GEOL 460 Solid Earth Geophysics Lab 5: Global Seismology Part II Questions 1
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STRUCTURE of EARTH S-Wave Shadow P-Wave Shadow P-Wave
STRUCTURE OF EARTH Earthquake Focus P-wave P-wave shadow shadow S-wave shadow P waves = Primary waves = Pressure waves S waves = Secondary waves = Shear waves (Don't penetrate liquids) CRUST < 50-70 km thick MANTLE = 2900 km thick OUTER CORE (Liquid) = 3200 km thick INNER CORE (Solid) = 1300 km radius. STRUCTURE OF EARTH Low Velocity Crust Zone Whole Mantle Convection Lithosphere Upper Mantle Transition Zone Layered Mantle Convection Lower Mantle S-wave P-wave CRUST : Conrad discontinuity = upper / lower crust boundary Mohorovicic discontinuity = base of Continental Crust (35-50 km continents; 6-8 km oceans) MANTLE: Lithosphere = Rigid Mantle < 100 km depth Asthenosphere = Plastic Mantle > 150 km depth Low Velocity Zone = Partially Melted, 100-150 km depth Upper Mantle < 410 km Transition Zone = 400-600 km --> Velocity increases rapidly Lower Mantle = 600 - 2900 km Outer Core (Liquid) 2900-5100 km Inner Core (Solid) 5100-6400 km Center = 6400 km UPPER MANTLE AND MAGMA GENERATION A. Composition of Earth Density of the Bulk Earth (Uncompressed) = 5.45 gm/cm3 Densities of Common Rocks: Granite = 2.55 gm/cm3 Peridotite, Eclogite = 3.2 to 3.4 gm/cm3 Basalt = 2.85 gm/cm3 Density of the CORE (estimated) = 7.2 gm/cm3 Fe-metal = 8.0 gm/cm3, Ni-metal = 8.5 gm/cm3 EARTH must contain a mix of Rock and Metal . Stony meteorites Remains of broken planets Planetary Interior Rock=Stony Meteorites ÒChondritesÓ = Olivine, Pyroxene, Metal (Fe-Ni) Metal = Fe-Ni Meteorites Core density = 7.2 gm/cm3 -- Too Light for Pure Fe-Ni Light elements = O2 (FeO) or S (FeS) B. -
Characteristics of Foreshocks and Short Term Deformation in the Source Area of Major Earthquakes
Characteristics of Foreshocks and Short Term Deformation in the Source Area of Major Earthquakes Peter Molnar Massachusetts Institute of Technology 77 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 USGS CONTRACT NO. 14-08-0001-17759 Supported by the EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS REDUCTION PROGRAM OPEN-FILE NO.81-287 U.S. Geological Survey OPEN FILE REPORT This report was prepared under contract to the U.S. Geological Survey and has not been reviewed for conformity with USGS editorial standards and stratigraphic nomenclature. Opinions and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the USGS. Any use of trade names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the USGS. Appendix A A Study of the Haicheng Foreshock Sequence By Lucile Jones, Wang Biquan and Xu Shaoxie (English Translation of a Paper Published in Di Zhen Xue Bao (Journal of Seismology), 1980.) Abstract We have examined the locations and radiation patterns of the foreshocks to the 4 February 1978 Haicheng earthquake. Using four stations, the foreshocks were located relative to a master event. They occurred very close together, no more than 6 kilo meters apart. Nevertheless, there appear to have been too clusters of foreshock activity. The majority of events seem to have occurred in a cluster to the east of the master event along a NNE-SSW trend. Moreover, all eight foreshocks that we could locate and with a magnitude greater than 3.0 occurred in this group. The're also "appears to be a second cluster of foresfiocks located to the northwest of the first. Thus it seems possible that the majority of foreshocks did not occur on the rupture plane of the mainshock, which trends WNW, but on another plane nearly perpendicualr to the mainshock. -
Formation and Evolution of a Population of Strike-Slip Faults in a Multiscale Cellular Automaton Model
