Spencer Drate & Judith Salavetz

VFXA VISUAL TOURARTISTRY OF HOW THE STUDIOS CREATE THEIR MAGIC

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, of product liability, negligence, or otherwise, or from any USA use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK ideas contained in the material herein.

© 2010 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Drate, Spencer. No part of this publication may be reproduced or trans- VFX artistry : a visual tour of how the studios create their mitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechani- magic / Spencer Drate, Judith Salavetz. cal, including photocopying, recording, or any information p. cm. storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing ISBN 978-0-240-81162-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, 1. Cinematography—Special eff ects. 2. Computer drawing— further information about the Publisher ’s permissions poli- Special eff ects. 3. Digital video. I. Salavetz, Jütka. cies, and our arrangements with organizations such as the II. Title. Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing TR858.D73 2009 Agency can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/ 778.5 ′ 3—dc22 permissions . 2009027186

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Notices ISBN: 978-0-240-81162-8 Knowledge and best practice in this fi eld are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our For information on all Focal Press publications visit our understanding, changes in research methods, professional website at www.elsevierdirect.com practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. 09 10 11 12 13 5 4 3 2 1

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INTRODUCTION IX FOREWORD XXII ARTIST INSIGHT

DigitalKitchen xxiv

Thornberg & Forester xxvi

STUDIOS

Chapter 1 Eyeball 1

Studio Philosophy 1

Target: “Art for All” 1

Bioshock: Beyond the Sea 3

Chapter 2 Intelligent Creatures 6

Studio Philosophy 6

Babel 6

CONTENTS iii The Fountain 9

The Number 23 11

Chapter 3 Marco Iozzi 13

Studio Philosophy 13

Darklands 13

Equilibrium 15

Infi niti 17

Neve 19

Fight for Life 20

Chapter 4 Jesse Jacobs 23

Studio Philosophy 23

Skittles: “Mindbender” 23

Chapter 5 Thornberg & Forester 27

Studio Philosophy 27

Target: “Fall for Less” 27

AICP 2008 Show Open 30

Chapter 6 Digitalkitchen 33

Studio Philosophy 33

MindQuest Video 33

True Blood Main Titles 36

The Company Main Titles 38

iv CONTENTS Chapter 7 Royale 40

Studio Philosophy 40

The Daily Show 40

Flaunt Magazine and Diesel: 9th Anniversary 44

Jet Blue: “Happy Jetting” 47

McDonald’s Best Chance Monopoly 50

Chapter 8 Adolescent 53

Studio Philosophy 53

PEAK 53

That 70’s Show 56

Chapter 9 Freestyle Collective 59

Studio Philosophy 59

The Good Witch’s Garden 59

Kung Fu HD: Cat Fight 62

Criss Angel: Mindfreak 64

MTVK Network Launch: “Lokation” 66

Chapter 10 Troika Design Group, Inc. 68

Studio Philosophy 68

GOLIATH: SportsCenter Rebrand 68

ABC 72

Chapter 11 Trollbäck + Company 75

Studio Philosophy 75

ESPNews Steps to Creation 75

CONTENTS v Chapter 12 Nailgun* 79

Studio Philosophy 79

Universal Channel Redesign 79

Sundance Channel—“One Punk Under God” Promo Campaign 82

HGTV—Deserving Design with Vern Yip Show Open 84

Chapter 13 Velvet 86

Studio Philosophy 86

Gran Centenario: The Calling 86

Clorox: Mermaid 91

Mattoni: Star (Water Dress) 94

Mercedes Benz USA: Race 98

Chapter 14 Ntropic 101

Studio Philosophy 101

Chevrolet–General Motors: “Disappear” 101

Chapter 15 Blind 105

Studio Philosophy 105

Russell Athletics: “Fourth and Inches” 105

OppenheimerFunds: “Escalator” 108

Chapter 16 Rhino-Gravity Group 111

Studio Philosophy 111

Pelephone: “Cannons” 111

Verizon FiOS Campaign: “Rock Star” 115

vi CONTENTS Chapter 17 Click 3X 118

Studio Philosophy 118

goArmy.com 118

Chapter 18 Imaginary Forces 122

Studio Philosophy 122

Mad Men Opening Title Sequence 122

Chapter 19 A52 124

Studio Philosophy 124

Acura: “Motion” 124

Lexus: “Pop-Up” 127

Chapter 20 Method 130

Studio Philosophy 130

Pepsi 130

Chapter 21 Panoptic 133

Studio Philosophy 133

Lincoln MKZ: “Touch” 133

Cole Haan 136

Dr Dog 139

Chapter 22 Prologue 141

Studio Philosophy 141

Across the Universe 141

Iron Man 146

CONTENTS vii Chapter 23 Pixeltrick 149

Studio Philosophy 149

Instinct 149

Chapter 24 Sea Level 151

Studio Philosophy 151

Toyota Prius: “Unlitter” 151

The Coca-Cola Company: “Heidi Klum Red Dress” 154

Chapter 25 Digital Domain 156

Studio Philosophy 156

Halo: “Starry Night” 156

Adidas: “Mechanical Legs” 159

Chapter 26 PMcD Design, Ltd. 162

Studio Philosophy 162

Starz Network: Crash Promo 162

viii CONTENTS INTRODUCTION David Robbins

In a darkened room … there is only fl ickering THE FIRST EXPERIMENTERS eye, movies were a jolt to the id. Motion pictures imagery on the screen … and you, the viewer, in Nowadays the competition among special effects evolved during a time when the telegraph, motor- rapt attention. artists has become steeper with the abundance cars, and airplanes served to speed up the world If the director, actors, photographer, and editor and convenience of digital technology. There is from agrarian to industrial, and the pace of have done their jobs, you have become one with hardly a movie put out there without some sort of culture began to exceed that of man ’ s ability to the movie. Then something surreal may happen, visual digital effect. Anyone with a desktop com- grow into it. something so fantastic or absurd by real-world puter and knowledge of Photoshop can accom- The fi rst of these motion picture experiences standards, that you have no doubt of its validity in plish wonders only dreamed of by early special happened in 1895, when Englishman Alfred the seamless context of the movie, because it effects pioneers like Georges Mé li è s (A Trip to the Clarke released his fi lm of the beheading of Mary, could only happen there. Your inner psyche Moon , 1902), Fritz Lang and Eugen Schü fftan Queen of Scots. Using stop-action photography, whispers something like: “ AWEsome! ” When this ( Metropolis , 1927), along with Merian C. Cooper the actress on her way to the henchman was happens, the visual effects people have done their and Willis O’ Brien (King Kong, 1933), all of whom replaced with a dummy with a detachable head, job. This book is about paying homage to them. relied on tactile physical or mechanical special history was recreated as it shocked the Over the last hundred years and counting, effects, and a lot of costly trial and error in order audience. (2) special effects has played a signifi cant role in the to achieve their masterful results. However, it