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Occurrence and Correlations Between Coliphages and Anthropogenic Viruses in the Massachusetts Bay Using Enrichment and ICC-Npcr Nicola A

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Occurrence and Correlations Between Coliphages and Anthropogenic Viruses in the Massachusetts Bay Using Enrichment and ICC-Npcr Nicola A 59 Q IWA Publishing 2005 Journal of Water and Health | 03.1 | 2005 Occurrence and correlations between coliphages and anthropogenic viruses in the Massachusetts Bay using enrichment and ICC-nPCR Nicola A. Ballester, Justin H. Fontaine and Aaron B. Margolin ABSTRACT We evaluated a two-step enrichment procedure to detect coliphages and an integrated cell culture- Nicola A. Ballester (corresponding author) Justin H. Fontaine nested polymerase chain reaction (ICC-nPCR) to detect human astrovirus, enteroviruses, rotavirus Aaron B. Margolin and adenovirus type 40 and 41 in marine water samples collected by the Massachusetts Water Department of Microbiology, University of New Hampshire, Resource Authority (MWRA). MWRA has been monitoring its receiving waters for coliphages, 35 Colovos Rd, ETB Hall Rm. 230, Durham, anthropogenic viruses and indicator bacteria in order to evaluate the impact of Boston’s Deer Island NH 03824, USA Sewage Treatment Plant discharge. Coliphages and enteric viruses were originally assayed using Tel: (603) 862-1172 single agar overlay and most probable number cell culture (MPN) methods, respectively. Reanalysis of Fax: (603) 862-3957 E-mail: [email protected] these samples for enteric viruses by ICC-nPCR demonstrated that 46% were positive for at least one virus compared with 23% with the MPN method. Use of the enrichment method showed a 47% increase in the detection of male specific and somatic coliphages compared with the single agar overlay method. Correlations between the presence of coliphages, enteric viruses and indicator bacteria were based on proximity to the treatment plant discharge, seasonal variations and site levels. The presence of enteric viruses was significantly correlated to coliphages but not to indicator bacteria. Preliminary comparative results demonstrate that effective and efficient monitoring of anthropogenic contamination can be achieved using these more sensitive and specific techniques. Key words | adenovirus, astrovirus, coliphages, enterovirus, ICC-nPCR, rotavirus INTRODUCTION Beginning in 1995, the Massachusetts Water Resource Auth- before and after the start-up of the outfall pipe in the ority (MWRA) began an intensive monitoring programme Massachusetts Bay. designed to detect sources of fecal contamination in the Several previous studies have documented the presence of Massachusetts Bay, Boston Harbor, and its tributaries. The enteroviruses and adenoviruses in seawater (Tsai et al. 1993; primary objective of this research was to assess the presence of Girones et al. 1993; Abbaszadegan et al. 1993; Puig et al. 1994; anthropogenic viruses and their indicators (coliphages and Enriquez et al. 1995; Enriquez & Gerba 1995). Enteroviruses coliforms) in Massachusetts Bay. The secondary objective was (poliovirus, coxsackie virus types A and B, echoviruses) can to evaluate the impact of the Deer Island Sewage Treatment cause gastroenteritis, myocarditis and aseptic meningitis Plant’s outfall pipe on the occurrence of anthropogenic viruses (Melnick 1990). Adenoviruses type 40 and 41 can also cause and viral indicators. The outfall pipe was designed to increase gastroenteritis, but their presence in seawater is greatly the level of disinfection while reducing the level of chlorination underestimated because of difficulty isolating them in cell through a longer contact time. Because there is a poor culture. Enteric viruses survive longer than indicator bacteria understanding of how viruses and their indicators are inacti- in seawater (Melnick & Gerba 1980) and adenoviruses have vated during secondary treatment and disinfection, enteric been shown to survive longer than most enteric viruses in viruses, coliphages and indicator bacteria were monitored seawater (Enriquez et al. 1995). Indicator bacteria may be 60 Nicola A. Ballester et al. | Coliphages and anthropogenic viruses in Massachusetts Bay Journal of Water and Health | 03.1 | 2005 undetectable in a few days whereas enteric viruses may persist (TCVA-MPN) (USEPA 1995). This method required for several months (Wheeler 1990). Indicator bacteria (fecal samples to be inoculated onto buffalo green monkey kidney coliforms and Enterococcus) were studied to achieve a better cells (BGMK) and then evaluated for virus by visualization understanding of their role and suspected inadequacy as sole of cytopathic effects (CPE). However, other work done indicators of fecal pollution or as indicators of human viruses. from our laboratory (Chapron et al. 2000) previously The detection and presence of coliphages was also assessed for demonstrated that the level of viral contamination was their potential