Geophys. J. Int. (2007) 168, 723–744 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03213.x Formation and evolution of a population of strike-slip faults in a multiscale cellular automaton model Cl´ement Narteau Laboratoire de Dynamique des Syst`emes G´eologiques, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, 4, Place Jussieu, Paris, Cedex 05, 75252, France. E-mail: [email protected] Accepted 2006 September 4. Received 2006 September 4; in original form 2004 August 10 SUMMARY This paper describes a new model of rupture designed to reproduce structural patterns observed in the formation and evolution of a population of strike-slip faults. This model is a multiscale cellular automaton with two states. A stable state is associated with an ‘intact’ zone in which the fracturing process is confined to a smaller length scale. An active state is associated with an actively slipping fault. At the smallest length scale of a fault segment, transition rates from one state to another are determined with respect to the magnitude of the local strain rate and a time-dependent stochastic process. At increasingly larger length scales, healing and faulting are described according to geometric rules of fault interaction based on fracture mechanics. A redistribution of the strain rates in the neighbourhood of active faults at all length scales ensures that long range interactions and non-linear feedback processes are incorporated in the fault growth mechanism. Typical patterns of development of a population of faults are presented and show nucleation, growth, branching, interaction and coalescence. The geometries of the fault populations spontaneously converge to a configuration in which strain is concentrated on a dominant fault. -
PEAT8002 - SEISMOLOGY Lecture 13: Earthquake Magnitudes and Moment
PEAT8002 - SEISMOLOGY Lecture 13: Earthquake magnitudes and moment Nick Rawlinson Research School of Earth Sciences Australian National University Earthquake magnitudes and moment Introduction In the last two lectures, the effects of the source rupture process on the pattern of radiated seismic energy was discussed. However, even before earthquake mechanisms were studied, the priority of seismologists, after locating an earthquake, was to quantify their size, both for scientific purposes and hazard assessment. The first measure introduced was the magnitude, which is based on the amplitude of the emanating waves recorded on a seismogram. The idea is that the wave amplitude reflects the earthquake size once the amplitudes are corrected for the decrease with distance due to geometric spreading and attenuation. Earthquake magnitudes and moment Introduction Magnitude scales thus have the general form: A M = log + F(h, ∆) + C T where A is the amplitude of the signal, T is its dominant period, F is a correction for the variation of amplitude with the earthquake’s depth h and angular distance ∆ from the seismometer, and C is a regional scaling factor. Magnitude scales are logarithmic, so an increase in one unit e.g. from 5 to 6, indicates a ten-fold increase in seismic wave amplitude. Note that since a log10 scale is used, magnitudes can be negative for very small displacements. For example, a magnitude -1 earthquake might correspond to a hammer blow. Earthquake magnitudes and moment Richter magnitude The concept of earthquake magnitude was introduced by Charles Richter in 1935 for southern California earthquakes. He originally defined earthquake magnitude as the logarithm (to the base 10) of maximum amplitude measured in microns on the record of a standard torsion seismograph with a pendulum period of 0.8 s, magnification of 2800, and damping factor 0.8, located at a distance of 100 km from the epicenter. -
Waveform Analysis of the 1999 Hector Mine Foreshock Sequence Eva E
GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 30, NO. 8, 1429, doi:10.1029/2002GL016383, 2003 Waveform analysis of the 1999 Hector Mine foreshock sequence Eva E. Zanzerkia and Gregory C. Beroza Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA John E. Vidale Department of Earth and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Received 2 October 2002; revised 5 December 2002; accepted 6 February 2003; published 23 April 2003. [1] By inspecting continuous Trinet waveform data, we [4] Although the Hector Mine foreshock sequence find 42 foreshocks in the 20-hour period preceding the 1999 occurred in an area of sparse instrumentation, we are able Hector Mine earthquake, a substantial increase from the 18 to obtain precise locations for 39 of the 42 foreshocks by foreshocks in the catalog. We apply waveform cross- making precise arrival time measurements from waveform correlation and the double-difference method to locate these data even at low signal to noise ratio (snr) and double- events. Despite low signal-to-noise ratio data for many of difference relocation. After relocation we find that the the uncataloged foreshocks, correlation-based arrival time foreshocks occurred on the mainshock initiation plane and measurements are sufficient to locate all but three of these that the extent of the foreshock zone expands as the time of events, with location uncertainties from 100 m to 2 km. the mainshock approaches. We find that the foreshocks fall on a different plane than the initial subevent of the mainshock, and that the foreshocks spread out over the plane with time during the sequence as 2. -