took an illusionist to perfect the emotional way we view movies, and there is a Photo manipulation was nothing new even method of early special effects. French magician reciprocal arrangement between the psychology before the invention of fi lm. Photographers such Georges Mé li ès (1861– 1938) had bought a theater of the audience and the purpose of the movie. as Oscar Gustave Rejlander (1813 – 1875) and and needed to attract his audience. He chose the Because visual effects are so woven into fi lms to Henry Peach Robinson (1830 – 1901) used print new medium of motion pictures, and had a camera the point that movies are in themselves special manipulation and some in-camera techniques to with special lenses made for him by British inven- effects, it would be shortchanging the history of create their allegorical works. (1) Naturally, these tor/fi lmmaker R. W. Paul. (3) The camera ’ s opera- the art of special effects by not regarding their effects could be achieved in paintings, but tion was erratic and frequently jammed while he context in shaping the overall history and the photography was “ authentic” and motion pictures was fi lming. During one of these malfunctions in business of fi lm. even more so. As photography was a feast for the 1896 he had an epiphany. While reviewing his

INTRODUCTION ix footage of a street scene the camera jam was was Porter ’ s use of the traveling matte (a continu- their studios in Brooklyn, NY, they produced a apparent, but when the camera started working ously wound loop of scenery), where he trapped number of commercial short fi lms, along with the again and the scene switched, people that were a scene of moving countryside within the open creation of some “ news ” shorts, such as The once walking one way were now walking the doors of the train to achieve a sense of motion. Battle of Santiago Bay (1898), complete with other, men had morphed into women, an omnibus The most famous scene in The Great Train painted backdrops and fi recracker explosions had morphed into a hearse. Mé li è s not only had Robbery occurred at its end, when one of the around cut-out ships pulled along by underwater his magic act, he perfected the malfunction in robbers, shown in head and shoulders close-up strings. This way of reproducing news events many different ways to become the father of in- on the screen, aimed his gun at the audience and through special effects set Vitgraph off as a pro- camera trickery and special effects. He turned to fi red it. This sent some viewers running for their paganda shop and led to it being respected as a humor, and is most fondly remembered for Indian lives from the theater. This type of viewer reaction production studio. Biograph Studios, Vitagraph’ s Rubber Head and his fi lm adaptation of Jules remains the bedrock of the achievement of special rival from the Bronx, used the same techniques in Verne ’ s A Trip to the Moon ( A Voyage dans la effects —hopefully without sending the audience their news fi lms, such as when they recreated the Lune ), both released in 1902. scampering from the theater. San Francisco earthquake intermixed with actual The outbreak of World War I bankrupted him footage in 1906. and he had to close his theater. Also, his style of THE EARLY STUDIOS The traditional “ one-reeler ” was 12 minutes fi lmmaking had by then become stale, and his In 1905 – 1910 there were a number of technical long, and producers and promoters were not con- efforts could not compete with the epochs that and psychological forces at work that would subtly vinced that an audience ’ s attention could be held were gracing the screens. He ended up in obscu- change the outlook of man toward the world and much longer than that. But during the early years rity, amazing children by demonstrating toys from toward himself. The fi rst of these innovations was of the new century, motion pictures were estab- a kiosk in the park on the Gare Montparnasse. the X-ray, which, fi rst invented in the 1870 ’ s, was lishing their niche in the market as pointed, well- Through his cinematic innovations, Mé li è s by this time period commonly used as a means to scripted 9– 12 reelers exceeding two hours. By inspired other fi lmmakers not only to develop new look inside a person ’ s body. Peripherally, this 1910, the average feature fi lm was 90 minutes special effects, but also to consciously think out introduced cubism as an art style to accomplish long. of the box. Such technicians and fi lmmakers were the same sort of in-depth look abstractly on Something had to sew the events of these Britishers Robert W. Paul ( The Motorist , 1906), canvas. Sigmund Freud was also at work with his 90-minute attractions together, not the least of G.A. Smith (The Corsican Brothers, 1909), and discoveries of the workings of the mind through which was a plot, but other factors were needed Cecil Hepworth ( The Explosion of a Motorcar , psychoanalysis. Finally, by 1910, Albert Einstein to weave the action together. Generally, a fi xed 1900, and Alice in Wonderland, 1903). had published his Theory of Relativity , extolling an camera fi lmed the customary one-reeler as a There are other techniques that have been infi nite universe and its relation to the speed of stage production, constrained under the prosce- attributed to Paul and Smith. Paul was the fi rst to light and, by extension, its relation to the passage nium arch. Camera position, purposeful lighting, use the dolly shot, whereby the camera was of time. (4) and editing delivered cinema from this restriction. dragged along rails. Smith is attributed with per- These futuristic techniques and discoveries Porter, in his Life of an American Fireman (1903), fecting a matting technique by fi lming a subject made the public more accepting to cinema ’ s began this transition with continuity editing: cutting against a black background, then double- sleight of hand, playing an emotional role in between related events happening concurrently in exposing another image in juxtaposition with the attracting more people to the movies, which nearby locations to heighten the suspense of the fi rst. He also attempted experiments with became a form of escape for the audience. This plot. (5) In The Great Train Robbery, he used paral- depth-of-fi eld cuts and extreme close-ups. Most getaway from the routine provided a rudimentary lel editing, where disparate events are happening importantly, Smith was the fi rst to use parallel defi nition for a business model. Growing numbers in different locations. Parallel editing serves the editing, showing simultaneous events to enhance of people paying to see more movies turned movie visual fl ow, while the purpose of continuity editing the rudimentary plots of his movies.