the cultural contact of Jews with Kerala predated the Period of The Solomen, and in the 15th century there were Jewish settlements in Kodungallur, Kochi and other coastal towns. The most important Jewish settlement is seen in Kochi near the Mattancherry Palace. Their residential buildings resemble the Kerala type in their exterior appearance; nevertheless, they are of a different plan concept. The rooms on the ground floor are used as shops or warehouses and the lounges are provided on the first floor. The façade of the building on the streets and sides are continuous with adjacent buildings in the style of townhouses. An important historical monument of the Jewish city is the synagogue. It is a simple structure with a sloping tile roof, but it has a rich interior with hand-painted tiles from Canton, China and ancient European chandeliers. This religious structure built for worship according to Judaism contrasts with the temples of Hindus. The Jewish community, however, did not influence Kerala's architecture. Domestic Architecture Complex wooden sculptures and chuttu veranda in Kerala architecture The Sree Padmanabhapuram Palace represents Kerala's most classical domestic architecture. It is also the most palais en bois du monde fait sur des toits en pente, des combinaisons de bois de granit et de bois de bois de bois de bois de bois de bois De bois L'évolution de l'architecture domestique du Kerala a suivi de près la tendance du développement dans l'architecture du temple. The primitive primitive were huts made of bamboo frame thatch with leaves in circular, square or plain rectangular shapes. The rectangular shape with a hipp roof seems to have finally evolved from functional consideration. Structurally, the roof frame was supported on the pillars on the walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground to protect against moisture and insects in the tropical climate. Often the walls were also abundantly available woods in the earth. The roof frame consisted of the bressumer or wall plate that supported the lower ends of the rafters, the upper ends being connected to the ridge. The weight of the rafters and the roof covering created a sage in the ridge when the ridge piece was made of flexible materials such as bamboo. This sage, however, remained as the hall mark of roof construction, even when the strong wood was used for the roof frame. Other gabled windows have been evolved at both ends to ensure ventilation of the attic when the ceiling has been incorporated for the room spaces. This ensured air circulation and thermal control for the roof. The lower ends of the rafters projected far beyond the walls to shade the walls of the sun and pouring rain. The closed form of Kerala's houses has therefore been gradually evolved from technical considerations. One can see the striking similarity of this form with the structure of the temple. The base, the lower part is still called anisthana, although it is simple or less ornate. The sthambas or pillars and bhithis or walls are again simple in shape, without projection or nooks. The main door faces only one cardinal direction and the windows are small and are made like wooden screens. The rectangular plan is usually divided into two or three activity rooms with access from a front passage. The caves in its projection cover a veranda all around. In the 10th century, the theory and practice of domestic architecture was codified in books such as Manushyalaya Chandrika and Vastu vidya. This attempt has normalized the construction of houses suitable for different socio-economic groups and reinforces the tradition of construction among craftsmen. The traditional craftsman, especially a carpenter, has preserved knowledge by strictly following the canonical rules of the proportions of the various elements as well as the details of construction to date. Classical roof decorations made in Kerala palaces Basically Kerala's domestic architecture follows the detached building style; Townhouses observed in other parts of India are not mentioned in the texts of the nor set up in practice, except in the settlements (sanketam) occupied by the Tamils or Konkini Brahmans. In its most developed form, the typical Kerala house is a type of courtyard - nalukettu. The central courtyard is an outdoor living space that can house an object of worship such as an elevated bed for tulssi or jasmine (mullathara). The four rooms that surround the courtyard, identical identical the temple nalambalam, can be divided into several rooms for different activities such as kitchen, dining room, sleep, study, store grains, etc. Depending on the size and importance of the household, the building may have one or two upper floors (malika) or another courtyard closed by the repetition of the nalukettu to form ettukettu (eight halled building) or a group of these courses. Nalukettu A classic Kerala Nalukettu built in the architecture of Kerala N-lukettu is the traditional farmhouse of Tharavadu where many generations of a matrilineal family lived. These types of buildings