Lecture 6: Seismic Moment
Earthquake source mechanics Lecture 6 Seismic moment GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD Earthquake magnitude Richter magnitude scale M = log A(∆) - log A0(∆) where A is max trace amplitude at distance ∆ and A0 is at 100 km Surface wave magnitude MS MS = log A + α log ∆ + β where A is max amp of 20s period surface waves Magnitude and energy log Es = 11.8 + 1.5 Ms (ergs) GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD Seismic moment ß Seismic intensity measures relative strength of shaking Moment = FL F locally ß Instrumental earthquake magnitude provides measure of size on basis of wave Applying couple motion L F to fault ß Peak values used in magnitude determination do not reveal overall power of - two equal & opposite forces the source = force couple ß Seismic Moment: measure - size of couple = moment of quake rupture size related - numerical value = product of to leverage of forces value of one force times (couples) across area of fault distance between slip GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD Seismic Moment II Stress & ß Can be applied to strain seismogenic faults accumulation ß Elastic rebound along a rupturing fault can be considered in terms of F resulting from force couples along and across it Applying couple ß Seismic moment can be to fault determined from a fault slip dimensions measured in field or from aftershock distributions F a analysis of seismic wave properties (frequency Fault rupture spectrum analysis) and rebound GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY -
Seismic Tomography
Seismic Tomography—Using earthquakes to image Earth’s interior Background to accompany the animations & videos on: IRIS’ Animations http://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/search Link to Vocabulary (Page 4) Introduction Seismic tomography is an imaging technique that uses seismic waves generated by earthquakes and explosions to create computer-generated, three- dimensional images of Earth’s interior. If the Earth were of uniform composition and density seismic rays would travel in straight lines as shown in Figure 1. But our planet is broadly layered causing seismic rays to be refracted and reflected across boundaries. Layers can be inferred by recording energy from earthquakes (seismic waves) of known locations, not too unlike doctors using CT scans (next page) to “see” into hidden parts of the human body. How is this done with earthquakes? The time it takes for a seismic wave to arrive at a seismic station from an earthquake can be used to calculate the speed along the wave’s ray path. By using arrival times of different Figure 1: Image capture from animation depicts 15 seismic stations seismic waves scientists are able to define slower recording earthquakes from 4 earthquakes. An anomaly (red) is or faster regions deep in the Earth. Those that come inferred by using data collected from stations that indicate slower sooner travel faster. Later waves are slowed down by wave speeds. something along the way. Various material properties control the speed and absorption of seismic waves. Careful study of the travel times and amplitudes can What variables yield the best resolution that allow be used to infer the existence of features within the seismologists to infer details at depth? planet. -
Localized Amplification of Seismic Waves and Correlation with Damage Due to the Northridge Earthquake: Evidence for Focusing in Santa Monica