(3) production into a competitive business. is to serve the plot, to give it emotional meaning. In 1903, American fi lmmaker Edwin S. Porter In America, artists A. E. Smith and J. S. Biograph Studio’ s D. W. Griffi th mastered produced The Great Train Robbery . Often over- Blackton formed the Vitagraph Company in 1898, the balance of parallel and continuity editing in looked among the editorial innovations in the fi lm which became the fi rst major fi lm company. From his three-hour-long spectacles Birth of a Nation x INTRODUCTION (1915) and Intolerance (1916). He introduced a this mental link would also generate the desire for The most deservedly well-known German number of other editorial techniques, such as the thrills through the visual effect. director of science fi ction fi lms and special effects iris-in, iris-out cuts and the fade, which he accom- As the American movie industry grew in was Fritz Lang, who also produced his master- plished by chemically bleaching the fi lm by Hollywood, which became its icon, so even more pieces from within UFA ’ s huge studios. Among degrees. Griffi th ’ s editing served as a bed for did the star system. Names of such movie idols his fi lms was an ambitious two-parter of the purposeful optical effects, which served the as Clara Bow, Douglas Fairbanks, Lon Chaney, massive Wagner production Die Nibelungen fi lm ’ s editorial tempo. He worked with legendary and Buster Keaton, among many others, became (1924), wherein he had a 60-foot mechanical cameraman Billy Bitzer, and his fi lms, though the draw. Filtering through the star system were fl ying dragon constructed. Here he also utilized controversial, were also marked by a sense of also genres of the fi lm. Charlie Chaplin, Buster the Shuftan process, which used mirrors to sentimentality and humanity. President Woodrow Keaton, Harold Lloyd, and the Keystone Kops combine miniatures with full-sized sets. (9) This Wilson stated of Birth of a Nation: “ It ’ s like writing epitomized comedy, while Theda Bara, Clara process was used extensively in his true master- history with lightning.” (6) Bow, and Rudolph Valentino claimed the sex piece, Metropolis (1926). Though originally criti- New York, with its less than hospitable genre. Lon Chaney and B é la Lugosi were horror, cally dismissed, Metropolis has held up as a weather, was not exactly the best venue for and it was in this genre, and that of science fi ction, testament to the art of science fi ction, German making movies. Feature fi lms such as Griffi th ’ s where special effects found its true niche. Expressionism, and social metaphor. In a later became the production standard and required a classic, M (1931), a controversial fi lm in which a more forgiving outdoor shooting environment. THE GERMAN CONNECTION child murderer (Peter Lorre) is brought to justice There was time to consider this inconvenience, During the 1920s the German fi lm industry devel- by an even more brutal Berlin underworld, he however, for when World War I broke out, motion oped quickly into huge movie factories, such as would give defi nition to fi lm noire, which he would picture production waned. Berlin ’ s UFA, which employed the key fi lm direc- later master in the American fi lms he would direct Once the war ended, the industry moved out to tors and actors. Some of the fi rst German science in the late ’ 50s. (10) Hollywood, California, where the weather was fi ction efforts were directed by actor/director Paul The roots of Lang’ s methods extended back to temperate and the sun always seemed to shine, in Wegener, who prophesized that a “ synthetic 1919, when he worked with Erich Pommer, the spite of the Santa Ana winds and occasional earth- camera ” would be developed and completely producer of The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), to quakes. Mega studios, such as MGM, Paramount, “ artifi cial scenes ” would be created through its introduce expressionist sets in the movie to convey Fox, Universal, and Warner Bros., were estab- abilities. Other directors such as F.W. Murneu, the mind of the tormented killer.(11) In spite of lished as fi lmmaking became a bigger, more profi t- Fritz Lang, and Eric Von Stroheim achieved much Lang ’ s unique suggestion, it is Pommer who is motivated business. These studios were modeled fame through their movies at UFA. remembered as the “ father of German Expression- after those, such as UFA in Germany, where fi lms Murnau directed a number of horror fi lms, ism in fi lm,” for The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari . Since of real artistic substance were being produced by particularly his famous Nosferatu (1922),(7) an then, German expressionism has been effectively the likes of F.W. Murneau and Fritz Lang. intensely evocative horror fi lm. The makeup was used (and ineffectively overused) as a psychologi- D. W. Griffi th introduced more than editorial chilling, and his direction was more like choreog- cal tool in a few mainstream and genre fi lms. techniques to the industry. He also introduced raphy. Along with its expressionist sets, the real Along with their developing artistic merit, many stars, Lillian Gish, Blanche Sweet, and Donald feature of Nosferatu , along with Murnau’ s other German fi lms conveyed a critical social message. Crisp, to the already developing “ star system ” fea- equally famous conventional fi lms, such as Even Nosferatu was no exception, with its veiled turing standards such as Theda Bara, Charlie Sunrise (1927), was the interplay of light and message of the plight of the post-WWI demoral- Chaplin, and Mary Pickford. The stars emerged shadows. Like an editing device in its own right, ization of the German people. Later, the emerging through close-ups as another force to draw audi- light and subjective viewpoints fi ltering through his Nazi German nationalist political attitude, offended ences into the theaters — the viewer could project fi lms (such as The Last Laugh , 1925) provided the by the editorial license of such fi lms, would drive into a dream life through the screen stars to whom basis for ciné ma v é rit é(8) and fi lm noire. In Nos- Murnau and many great German directors and he or she vicariously related. This marriage of feratu , the light and shadow build the tension as actors like Greta Garbo and Marlene Dietrich to human instinct to what was on the screen gave an editing tool, further mastered by Orson Welles move to America. Germany’ s loss would prove to movies a crucial psychological focus. Over time and Alfred Hitchcock. be Hollywood ’ s gain.