are usually found in the Indian state of Kerala. Traditional architecture is usually a rectangular structure where four blocks are joined with a central courtyard open to the sky. The four rooms on the sides are called Vadakkini (north block), Padinjattini (west block), Kizhakkini (eastern block) and Thekkini (south block). The architecture has been especially taken care of for large families of the traditional tharavadu, to live under one roof and enjoy the common facilities of the marumakkathaham farm. [5] Elements of Nalukettu Padippura This is a structure containing a door that is part of the wall composed for the house with a tiled roof on top. This is the official entrance to the enclosure with the house. At present, the door is not there because the car will have to enter the house through the entrance. The tiled roof is preferably provided with a traditional lamp under the roof. Instead of front door, we now have the Poomukham Gate It is the main portico shortly after the steps of the house. Traditionally, it has a tiled slope roof with pillars supporting the roof. The sides are open. In the early days, the head of the family called Karanavar used to sit here in a reclining chair with thuppal kolambi (Spittoon) next to the chair. This chair will have long rails on either side where the Karanavar will keep his legs up for the comfortable rest Chuttu veranda The gabbled wooden windows of Krishnapuram Palace Du Poomukham, a veranda on either side in front of the house through the open passage called Chuttu Verandah. The chuttu veranda will have lights suspended from equal distance suspended from its slope roof. Charupady The typical charupady wooden windows of Kerala On the side of the Chuttu and Poomukham veranda, wooden benches with decorative pieces of carved resting wood to rest the back are provided. This is called Charupady. Traditionally, family members or visitors used to sit on these charupady to talk Ambal Kulam (pond) Almost every Nalukettu has its own Kulam or pond to bathe its members. At the end of the Chuttu veranda there had a small pond built with rubble on the sides where the lotus or Ambal used to be planted. The bodies of water are maintained at the energy flow synthesized inside. Nadumuttom A typical Kerala Nadumuttom Nalukettu Nalukettu Nadumuttom or central open court is the main center of the Nalukettu. There is a generally square open shaped area in the exact middle of the house dividing the house in its four sides. Because of this division of four sides of the house by having a Nadumuttom. Similarly, there were Ettu kettu and Pathinaru kettu which are quite rare with two and four Nadumuttom respectively A classic Nadumuttom with holy thulsi in the center of it Nadumuttom will normally be open to the sky, allowing the sun and rains to pour in. A thulsi or tree will normally be planted in the center of Nadumuttom, which is used to worship. Architecturally, the logic is to allow the tree to act as a natural air purifier. Pooja Room Pooja room should preferably be in the northeast corner of the house. Idols can be placed facing east or west and the person praying can face west or east respectively. At present, wooden panelling is made on the walls of the Pooja room and there is a standard design for the Pooja room that can be given to guests interested in having traditional Pooja Key room features From outside the Kanakakkunnu Palace built in Kerala style with Dutch influences All being protected by a compound wall or fence. An entrance structure (padippura) can also be built as the gopuram of a temple. This may contain one or two rooms for guests or casual visitors who are not entertained in the main house. The position and size of the various buildings, including the location of the trees and paths within the compound wall, had to be decided from the analysis of the site according to the requirements in the classical texts. This analysis focused on the concept of vastupurusha mandala in which the site (vastu) was divided into a number of grids (padam) occupied by different deities (devatha) and appropriate grids were chosen to house suspicious structures. The site planning and building design were done by the scholar vishwakarma sthapathis (master builders) who synthesized technical issues with astrological and mystical sciences. There are many nalukettu type buildings in different parts of Kerala, although many of them are in poor maintenance condition. The evolution of socio-economic conditions has divided the system of the common family centered on the great nalukettu. The Kailasa mandiram in belonging to Arya Vaidyasala is a permanent example of a three-storey nalukettu complex. Among the best-preserved examples of this type Mattancherry Palace in Kochi and the taikottaram of Padmanabhapuram Palace near Kanyakumari. Nalukettu type buildings are also seen in many villages and towns, occupied by prominent people. The more humble buildings of the population are however smaller and simpler in form, but essentially derived from the nalukettu. Nalukettu is a