Land Policy, Land Markets and Urban Spatial Segregation

Allegra Calder What is Segregation segregation can be neither understood and Rosalind Greenstein and Why Is It Important? nor addressed without fully appreciating Frederick Boal’s (School of Geography, the role that race has played and continues s urban spatial segregation a conse- Queen’s University, Belfast) work is in- to play in American history and public quence of the normal functioning of formed by both the rich sociological liter- policy. Flavio Villaça (School of Architec- I urban land markets, reflecting ature on segregation and his own experi- ture and Urbanism, University of São cumulative individual choices? Or, is it a ence of living in the midst of the troubles Paulo, ) understands segregation result of the malfunctioning of urban land between Catholics and Protestants in within a class framework, where income markets that privatize social benefits and Northern Ireland. Boal suggested that level and social status, not race, are the key socialize private costs? Is it the result of segregation was best understood as part of factors influencing residential patterns. In class bias, or racial bias, or both? Does a spectrum that ranged from the extreme Brazil and many other countries with long policy create ghettos? Or, approach of ethnic cleansing to the more histories of authoritarian regimes, urban do real estate agents and lending officers idealistic one of assimilation (see Figure services are generally provided by the state. substitute personal bias for objective data, 1). As with so many policy issues, segre- In these countries, urban residential pat- thereby creating and reinforcing stereo- gation will not be solved by viewing it as terns determine access to water and sewer types about fellow citizens and neighbor- a dichotomy but rather as a continuum facilities (and therefore health) as well as hoods? Can changes in land policy lead to of degrees or levels of separateness, each transportation, utility infrastructure and changes in intra-metropolitan settlement with different spatial manifestations. other urban services. patterns? Or, do such changes come about For Peter Marcuse (Graduate School In many cases, Villaça and others assert, only from deep social changes having to of Architecture, Preservation and Plan- land market activity and urban codes and do with values such as tolerance, opportu- ning, , New York) regulations have been used, both overtly nity and human rights? segregation implies a lack of choice and/or and furtively, to create elite, well-serviced Thirty-seven practitioners and academ- the presence of coercion. When racial or neighborhoods that segregate the upper ics from thirteen countries struggled with ethnic groups choose to live together, he classes from the rest of society, which is these and other related questions at the calls that clustering in enclaves. However, largely ignored. This view has parallels Lincoln Institute’s “International Seminar when groups are forced apart, either ex- in the U.S., where access to high-quality on Segregation in the City” in Cambridge plicitly or through more subtle mechanisms, schools and other valued amenities is last July. The seminar organizers, Francisco he calls that segregation in ghettoes. It is largely determined by residential patterns Sabatini of the Catholic University of the lack of choice that distinguishes these that are closely associated with segregation Chile and Martim Smolka and Rosalind patterns and invites a public policy by income level, ethnic background and Greenstein of the Lincoln Institute, cast a response. other demographic characteristics. Semi- wide net to explore the theoretical, his- The meaning and importance of segre- nar participants also cited the correlation torical and practical dimensions of segre- gation varies with the historical context. between disadvantaged communities and gation. Participants came from countries as For William Harris (Department of Ur- the location of environmental hazards. diverse as Brazil, Israel, Kenya, the Nether- ban and Regional Planning, Jackson State People segregated into low-income ghettoes lands, Northern Ireland and the U.S., and University, Mississippi), who writes about or neighborhoods comprised primarily of they brought to the discussion their train- spatial segregation in the U.S. South, people of color confront the downsides of ing as lawyers, sociologists, econ- modern urban living, such as omists, urban planners, regional hazardous waste sites and other scientists and geographers. As locally unwanted land uses. they attempted to come to terms Ariel Espino (Department with the meaning of segregation, of Anthropology, Rice Univer- the various forces that create and sity, Texas) presented an analysis reinforce it, and possible policy of how distance is used to rein- responses, it became apparent that force social, political and econ- there are no simple answers and omic inequality in housing. that many viewpoints contribute When social and economic to the ongoing debate. This brief differences are clear and under- report on the seminar offers a taste stood, ruling elites tolerate of the far-reaching discussion. physical proximity. For example, servants can live close to their employers, even in the same