INTRODUCTION xi THE ’ 20s: ANIMATION AND Hollywood horror icon with both the fi lm and emerged. By the mid- ’ 30s, the new star system DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN the actor. would be well on its way through the likes of Clark HORROR In several of his fi lms he collaborated with Gable, Douglas Fairbanks (also a silent star), In America, a growing number of production my grandfather, Clarence Aaron “ Tod ” Robbins, James Cagney, Jean Harlow, and Carole studios were establishing special effects depart- who wrote The Unholy Three (1925) and Freaks Lombard, to name a mere few. Paradoxically, ments as the technique developed into more of (1932). Because Freaks was so controversial and Charlie Chaplin wouldn’ t speak on fi lm until an art … literally. Animation had been an American poorly reviewed even after edited, it was to be Tod The Great Dictator (1940). cinema hallmark since before the 1920s with Browning’ s undoing. Paradoxically, today Freaks, Max and Dave Fleischer ’ s rotoscoping technique which is still considered notorious, has surfaced featuring Koko the Clown in the “ Out of the as a cult classic. THE ’ 30s: A HIGHER PURPOSE FOR Inkwell ” series (1914). Rotoscoping was a means SPECIAL EFFECTS to facilitate the ponderous frame-by-frame free- A NEW EFFECTS STAR IS BORN Because the devices used to record sound were hand animation rendering process through tracing The most signifi cant development in fi lm history so overwhelmingly noisy, they needed to be of cells from live fi lm footage. (12) The digital started with a gamble from down-and-out Warner shielded from the voices of the actors. This process of “ tweening ” has only recently replaced Brothers Studios in 1927. On the verge of bank- brought fi lming indoors, into the sound studio rotoscoping. ruptcy, they produced a fi lm, The Jazz Singer, where the producers and directors could better Throughout the mid-twenties, the process of featuring a new technique that was still in research control the creative elements of the craft. Filming combining live footage with animation was refi ned and development among its competitor studios: in the studio required more transparent realism in through the serialized “ Alice Comedies ” (1923 – the Vitaphone sound-on-disc method. The “ talkies ” traveling mattes and rear projection along with the 1926), produced by a young Hollywood new- were here. Fox Studios soon introduced the construction of sets and detailed miniatures. The comer, Walt Disney. The process was to be Movietone sound on fi lm technique, which would features presented new challenges and opportu- revisited a number of times in the Disney fi lms to become the standard. Despite its promise, many nities in the art of special effects. In the studio follow, most notably 60 years later in The Adven- studios were slow to come around to integrated environment, studio moguls and some directors tures of Roger Rabbit (1988). Roger Rabbit was sound right away, thinking it too much of a gamble found a means to cut production costs through a direct descendant of the “ Alice ” shorts, in which for a passing whim. But by the mid-’ 30s, though, more creative effects. Many of these effects found a live action character becomes involved with the most of the major studios produced sound fi lms purchase in the lavish MGM Busby Berkley musi- dangers of a cartoon world. The principle of live and they were, well … talkative. cals of the mid- ’ 30s. The optical printer allowed animation provided a recipe for future possibilities Once movies found a voice, there seemed to for otherwise impossible visuals and sophisticated in special effects, becoming a basis for phenom- be a competition as to who could pour more words techniques by combining traveling mattes on fi lm enal cinematic results. into a minute of fi lm. As if the technique were in the editing process, thus creating the “ cast of Horror fi lms became a standout American ready to burst from bulging fi lm cans, there were thousands ” effect, along with innovative wipes, genre, as represented by the works of former a slew of talkies from Fox and Warner Brothers. also overused in many of the musicals. circus performer-turned-fi lm-director Tod Brown- And they were vociferous beyond the pale. Within The same optical techniques used for Fox ’ s ing (The Unknown, 1927, London After Midnight, a few years, “ All Talking, All Singing!” became an Astaire/Rogers dance scenes to make them 1927, Dracula, 1931, and Freaks, 1932).(13) MGM and RKO tagline for seemingly hundreds of appear fl awless were also applied to what is argu- Perhaps due to Browning ’ s carnival roots, movie follies. ably the most poignantly masterful science fi ction/ makeup was the special effect, along with the But sound came at a price. Its fi rst casualty horror fi lm to come out of the decade: Merian featuring of deformed people, in many of his fi lms. was the current star system. More than a few stars C. Cooper ’ s King Kong (1933). Using a range of He also introduced Lon Chaney, Sr., one of the who might have been masters of the emotive face optical techniques, complicated miniatures, and fi rst real superstars of horror. Browning would in silent fi lms had voices too weak or tinny for the stop action photography, the effects wove together make about 10 fi lms with Chaney before the rigorous demands of early sound recording. By a story of greed ’ s inhumanity toward the natural star ’ s untimely death in 1930. In 1931, he cast recruiting from theater performers who could world and rendered a movie that raised the bar B é la Lugosi as Dracula, and created another project their voices, a new sort of fi lm actor for special effects. xii INTRODUCTION Director James Whale picked up Tod Brown- Tod Browning and James Whale horror pictures. ing, and it wasn ’ t until the end of the ’ 30s, with ing ’ s gauntlet as master of the horror fi lm with Of all the studios, Paramount and MGM produced high-budget MGM movies such as The Wizard of Frankenstein (1931). With some of his succeeding the most extravagant movies. MGM was mainly Oz and Gone with the Wind, that it proved more fi lms, The Invisible Man (1933), The Bride of Fran- responsible for establishing the Hollywood legend practical with high-resolution/higher speed fi lm kenstein (1935), and The Man in the Iron Mask throughout the world with epics such as the Busby stock. However, color was still cumbersome for (1939), he pushed the limit of technique by majes- Berkeley follies and huge productions such as the the special effects department, for instance, in the tically electrifying Frankenstein ’ s monster, along legendary Gone with the Wind (1939) and The development of traveling mattes, where the three with his wife, and by making the invisible man Wizard of Oz (1939). primary colors prepared for the fi lm stock had to appear (or disappear) invisible once the bandages Generally, the stars under contract with the sync exactly to the live action they supported. were removed. The characters in the horror fi lms studios established the themes of the movies. Both Oz and GWTW used traveling mattes nearly of the ’ 30s also brought us the pathos of emo- B é la Lugosi and Boris Karloff, for instance, were fl awlessly, but when it was done a little bit wrong, tional threads, which characteristically weave under contract with Universal. Relatively lesser- the result was awful. By 1939, the audience had together many successful dramas. One prime known actors such as James Cagney, Pat O’ Brian, become as sophisticated as it was demanding, example of this (along with King Kong) was Boris Humphrey Bogart, Veronica Lake, Bette Davis, and one out-of-sync color scene could destroy the Karloff’ s portrayal of Frankenstein ’ s monster. and Lauren Bacall were under contract with emotional power of the whole movie. Karloff was to emerge as a horror superstar for Warner ’ s, while Astaire/Rogers worked for Fox. decades to follow, not because he was a “ scary The stars with the biggest draw, such as Greta ENTER THE FEDS— AND A NEW monster ” like Nosferatu or Dracula, but because Garbo, Clarke Gable, Gary Cooper, and up-and- STANDARD IN FILM EDITING his characters, like Frankenstein’ s monster, were coming “ kid ” stars like Judy Garland and Mickey One might argue that some movies of the late more human, with soul. It was this kind of charac- Rooney were with MGM. Star quality came at a ’ 20s and early ’ 30s were over the top in the license ter quality, along with the special effects, that price to the stars. Generally, and especially with they took in the name of entertainment. In an pulled the audience in and worked to make the MGM, the stars were under strict control of the attempt at federal control to match the national supernatural seem real. studios, often to the detriment of their health and “ success ” of prohibition, the Hays Code was emotional well-being. established in 1934 (14) to oversee and purify the THE GROWING HOLLYWOOD Films were also branded with their directors. content of the movies. The code was to be in MYSTIQUE As James Whale was associated with the horror effect until the late ’ 60s, when it was replaced by During the ’ 30s, the American movie business had genre, John Ford was known for his westerns, and the current ratings system, which liberated fi lm more than survived the ongoing economic depres- Alfred Hitchcock for his suspense fi lms. Walt content. Through mandating the curtailing of sex sion. “ Hollywood” ceased to be merely a place on Disney, a 33-year-old perfectionist director/pro- in many mainstream fi lms and violence in gang- the map in southern California: it was a state of ducer, was the mainstay of animation. Disney ster fi lms, the Hays Code had a seemingly limited mind. Going to the movies had become necessary studios, established in the late thirties, broke the effect on the content of horror and suspense fi lms, therapy, and the more escapist the movie, the animation mold in 1937 with Snow White, which where the suggestion of violence became key to better. Movies were a 10-cent escape from the was to win the Academy Award for that year. More building the suspense. Mainstream fi lms followed national woes of the global depression. The eco- of a work of art than the sketchy one-reeler anima- this idea through the use of natural devices such nomic situation helped to establish Hollywood as tions shown before the feature that the public had as shadows and chiaroscuro to build plot tension the cultural legend it has remained— and the gold come to expect, Snow White was the fi rst feature- and waves crashing on the shore to suggest a standard of global fi lm production. length color animated fi lm. The cell animation sexual encounter. The use of metaphor as an The studios had their individual personalities: technique would elevate the art of visual effects editorial device became a foremost plot builder. Warner Brothers was known for gangster and to a new level of precision. noir movies, along with poignant women’ s movies The 1930s began with sound and ended with THE ’ 40s: PROPAGANDA AND and Errol Flynn swashbucklers. RKO/Fox was Technicolor, which was actually developed in FILM NOUVEAU represented by the comparatively low-budget 1925 — before sound became popular. It was a Many fi lms of the ’ 40s were in increasingly refi ned panache of dance movies. Universal produced the costly process that required three times the light- black and white. One of the fi nest examples of