combination of four rooms along four four directions, centered on the courtyard or anganam one can build one of the four rooms (Ekasala), a combination of two (Dwisala) or a complex of three (Thrisala) as needed. The type most commonly found in Kerala is the Ekasala facing east or north. Being located on the west and south sides of anganam, they are called Western Hall (padinjattini) and South Hall (thekkini) respectively. Ekasala's central unit usually consists of three rooms connected to a front passage. The central room is used as a prayer room and cereal shop and the two side bedrooms are used as lounges. The central unit can be raised to an upper floor with a steep staircase located in the front passage. The building can also be expanded horizontally on all four sides by adding alindams or side rooms for activities such as kitchen, dining room, additional bedrooms, and an entrance hall to accommodate guests. The Chappamattam Tharavadu in Chirakkadavu is a classic example of extended Ekasala. If necessary, Ekasala can also be provided with auxiliary buildings for livestock breeding, barn, bathrooms near tanks, outbuilding for guests, door house, etc. By such an extension, the building can become much larger than a Nalukettu in space, but it is still classified as Ekasala in reference to its central unit. Vastuvidya's texts prescribe the dimensions of different types of homes suitable for different classes. They also give the proportional system of measurements for different parts of the building all based on the perimeter (chuttu) of the central unit. The scientific basis of this dimensional system has not yet been investigated by modern studies; however, the system appears to be well-founded on traditional calculation methods and rigidly adhered to all building sizes. Throughout Kerala and especially in villages where construction activity is still under the control of traditional stapathis, the system is still a living practice, although it has begun to disappear under the impact of 'modern architecture'. The types of Nalukettu Nalukettus can be differentiated according to the type of structure as well as based on the caste of its occupants. Based on the structure of Korean visitors looking at an Ettukettu architecture in Nalukettus are mainly differentiated according to their structure. Traditionally Nalukettu has a courtyard with 4 blocks/rooms built around it in cardinal directions. However some Nalukettus have 2 courses that are known as Ettukettu (8 Blocked Structure) because they have a total of 8 blocks in cardinal directions. Some super structures have 4 courses, are then known as patinarukettu (16 blocked structure). While Nalukettus and Ettukettus are more common, Pathinarukettu are extremely rare, due to its huge size. Similarly, the Nalukettus can be differentiated according to their height and the number of floors. Some Nalukettus are on one floor and wood completely. Other Nalukettus are two-storey or sometimes even three-storey and have the mixture of laterite and clay as walls. Caste-based The actual term used for Nalukettus differs depending on the caste and social status of its occupants. For and other feudal lords, most Nalukettus are called Tharavadu For the Ezhava and Thiyya classes, their Nalukettus are called Madom and Meda For Samantha Kshatriya, their residences are called Kovilakoms and Kottarams For Syrian Christians, their residences are called Medas and Veedus For Nambudiri communities, their residences are called Illams Architecture of public structures Kavannayil tharavaadu Theakkad. , Dt, Kerala, India. Unlike other parts of India as well as outside, most of the administrative functions under the monarchical days were carried out in the premises of the palace complexes. This is why the concept of independent secular public structures and its architecture evolved towards the end of the 17th century, in part because of the contributions of the colonial powers of Kerala. Portuguese was the first to introduce independent office complexes that move away from residential areas. It was necessary to make warehouses and its related offices away from residential apart as security precautions. Public architectural development in Kerala was strongly influenced by the European style during the 17th to the 19th century. The influence of the Portuguese and the Dutch was most predominant in the initial stages. A Portuguese architect Thomas Fernandez is credited with building forts, warehouses and bungalows in Kochi, Kozhikode and Kannur. The proposed balconies, Gothic arches and cast-iron window grille works are some of the features transmitted to Kerala architecture by Portuguese construction. The Portuguese have ordered more than 2,000 office and warehouse complexes in the Fort Cochin area, with the exception of several European-style castles and private residential villas. In the 18th century, the British style was popularized in the country following a large number of modern constructions directly made by British rulers on the one hand and fashion for Western