LISA J. SILVA

LINCOLN INSTITUTE OF LAND POLICY4 LAND LINES • NOVEMBER 2001 house, because economic relations and be- in Washington, DC. His research findings School of Government, ) havioral norms dictate separation by class. emphasize the role of real estate agents in brought the idea of “” to the steering buyers and renters into same-race discussion. As the term is being used today Why Does Segregation Persist? neighborhoods. As a consequence, blacks by sociologists and social theorists, social Prevalent throughout the seminar was an simply do not enjoy the same opportunities capital embodies the social networks and assumption that all residents of the city as whites and are far less likely to obtain social trust within communities that can (i.e., citizens) ought to have access to urban their first choice of housing, thus challeng- be harnessed to achieve individual and services, at least to a minimum level of ser- ing the public choice model. Squires also group goals. Briggs argued that social vices. However, Peter Marcuse chal- capital is both a cause and lenged the participants to think Figure 1: Boal’s Scenarios Spectrum an effect of segregation in the beyond a minimum level and to Cleansing Polarization Segmentation Pluralism Assimilation U.S., but it can be leveraged to consider access to urban amenities create positive change. Others in the context of rights. He ques- challenged the extent to which tioned whether wealth or family social capital theory and research heritage or skin color or ethnic helps to address urban spatial identity ought to determine one’s segregation. These participants access to public goods—not only argued that it tended to frame education, health and shelter, but the policy question as “How also other amenities directly related The Urban Ethnic Spectrum do we improve poor people?” to physical location. In language rather than addressing the A given city can, over time, change positions on the Spectrum. reminiscent of Henry George’s structural and institutional views on common property in the late- found that housing choice is determined mechanisms that contribute to residential nineteenth century, Marcuse asked by social or economic status. For example, segregation and income inequality. Yet, the whether it was fair or right, for example, priorities for neighborhood amenities sociologists’ view is that social capital is for the rich to enjoy the best ocean views among black house-hunters tended to dif- the very element that communities need or river frontage or other endowments of fer from those of whites, in part because to exert some element of control over their nature while the poor are often relegated they had fewer private resources (such as an immediate environments, rather than to to the least attractive areas. automobile) and were more dependent on be simply the recipients of the intended Robert Wassmer (Department of Pub- a house location that provided centralized and unintended consequences of the lic Policy and Administration, California services such as public transportation. political economy. State University) described the economic John Metzger (Urban and Regional processes involved in residential location, Planning Program, Michigan State Univ- Social Justice and Land Policy as they are understood by public choice ersity) examined the role of the private mar- Seminar participants from around the economists. In this view, house buyers do ket in perpetuating segregation. He pre- world shared examples of spatial segrega- not choose to buy only a house and a lot; sented research on the demographic cluster tion enforced as a political strategy they consider a diverse set of amenities profiles that companies like Claritas and through the power of the state. that vary from place to place. Some buyers CACI Marketing Systems use to character- • The British colonial government may choose an amenity bundle that includes ize neighborhoods. These profiles are sold in Kenya employed planning laws and ex- more public transit and less lakefront, while to a range of industries, including real estate clusionary zoning to separate native Afri- others may choose greater access to high- and finance, as well as to public entities. cans from the British, and those residential ways and higher-quality public education. The real estate industry uses the profiles to patterns established almost a century ago However, not all citizens have equal oppor- inform retailing, planning and investment are reflected in Nairobi today. tunities to make such choices. Several decisions, and, Metzger argues, to encour- • The military government at the time seminar participants added that this debate age racial steering and the persistence of of the British mandate in Palestine forced is part of a larger conversation about access segregation. Mortgage lenders use profiles the Arab Palestinians to reside in only one and choice in society, since nearly all choices to measure consumer demand. Urban plan- sector of the city of Lod, facilitating the are constrained to some extent, and many ners—both private consultants and those transformation of this once Arab city in constraints vary systematically across social in the public sector—use profiles to deter- what is now Israel. groups. mine future land uses for long-range plan- • The military regime of Augusto Other participants drew attention to ning and to guide planning and investment Pinochet evicted thousands of working- the ways that government policy (e.g., tax for central business districts. Real estate class Chileans from certain sectors of their codes, housing legislation) and private developers use profiles to define their mar- cities to make way for small, elite middle- institutions (e.g., real estate agents, lending kets and demonstrate pent-up demand for and upper-class settlements. institutions) interact to influence the be- their products. The profiles themselves are • The Apartheid regime of South Africa havior of land markets, and thus the effects often based on racial and ethnic stereo- created separate residential sectors based of land policies on public and private ac- types and in turn reinforce the separation on race and systematically kept groups tions. Greg Squires (Department of Sociol- of racial and ethnic groups within regional isolated in virtually all aspects of society. ogy, George Washington University) reported real estate markets. on a study of the house-hunting process Xavier de Souza Briggs (John F. Kennedy See Spatial Segregation page 6