INTRODUCTION xiii artistic fi lmmaking was gifted to us in 1941 with fi lms. Entire war scenes were recreated using into his movies. In Rebecca he used extensive Orson Welles’ s Citizen Kane, arguably one of the traveling mattes, rear projections, and whole fl eets rear projection and miniatures to create the eerie greatest fi lms ever, in plot and technique. Special of miniatures. MGM erected a 300-square-foot atmosphere of Manderley, the English manor effects using traveling mattes and rear projections water tank fl anked with a rear projection screen. home featured in the fi lm. In Lifeboat (1944), he were used profusely throughout the fi lm, yet with Despite the size of the tank, miniatures could not used rear projection to convey the breadth of such transparency that the fi lm was not even be that small because they had to show enough the ocean. Increasingly, he would rely on special nominated in the special effects category— an detail to be convincing. A 50-foot-long miniature effects treatments in his fi lms, but like the underly- oblique testament to Welles’ s mastery over visual aircraft carrier can take up a lot of space in such ing trademark of his gallows humor, the special effects and fi lm editing. It was nominated for best a tank of water, especially when surrounded by a effects would be subtle. fi lm in 1941, but was defeated by Fox’ s box offi ce task force of miniature Hellcats suspended from comedy It Happened One Night. However, with wires taking off, landing, and occasionally crash- Citizen Kane, Orson Welles set the intellectual ing into it. Also, as fans blew on the tank water to THE ’ 50s: SUBURBIA AND MONSTERS and technical quality standards for future fi lms, not make it look choppy, the waves had to appear in IN RUBBER SUITS only in his subtle use of special effects, but also proportion to the miniatures, or the effect was lost. The movie industry shifted gears at the end of the in establishing a model for auteur and indepen- Also, explosions had to look convincing, and war and into the ’ 50s with a surge in the economy dent fi lms to follow. this gave rise to a new special effects person: the and the resulting consumerism. The nature of Films and their special effects took on a new pyrotechnic artist. These guys may have come movies was also retooled for another reason: they role with the outbreak of World War II. Though from the foxholes as explosive experts, but they were competing against the new force brought on Hollywood produced 40 percent fewer fi lms during had an eye for the physics that made a battlefi eld by television. wartime, the home front attendance in theaters explosion look realistically different from an The movie industry took a number of hits was high. This time people went to the movies not exploding gas tank or the barrage bombing of a during the ’ 50s. The effect of TV was as pressing only to forget their woes, as was the case during city. So now not only did special effects have to to Hollywood business as its growth was the depression, but also to remember the “ boys ” : make things look convincingly real, but the effect immediate with the growing suburban household husbands and sons fi ghting for freedom overseas. had to be executed with moderation. This would consumer culture. The economics of advertising- Horror and science fi ction fi lms, the vehicles of the be a daunting task for today’ s effects directors, supported free viewership of television signifi - most obvious special effects, were pretty much who are conditioned to make things look outra- cantly reduced turnout at the theaters to about shelved in favor of what sold: patriotism. geously fantastic. half of what it had been. Adding to this was a 1948 Actor John Wayne was a prime catalyst for the Another genre fi nding its way into wartime ruling by the federal government that the Holly- fi ghting spirit of the American soldier. Already cinema was the suspense fi lm. Though the style wood/movie theater alliance was monopolistic, having established himself as a fi lm cowboy in had been popular in the past, it now achieved a and that the movie business had to relinquish its John Ford ’ s westerns, he now donned the uniform new refi nement through the achievements of control of the theaters and the distribution of fi lms. to do battle in the theater of Hollywood, and one director Alfred Hitchcock. Having garnered direc- As a result, the cinema houses became indepen- could argue that he won the war in Peoria. “ The torial success in his native England, he was hired dent and could choose what fi lms to show. Duke ” starred in relatively few war fi lms, but he in 1939 by David O. Selznick at MGM on a seven- All of this may have actually been a double- emerged as the consummate American patriot, a year contract. Fresh from his Oscar-winning pro- edged sword for both the fi lm and theater industry box offi ce draw and a propaganda success. The duction of Gone with the Wind , Selznick’ s fi rst in the sense that they could align their demo- standard for the “ fi ghting patriot ” cast in celluloid collaboration with Hitchcock was Rebecca (1940), graphic to a growing number of kids and teen- defi ned the moviegoer as much as it did the star, which won Best Picture and Best Director in 1940. agers: the baby boomers. Without the burden of and would become a pervasive box offi ce draw — From the beginning of their relationship, Selznick’ s depression followed by war and more free time on and a magnet for special effects— in the decades demand for artistic control may have crimped their hands in a growing economy, parents would to follow. Hitchcock ’ s style, but not his genius. drop their kids off for an afternoon at the movies Effective propaganda is spectacular, and here Like Orson Welles’ s controlled use of special while they went to play golf. Also, teenagers would is where the special effect found its way into war effects, Hitchcock also wove them transparently fl ock to the movies at night while their parents xiv INTRODUCTION stayed home to watch Uncle Miltie (Milton Berle) special effects that have by now become legend- Throughout the ’ 50s, though, there were a and Sid Caesar, as television revived vaudeville. ary. From the raining down of toads to the parting small number of quality science fi ction produc- In a sense, the local theater became a of the Red Sea, special effects recreated acts of tions. Many of these came through the efforts of babysitter. God in The Ten Commandments. From the rec- George Pal, who worked with the high-budget The ’ 50s movies advanced a number of new reation of Roman war galley sea battles to chariot Paramount Studios. Starting with his animated technologies to compete with the tiny television races in the Coliseum in Ben Hur , they recreated “ Puppetoons ” in the late ’ 40s, Pal went on to make screen. The technique and resulting quality of a Hollywood version of history. Destination Moon (1950) and When Worlds animation were improved, as evidenced in the The epic fi lm drew in audiences of all ages, Collide (1951). Perhaps his best-remembered Warner Brothers and Disney animations. The but the most consistent audience was that of teen- fi lm was the CinemaScope epic War of the methods of optical printing and traveling mattes agers. Most of the major studios saw little future Worlds (1953), which engaged a fl eet of sleek, were further refi ned. But the two most signifi cant in catering to such a narrow market, but more insectine aliens and their craft, along with sophis- ’ 50s standouts were Technicolor and Cinema- independent studios sprung up with a slew of low- ticated blue-screening, optical effects, cells, and Scope, two areas where television couldn ’ t budget horror fi lms featuring actors in rubber mattes. compete. monster suits, such as The Creature from the Ray Harryhausen, one of Pal ’ s assistants from Color had been introduced in 1935 with RKO ’ s Black Lagoon (1954) and The Beast from 20,000 the “ Puppetoons ” days, soon after went on to Becky Sharp, but the seeming lack of audience Fathoms (1953), and mutated, stop motioned, develop a name for himself with Mighty Joe Young interest coupled with the cost of the process and mechanical ants, such as Them! (1954). Many of (1949), another popular overgrown simian, like the war diminished its use during the ’ 40s. The these fi lms centered around nuclear experiments Kong, but with a lot more heart and a sensitive studios banked on its comeback in the ’ 50s, and and explosions gone bad, a comparatively light- ear for music. Harryhausen went on to make other from early in the decade more and more fi lms hearted account centering around the very real sci-fi fi lms, such as It Came from Beneath the Sea appeared in color. Oddly enough, audience fear of nuclear annihilation. The reality was a (1955) and Twenty Million Miles to Earth (1957). numbers remained the same whether the movie bigger horror story than anything on celluloid, but But perhaps he is best remembered for the special was in color or black and white, so color became as these horror stories tapped into the fear, they effects he created in his mythological fi lms such relegated to epic fi lms and studios with bigger also served to reduce the dread, at least for as The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad (1959) and budgets. 90 minutes. Jason and the Argonauts (1963), in which the CinemaScope, under any other name, seemed The ’ 50s saw the resurgence of the science beleaguered Jason has a swordfi ght with a gaggle to produce a bigger draw. More ambitious the- fi ction genre, which had been subdued since the of skeletons. aters enlarged their screens to accommodate the ’ 30s. Many of the sci-fi special effects for which Disney Studios solidifi ed their place with kids widescreen format, while standard-sized screens the ’ 50s are remembered are enduringly cheesy. during the ’ 50s with their television shows (The projected a letterboxed version. Even on a stan- Most prominent among these was Godzilla (trans- Mickey Mouse Club and Walt Disney Presents) dard screen, wide projections seemed to (at least lated “ gorilla-whale ” ), the Japanese import created and live action fi lms, where they forayed into psychologically) show more. CinemaScope also by Tomoyuki Tamaka in 1954. (15) The kitschy, special effects. The most notable of these was presented more challenges (thus opportunities) gigantic lizard who made his clumsy trek through 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), based on for the development of matte and rear projection a model Tokyo was to make his appearance the Jules Verne novel. In the movie, the crew of special effects, while providing the screen real through 12 iterations in nearly 30 fi lms.(16) There the Nautilus submarine was tormented by a giant estate for more and detailed models. were also the quirky, hastily produced movies squid, with whom Kirk Douglas did battle at the Both CinemaScope and color served to revive from the studio basements of Roger Corman end. The mechanical fl aws of the squid were con- the epic story, and there was no shortage of them ( Swamp Women, 1955; Attack of the Crab Mon- vincingly hidden by the turbid seawater it stirred in the ’ 50s. From The Robe (1953) to The Ten sters , 1957) and of transvestite Ed Wood ( Glen or up around it. The movie ushered in a discrete new Commandments (1956) to Ben Hur (1959), there Glenda? , 1953; Plan 9 From Outer Space , niche for Disney, and the studio would eventually were a slew of interpretations of biblical stories — 1959). (17) Wood’ s legacy is marked by the 1980 break signifi cant ground in the art and technique in biblical proportions — all in widescreen color “ Golden Turkey Award ” for “ The Worst Director of of special effects, providing examples for others grandeur. These epics called upon a wealth of All Time. ”(18) to follow.