things by the princely class and the rich on the other. The architectural work was guided by officers and engineers whose knowledge of architectural style was essentially limited to classical books on Renaissance architects - Vitruvious, Alberti - Palladio and executed by the indigenous knowledge of traditional masons and carpenters recruited for the work. In a sense, it was a compromise of ancient craftsmanship and neo-classical construction. A notable feature of early European work in India was a tendency to demonstrate the military, political and cultural superiority of the West. Greek and Roman antiquity was considered the richest heritage west and the same has been emphasized in the classical orders of pillars with triangular pediments, arches and domes for public buildings, town halls, hospitals, railway stations, colleges, etc. The expression of dominance was unconstruted in the large Doric and Ionian columns. At the same time, the purity of the classical Western style has given way to the effect of style by mixing different types of columns in all kinds of buildings. For example, Corinthian columns have been used mixed with Doric order in public buildings as well as in residences. However, this trend has moderated very moderately in Kerala due to material and climate limitations. For masonry work, the Indo-European working media remained the plastering of laterite and lime. The potential of exposed laterite has been explored in many cases, from railway quarters to government offices (e.g., huzur's former office - Collectorate, Kozhikode). The plastering and lime finish were transferred from the interior walls of the premises outside the buildings also to create super white marble worship buildings. Old pan tiles have been replaced by Mangalore style tiles and flat tiles. The traditional type roof frame has been changed to roof trellis using king post and queen post farms, which has allowed large areas to expand. Perhaps the adaptations of the European style to climatic needs and the synthesis with the traditional style are best seen in the bungalow architecture. The need for comfort in the hot and humid climate prompted European settlers to go into buildings with large rooms with high ceilings with veranda all around. For the rooms on the upper floor, the balconies have been adopted as a necessary feature, coming from the Portuguese construction. The gantry, the shady place for the passage from one building to another has been added. The solid wooden shutter of the doors and windows has undergone the change to the ribbed elements - Venetian blades - allowing air circulation and providing privacy simultaneously. In 1800, glass panels came into vogue and semi-circular fan light above doors and windows became fashionable features of domestic buildings. Brick arches, terracota pieces and brick work on display in various binding patterns has become popular. With a larger number and a larger size of windows, pediments or projections supported by ornamental supports and column decoration to protect the window opening from rain and sun were also introduced. Cast iron fences, stair railings and Iron gates, made in England, were used to complete the bungalow's architecture. Excellent examples of this synthesis are seen in the Napier Museum in Tiruvananthapuram, and many government bungalows. In fact, many of these characteristics have been adopted smoothly by Aboriginal builders to the extent that they are considered by most to be traditional elements. The work of the public works services has helped to extend this type of construction throughout Kerala. In addition, the Engineering teaching with the emphasis on Western construction practice have fostered this trend practically shifting traditional design methods. Environmentally friendly architecture British architect Laurie Baker has contributed to the era of modern architecture in Kerala by introducing a mix of British brick-based and vernacular style to influence contemporary architects. Kerala boasts many beautiful buildings created by architects like Laurie Baker, and architects, who were influenced by it. Banasura Hill Resort is another innovative architectural design where the profitable traditional principles of Indian architecture have been used in an exemplary manner. See also Padippura Padmanabhapuram Palace Krishnapuram Palace References Wikimedia Commons has media related to temple architecture in Kerala. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dravidian architecture. Jain Temple of the 15th century in Kerala to be reopened The Times of India. May 12, 2013. Excerpted July 20, 2013. B.S. Baliga. (1995) Madras District Gazetteers: Kanniyakumari District. Superintendent, Govt. Press. Archived copy. Archived from the original of July 21, 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.CS1 main: archived copy as title (link) - Archived copy. Archived from the original of October 13, 2011. Excerpt May 28, 2011.CS1 May: archived copy as title (link) Excerpt from

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