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 86, No. 1B, pp. $209--$230, February 1996 Localized Amplification of Seismic Waves and Correlation with Damage due to the Northridge Earthquake: Evidence for Focusing in Santa Monica by S. Gao, H. Liu, P. M. Davis, and L. Knopoff Abstract The analysis of seismograms from 32 aftershocks recorded by 98 seis- mic stations installed after the Northridge earthquake in the San Fernando Valley, the Santa Monica Mountains, and Santa Monica, California, indicates that the en- hanced damage in Santa Monica is explained in the main by focusing due to a lens structure at a depth of several kilometers beneath the surface and having a finite lateral extent. The diagnosis was made from the observation of late-arriving S phases with large amplitudes, localized in the zones of large damage. The azimuths and angles of incidence of the seismic rays that give rise to the greatest focusing effects correspond to radiation that would have emerged from the lower part of the rupture surface of the mainshock. Thus the focusing and, hence, the large damage in Santa Monica were highly dependent on the location of the Northridge event, and an earth- quake of similar size, located as little as one source dimension away, would not be likely to repeat this pattern. We show from coda wave analysis that the influence of surface geology as well as site effects on damage in Santa Monica is significantly smaller than are the focusing effects. Introduction During the 17 January 1994 Mw = 6.7, depth = 19 km concentrated damage in Santa Monica is unlikely to be re- Northridge earthquake (USGS and SCEC, 1994), Sherman lated to this effect. -
Page - Lab 09 - Seismology
Page - Lab 09 - Seismology Every year earthquakes take a tremendous toll on human life and property throughout the world. Fires from broken gas lines, flooding by large tsunamis (tidal waves caused by seaquakes), and the collapsing of buildings and other artificial structures are just a few of the devastating results of a major earthquake event. Most of the damage caused by an earthquake occurs at its geographic origin, or epicenter. It is, therefore, imperative that the epicenter of an earthquake be rapidly located, so that emergency relief personnel can be rushed to the area as quickly as possible. In this exercise we will learn more about how earthquakes are formed and how they may be rapidly located through the science of seismology. An earthquake has its origin below the earth’s surface when rocks that have been placed under extreme pressure are suddenly released from the pressure and move rapidly. The position below the earth’s surface where this rapid movement takes place is called the focus. Energy released at the focus propagates through the ground as seismic waves. Much of this energy is concentrated at the geographic point that lies directly above the focus. This point is called the epicenter of the earthquake, and is nearly always the point where most of the earthquakes’ devastation is concentrated. There are two major classes of seismic waves. Body waves move through the interior of the earth and are capable of penetrating the entire earth. Surface waves move up to the epicenter of the earthquake and spread out along the surface. It is the surface waves that provide the energy causes earthquake devastation. -
Aftershock Sequences Modeled with 3-D Stress Heterogeneity and Rate-State Seismicity Equations: Implications for Crustal Stress Estimation
Pure Appl. Geophys. 167 (2010), 1067–1085 Ó 2010 The Author(s) This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com DOI 10.1007/s00024-010-0093-1 Pure and Applied Geophysics Aftershock Sequences Modeled with 3-D Stress Heterogeneity and Rate-State Seismicity Equations: Implications for Crustal Stress Estimation 1 1 DEBORAH ELAINE SMITH and JAMES H. DIETERICH Abstract—In this paper, we present a model for studying equations based on rate-state friction nucleation of aftershock sequences that integrates Coulomb static stress change earthquakes from DIETERICH (1994) and DIETERICH analysis, seismicity equations based on rate-state friction nucle- ation of earthquakes, slip of geometrically complex faults, and et al. (2003), (3) slip on geometrically complex faults fractal-like, spatially heterogeneous models of crustal stress. In as in DIETERICH and SMITH (2009), and (4) spatially addition to modeling instantaneous aftershock seismicity rate pat- heterogeneous fault planes/slip directions based on a terns with initial clustering on the Coulomb stress increase areas and an approximately 1/t diffusion back to the pre-mainshock model of fractal-like spatially variable initial stress background seismicity, the simulations capture previously un- from SMITH (2006) and SMITH and HEATON (2010). modeled effects. These