LAND LINES • NOVEMBER 20015 LINCOLN INSTITUTE OF LAND POLICY Spatial Segregation people across the city? What would change? “If a citizen does not have full access to the continued from page 5 Does this idea help us to think more care- city, if a citizen is not a full participant in fully about why space matters?” the life of the city, is he or she living in a The connections between these extreme Another query from Xavier Briggs chal- true city?” forms of spatial segregation and the land lenged participants to think about where policies and market forces at work in most the most meaningful social interactions Allegra Calder is a research assistant at the cities today are complex and challenging to actually occur. Specifically, what needs to Lincoln Institute and Rosalind Greenstein articulate. One link is in the ways that land happen, and in what circumstances, to move is a senior fellow and cochairman of the policies and the institutions that support from the extreme of ethnic cleansing on Institute’s Department of Planning and land markets continue to be used to legi- Boal’s urban ethnic spectrum toward assi- Development. Contact: rgreenstein@ timize discriminatory practices. milation? Briggs suggested that institutions lincolninst.edu. By envisioning cities where citizens such as schools and workplaces might be have real freedom to choose their residen- better suited to foster more diversity in The papers presented by all parti- tial locations, the planners in the seminar social interactions than are residential cipants in this seminar are posted focused on government policies and prog- neighborhoods. on the Lincoln Institute website rams to facilitate integration, such as the Ultimately, the urban planners wanted U.S. Department of Housing and Urban the tools of their trade to be used for shap- (www.lincolninst.edu). Go the Development’s Moving to Opportunity ing a city that offered justice for all. Haim ”Home” page or the ”What’s New” Program. However, Stephen Ross (Depart- Yacobi (Department of Geography, Ben- page, click on ”Past Course Mate- ment of Economics, University of Con- Gurion University, Israel), while referring rials,” and then click on “Inter- necticut) questioned the assumed benefits to the status of the Arab citizens in the national Seminar on Segregation of resettlement or integration policies by mixed city of Lod, touched the foundations in the City.” asking, “What if you dispersed high-income of western democratic ideals when he asked,

Audio Conference Series for Planning Officials

gain this year the American Plan- approaches and planning tools are brought Preserving Community Retail ning Association (APA) and the to bear on out-of-scale new homes in May 22, 2002 Athe Lincoln Institute are presenting established neighborhoods, and examine Economic analysts assert that America a series of audio conference training prog- intriguing case studies of new infill. has overbuilt for retail, as evidenced by the rams on community planning. The audio many retail businesses that move or go out conferences are delivered live over a speak- Context-Sensitive Signs of business annually. This situation can be er telephone to a group of any size. All February 6, 2002 very disruptive for a community and can programs are one hour in length and are Creating context-sensitive signs is one of seriously alter the viability of a neighbor- held on Wednesdays at 4:00pm E.T. Each the toughest and most persistent problems hood. The community’s retail sector pro- registration site receives reading materials, communities face. Explore how communi- vides not only valuable services, but anchors an agenda and instructions on joining the ties decide upon the right level and type of the community’s downtown, neighbor- program and asking questions of the control based on findings from APA’s new hood shopping areas and retail corridors, speakers. Planning Advisory Service Report. Exam- and it provides economic stability. Learn ine case studies of how signs have been what communities can do to preserve or Tear Downs, Monster Homes created to blend visually with other aspects attract new retail, explore new options and Appropriate Infill of design, hear the legal requirements of such as ethnically oriented businesses, and December 5, 2001 constitutionally sound sign ordinances, find out how to help new entrepreneurs If monster homes have begun to appear explore opportunities and limitations of and sustain mature businesses. in your community, now is the time to regulating signage, and make certain you hear what other communities are doing to understand the valuable roles signs play in For more information and to register, contact accommodate appropriate change. Learn a community. This program provides an the American Planning Association (APA): how to maintain reasonable residential update on the ever-changing legal frame- Angela Lawson, 312/431-9100, alawson@ scale, character and green space, as well as work for sign regulation and provides tips planning.org, or www.planning.org/educ/ to encourage new forms of infill that en- on how communities can work effectively audiocon.htm. hance community viability. Find out what with the sign industry.

LINCOLN INSTITUTE OF LAND POLICY6 LAND LINES • NOVEMBER 2001