INTRODUCTION xv THE ’ 60s: COUNTERCULTURE, The failure of Cleopatra sent shock waves Trumbull was 2001: A Space Odyssey (1969, THE LONE PATRIOT, AND A SPACE through the entire industry, placing future fi lm pro- Stanley Kubrick). One could argue that the movie ODYSSEY duction under the control of accountants and saved the fi lm business in general, but it certainly The 1960s began with John Wayne and ended lawyers. The fi rst element to suffer was special set the draw of pure special effects as vital to a with Jane Fonda— a journey from conformity to effects. Considered as unnecessary fl uff, entire movie ’ s success. Based on the enigmatic sci-fi counterculture. This could be applied to the cul- effects departments were dissolved, and the now- novel by Sir Arthur Clarke, with a plot that thor- tural tempo of Hollywood as well. The attendance seasoned effects people either went into semi- oughly confounds the viewer even to this day, it at theaters continued to drop, save for some of retirement or became freelancers. nevertheless remains an elegant effects master- the costly epics, such as David Lean’ s Lawrence Many of the features of the ’ 60s were British piece. The miniatures choreographed to Strauss, of Arabia (1962) and Doctor Zhivago (1966), imports as, in light of the Beatles, everything with the blue screen techniques, and the introduction Lewis Milsestone ’ s Mutiny on the Bounty (1963), a British accent was culturally golden and offered of the slit-screen “ stargate ” effect in the end set John Sturges’ s The Great Escape (1963), and a possibility for a profi t. This was certainly true the caliber for the revolutionary science fi ction John Frankenheimers ’ s Grand Prix (1966). with British fi lms marked as highbrow classics, movies to come in the seventies. These signature epics were indeed impres- such as Tom Jones (1963, Tony Richardson) and The ’ 60s also saw the establishment of the sive showcases of widescreen cinematography. A Man for All Seasons (1966, Fred Zinnemann). movie code, which classifi ed movies based on the There was less reliance on traditional use of min- But one fi lm import from the UK, introduced in nature of their content. This fi nally broke through iatures and pyrotechnics, due to the directors 1962, was destined to be a cinema cult money- the pervasive shadow of the ubiquitous (though wanting to keep things authentic. In the case of maker: Bond … James Bond. now all but forgotten) Hays Code of the ’ 30s and Grand Prix, for instance, real cars were shot There were some landmark mechanical opened the possibility for studios to script more from canons to capture the reality of car crashes. effects, such as the James Bond trademark bullet- natural, coarser dialog and to show more sex and In The Great Escape , real airplanes were fi ring, oil-spitting Aston Martin DB5 sports car in violence. Generally, big-name studios who wanted crashed during several takes. In the case of Goldfi nger (1964). The perception of the James to keep larger audiences stuck to tamer, more Doctor Zhivago, David Lean sprayed fake snow Bond fi lm has remained legendary and fresh with family-oriented fi lms, such as musicals like 20th over great expanses of Spain to simulate the each new fi lm. Conceptually, it gave rise to the Century Fox ’ s The Sound of Music (1965, Robert Ukraine. serial cult hero — the lone patriot — to be refl ected Wise). The ratings system gave rise to the Only the largest studios could afford to produce in other movies and their sequels such as Rambo independent studio: fi lm freelancers with enough such fi lms, which were directed and controlled by and Indiana Jones . One could argue that Sean production money to make their fi lm the way sometimes-desperate studio committees. As a Connery was the quintessential Bond, but James they wanted. These movies were more “ realistic, ” result many of these fi lms went over budget in an Bond is James Bond, a concept not tied to a par- and often called for subtle, yet convincing, already-suffering industry economy. None went ticular actor. special effects. Many of these independent auteur more over budget than Fox’ s Cleopatra (1963). 20th Century Fox’ s Planet of the Apes (1968, studios became associated with the larger Relying on the star attractions of Elizabeth Taylor Franklin J. Schaffner) revived the use of visual (funding) studios, along the lines of Orson Welles’ s and Richard Burton and spectacular sets, one of effects. It starred former-Moses Charlton Heston, association with RKO in the making of Citizen which fl oated a $250,000 barge on a 20-acre set, redefi ning the lone patriot role as he assimilated Kane . which also housed a reconstructed full-scale into the ape culture. The makeup and effects were Roman Coliseum that was larger than the an innovative, amazingly convincing version of the THE ’ 70s: THE DRAW OF DISASTER 2000-year-old original, the fi lm was produced at a rubber suit monster of the ’ 50s. In fact, the viewer IN THE DISCO AGE cost of 44 million dollars. In today ’ s currency, that might be hard-pressed to not believe that the apes The success of 2001 , though a tremendous boost would amount to well over a quarter billion. Such populating the planet were really humans in to the art of the special effect, was something of expenses would be impossible to recoup even disguise. an anomaly in the movie business. The television under the best of attendance, but Fox ’ s gamble The one major success that single-handedly networks competed with theaters by bringing didn ’ t nearly pay off, making Cleopatra a legend- revived and redefi ned visual effects as a feature more studio fi lms to the home screen, causing the ary and colossal fl op. through the achievements of effects-man Douglas studios to continue to lose money. There had to xvi INTRODUCTION be some real “ blockbusters” on the big screen to as a tribute to Spielberg ’ s lawyer) shown only in 20th Century Fox gave Lucas the go-ahead draw the audience away from their homes. quick edits or murky underwater depths. The pro- for Star Wars in 1975 but then shut down their Universal ’ s Airport (1970, George Seaton) genitor of the summer blockbuster, Jaws was special effects department. Rather than search for centered around the problems of an all-star cast highly promoted, over budget, and diffi cult to another studio, Lucas established his own, Lucas- running a Chicago airport and dealing with a 707 produce, as “ Bruce ” would not always cooper- fi lm. The necessity for the studio to be based in in fl ight with a bomb on it. The suspense-laden ate. (20) But Jaws ’ s real strength lay in the special effects called for a special team of people, plot was a huge box offi ce draw, and Airport Hitchcockian tradition of suspense, and it lived up generally under the age of 30. Lucas approached spawned three sequels during the decade as to its hype. Douglas Trumbull of 2001 fame for the job, but he “ disaster fi lms ” became a formula for success, It was Lucas ’ s second major feature, Star turned it down and recommended computer pro- and Hollywood wanted more of them. Wars (1977), and Spielberg’ s next fi lm, Close grammer/artist John Dykstra. Hiring a team of Irwin Allen, the director of the hit TV series Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), that would recent fi lm school graduates and animators, Lucas Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, Lost in Space, raise the bar for the special effect, elevating it to established a special effects studio, Industrial and The Time Tunnel , was hired to apply his a true art form. Light and Magic (ILM), to develop the fi lm. Though magic to movies. After directing The Poseidon ILM closed its doors after Star Wars was released, Adventure (1972), The Towering Inferno (1974), it was revived in 1980 to become the gold stan- and The Swarm (1978), Allen was dubbed “ The THE STAR WARS PHENOMENA dard of special effects big business.(21) Master of Disaster.” Other fi lms such as Earth- AND THE THREE NEW MASTERS OF Shortly after Star Wars made its theater run, quake (1974, Mark Robson) and The Hindenburg THE UNIVERSE Spielberg ’ s Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1975, Robert Wise) also drew huge audiences. The art and technique of special effects had come was released. Bringing the fantastic closer to our Disaster fi lms required innovative uses of rich a long way since their 1930s adaptation in Buck own planet, Close Encounters of the Third Kind audio techniques, mattes, miniatures, and pyro- Rogers movies and the spark-sputtering, string- injected believability into the subject of abduction technics, putting special effects departments back drawn, bullet-shaped rocket ships with engines and aliens returning some of their abductees to in business. that sounded like a swarm of bees accented by earth. Unlike the nasty aliens in War of the Worlds The fi lm Westworld (1973, Michael Crichton) broken fans. Drawing upon the visual elegance of 20 years before, Spielberg ’ s take was more was centered around a place where rich vacation- 2001 , the phenomenal Star Wars elevated the benign. Many viewers were captivated by the ers in search of true adventure could match wits special effect to the truly visual effect that it is subject and came out of the theater believing that with robots programmed to challenge them. The today. Along with the stunning miniatures and sets alien abduction (especially away from a depressed movie is notable for its pioneering use of two- that made an alien world seem entirely in synch economy and disco) may not be such a bad thing dimensional computer-generated imagery (CGI) with our own, the story line was drawn from events after all. to illustrate the robot ’ s point of view.(19) It was a that happened “ A long time ago in a galaxy far, On top of it all, the fi lm was visually stunning. painstaking process for a few minutes of footage far away … ” This elevated the nature of the More than the traditional icing on the cake, the but it paved the way for its sequel, the less criti- common science fi ction story to high mythology special effects, sets, and the eerie beauty con- cally acclaimed Futureworld (1976), which made with historical signifi cance, based in its own reality. veyed by the dramatic interplay of light in Close use of 3D CGI. Lucas drew from aesthetically simple sources Encounters of the Third Kind were its core recipe. Perhaps the most signifi cant and lasting Hol- for many of the special effects. The assortment This kind of quality became the lasting trademark lywood phenomena of the ’ 70s were three young of aliens, particularly in the famous bar scene, of Spielberg’ s fi lms, through the broad range of directors nearly fresh out of fi lm school: Francis allegedly began as random cloud formations and his topics, from the kid’ s adventure The Goonies Ford Coppola, George Lucas, and Steven Spiel- shadows on the wall. The alien sound effects were (1987) to the austere gravity and importance of berg. They went on to direct immediate classics also drawn from uniquely basic sources, recalling Schindler ’ s List (1994) and Saving Private Ryan such as, respectively, The Godfather (1972), the innovative foundations of ’ 30s radio sound (1997). American Graffi ti (1973), and Jaws (1975). effects. Lucas’ s concept was to serialize the story Francis Ford Coppola, the most seasoned of Spielberg ’ s Jaws featured three sometimes- into nine parts, six of which have already been the fi lmmaker trinity, made his directorial mark convincing mechanical sharks (all named “ Bruce, ” released to dedicated sellout crowds. early with The Godfather (1972), followed by The