include production of a significant number Our goal is to investigate previously unmodeled of aftershocks in the traditional Coulomb stress shadow zones and temporal changes in aftershock focal mechanism statistics. The effects of system heterogeneities on aftershock occurrence of aftershock stress shadow zones arises from two sequences. The resulting model provides a unified sources. The first source is spatially heterogeneous initial crustal means to simulate the statistical characteristics of stress, and the second is slip on geometrically rough faults, which aftershock focal mechanisms, including inferred produces localized positive Coulomb stress changes within the traditional stress shadow zones. -
Short-Term Foreshocks As Key Information for Mainshock Timing and Rupture: the Mw6.8 25 October 2018 Zakynthos Earthquake, Hellenic Subduction Zone
sensors Article Short-Term Foreshocks as Key Information for Mainshock Timing and Rupture: The Mw6.8 25 October 2018 Zakynthos Earthquake, Hellenic Subduction Zone Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos 1,*, Apostolos Agalos 1 , George Minadakis 2,3, Ioanna Triantafyllou 4 and Pavlos Krassakis 5 1 International Society for the Prevention & Mitigation of Natural Hazards, 10681 Athens, Greece; [email protected] 2 Department of Bioinformatics, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology & Genetics, 6 International Airport Avenue, Nicosia 2370, P.O. Box 23462, Nicosia 1683, Cyprus; [email protected] 3 The Cyprus School of Molecular Medicine, The Cyprus Institute of Neurology & Genetics, 6 International Airport Avenue, Nicosia 2370, P.O. Box 23462, Nicosia 1683, Cyprus 4 Department of Geology & Geoenvironment, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece; [email protected] 5 Centre for Research and Technology, Hellas (CERTH), 52 Egialias Street, 15125 Athens, Greece; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 28 August 2020; Accepted: 30 September 2020; Published: 5 October 2020 Abstract: Significant seismicity anomalies preceded the 25 October 2018 mainshock (Mw = 6.8), NW Hellenic Arc: a transient intermediate-term (~2 yrs) swarm and a short-term (last 6 months) cluster with typical time-size-space foreshock patterns: activity increase, b-value drop, foreshocks move towards mainshock epicenter. The anomalies were identified with both a standard earthquake catalogue and a catalogue relocated with the Non-Linear Location (NLLoc) algorithm. Teleseismic P-waveforms inversion showed oblique-slip rupture with strike 10◦, dip 24◦, length ~70 km, faulting depth ~24 km, velocity 3.2 km/s, duration 18 s, slip 1.8 m within the asperity, seismic moment 26 2.0 10 dyne*cm. -
Main Seismic Phases: Seismic Phases and 3D Seismic Waves
Seismic Phases and 3D Seismic Waves Main Seismic Phases: These are stacked data records from many event and station pairs. The results resemble those of predicted travel time curves from PREM (Preliminary Reference Earth Model, by Dziewonski and Anderson) 1 Naming conventions (Note: small and capitalized letters do matter!) P: P- wave in the mantle K: P-wave in the outer core I: P-wave in the inner core S: S-wave in the mantle J: S-wave in the inner core c: reflection off the core-mantle boundary (CMB) i: reflection off the inner-core boundary (ICB) Different waves have different paths, PmP: Reflection off of Moho hence are sensitive to different parts of the Pn: refracted wave on Moho Earth Pg: direct wave in the crust. 2 Arrival Time of Seismic Phases Terminology: Onset time (time for the beginning, not max, of a seismic phase. It is where waves begins to take off.) LQ, LR are 3 surface-related wave types. The UofA efforts: Canadian Rockies and Alberta Network (CRANE) 4 Not all phases are easily distinguishable: Below is the result from a 3.5 event in Lethbridge. Only P and surface waves are seen near Claresholm region. Strong decay due to sedimentary cover and attenuation. 5 Travel times of a given seismic arrival can be predicted based on the travel time table computed from a spherically symmetric Earth model (e.g., PREM, IASPEI). 6 Differential time between two phases (arrivals) are particularly useful for many reasons, some listed here: (1) Their time difference is essentially INSENSITIVE to source effect (since they came from the same source, regardless of the complexity of source.