use as an additional indicator for fecal greatly underestimated when using the BGMK cell line contamination and viral presence. alone. Several enteric viruses do not exhibit CPE during Five sample sites in Massachusetts Bay were chosen based their replication cycle, while others such as astrovirus and on their proximity to the outfall pipe (Figure 1). Two sample rotavirus cannot replicate in this cell line. Both adenovirus sites were located on either side of the outfall diffuser, one and astrovirus require the addition of a proteolytic enzyme directly east and the other directly west of the diffuser head. for infection to occur. Hence, many of the epidemiologi- Shore sites were chosen near the coastlines northwest and cally important enteric viruses go largely undetected when southwest of the diffuser. One of shore sites was of particular using only the TCVA-MPN method. interest due to its use as a shellfish resource. The last site was Integrated cell culture nested polymerase chain reaction chosen in the mouth of the bay to the far northeast of the diffuser (ICC-nPCR) assay incorporates a cell culture step prior to head and acted as a control not influenced by sewage discharge. viral detection by PCR followed by nested PCR. The These five sites were sampled bimonthly over 7 years to study incorporation of a cell culture step permits viral replication the variability of anthropogenic contamination in the bay. resulting in an increase in the number of target nucleic acid From 1995 to 1999 enteric viruses were detected and copies (Pinto et al. 1995; Chapron et al. 2000; Reynolds et al. enumerated by the total culturable virus MPN assay 2001). The cell culture step also reduces the amount of Figure 1 | MWRA outfall monitoring/sampling stations. 61 Nicola A. Ballester et al. | Coliphages and anthropogenic viruses in Massachusetts Bay Journal of Water and Health | 03.1 | 2005 inhibition typically seen in molecular techniques used with MATERIALS AND METHODS environmental samples. ICC-nPCR amplifies target viral nucleic acid sequences with the reverse transcriptase poly- TCVA-MPN method merase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for RNA viruses or PCR for During 1998–1999 water samples of 114–151 litres ( ø 30–40 DNA viruses followed by a nested polymerase chain reaction gallons) were collected using Zeta Plus MW (Cuno, Inc. (nPCR). The incorporation of nPCR into the assay increases Meriden, Connecticut) micro wound filters (Standard Methods sensitivity and specificity due to the use of primers internal to 1998). These samples were then tested using the TCVA-MPN the RT-PCR or PCR products, thus enabling detection of very method (USEPA 1995; Standard Methods 1998). Viruses were low numbers of specific viral particles. ICC-nPCR used with eluted from the filters with a 1.5% beef extract solution (pH 9.5, two cell lines (BGMK and CaCo-2) and the addition of a BBL Sparks, MD beef extract powder, 0.375% glycine). Eluates proteolytic enzyme may be a useful technique for the were concentrated by organic flocculation (pH 3.5) followed by detection and confirmation of a wide variety of enteric centrifugation (USEPA 1995). The pellet was resuspended with viruses in environmental samples. Additionally the cell sodium phosphate buffer (0.15 M Na2HPO4, pH 9.5), centri- culture step provides a means for infectivity testing. With fuged and the supernatant was adjusted to pH 7 for archiving direct PCR, infectious and non-infectious viruses could be and analysis. Each sample concentrate was passed through a detected whereas with ICC-nPCR the infectious nature of the beef extract treated 0.22-mm syringe filter to remove any viruses can be determined by comparing viral levels in the cell microbial contaminants prior to inoculation on BGMK cells. lysates compared with the concentrate. Four, 3 ml portions of filtered sample concentrate were each Routine monitoring could be an attractive alternative to inoculated onto 75 cm2 flasks of confluent BGMK cells. Flasks the costly and labour-intensive ICC-nPCR method if a good were incubated for 90 minutes at 378C with rocking every 15 indicator organism could be identified. The detection and minutes. Fifteen ml of serum-free maintenance cell culture evaluation of coliphages was important in this study media was added to each flask after incubation. Flasks were because of their potential use as indicators of fecal incubated at 378C and examined daily for CPE and cytotoxicity contamination and other anthropogenic viruses. Because for the first three days and then every other day for a total of 14 they have a similar structure and size to some enteric days. At the end of 14 days flasks were freeze thawed and 10% of viruses, coliphages have been suggested as possible indi- the first passage was put onto a new cell culture flask of cators of enteric viruses and may also aid in the detection of confluent BGMK cells for a second passage. Flasks that fecal pollution.
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