INTRODUCTION xvii Godfather II (1974). Both of these fi lms had been with thrillers featuring beefed up heroes, were this time a detective/cop in a dreary, noir setting critical and popular successes before Star Wars their vehicles. of the mid-21st century. The undercurrent of the and Close Encounters of the Third Kind were No longer were sci-fi fi lms about alien inva- fi lm anticipates environmental degradation and released. A sullen density, with characters who sions by clumsy, heartless creatures. Like the bit- overpopulation. Visual effects using mattes, blue existed more in shadow than light, recalling the tersweet portrayal of Frankenstein’ s monster by screens, and miniatures, along with soggy light- German noir styles described earlier, pervaded Karloff in the ’ 30s, Spielberg ’ s ET (1982) showed ing, created a haunting and provocatively dreary many of Coppola’ s fi lms. Apocalypse Now (1979) that aliens could also be believably sentient and feast for the eyes. This all served to accent the was drawn from several novels, most notably even humorous beings. ET succeeded in touching growing realization that the movie, in itself, is James Conrad’ s Lord Jim and Heart of Darkness , the hearts of viewers of all ages, as the stunning purely the special and visual effect. in the narrative style of Michael Herr’ s Dis- effects were woven so effi ciently into the fi lm that patches . (22) The Godfather not withstanding, there seemed nothing unnatural about them. THE NEW HOLLYWOOD ECONOMY Apocalypse Now is arguably Coppola’ s master- George Lucas turned away from science Unlike the disaster it had once been in the ’ 50s piece, and was as long in its production as it was fi ction in 1981, and reached into the vaults of the and ’ 60s, the sequel had now become a Holly- reliant upon its special effects. In the case of 1930s to produce Indiana Jones and the Raiders wood preference. The front offi ce realized that a Apocalypse Now, Coppola’ s use of effects seemed of the Lost Ark . Creating a quintessential privateer blockbuster fi lm in later iterations would assure a more restrained and woven into the plot than the hero swashbuckling amid a swarm of special cult-driven blockbuster audience. Now that more sensational outlandishness required in the Spiel- effects, he also created a new look for a second- studios were regaining control of theaters and fi lm berg and Lucas fi lms to date. Coppola’ s controlled hand plot formula. Indiana Jones as portrayed by distribution, and that the Star Wars concept had use of special and visual effects would fi nd a way Harrison Ford was to launch three equally suc- bolstered the economy of the industry, Hollywood into the more mature fi lms of the other two. cessful movies in the series over the next 25 spent more production dollars on special effects. Naturally, fi lms other than those produced by years. The genre once again pitted the lone patriot Whereas to produce and promote a typical fi lm Spielberg, Lucas, and Coppola also rode into the against insurmountable odds, but we all knew he would cost around $2 million in the ’ 70s, by the late seventies inspired by the effects— and money- would somehow survive all perils to live to fi ght early ’ 80s the cost would be up to $10 million, and making —standards of Star Wars and Close again in the next sequel. by the end of the decade close to $25 million. Encounters of the Third Kind. Superman (1978, Following these lines, a near future sci-fi Today, it’ s around $50 million. Though still a far Richard Donner), Star Trek: The Motion Picture thriller featured not a man as the protagonist, but cry from the (projected) $300 million 1962 catas- (1979, Robert Wise) and Alien (1979, Ridley a questionably benevolent and impassive comput- trophe of Cleopatra , these costs, though substan- Scott) were three such fi lms typical of the new erized machine (okay … a robot). The Terminator tial, were in line with blockbuster production costs. effects, and, like Star Wars and Jaws , they were (1984) featured a pumped-up Arnold Schwar- Hollywood would take such a gamble because all destined for sequels. zenegger as the T-800 man/machine who would every once and a while, there might be a chance appear in two more highly anticipated fi lms in the to recoup $1 billion, as was the case with Titanic series. It would also serve to establish Schwar- (1997, James Cameron). THE ’ 80s: THE MOVIE AS zenegger as a quintessential lone patriot, a beefy During the ’ 80s, the home video and cable THE SPECIAL EFFECT John Wayne, in roles where he was pitted against television industries may have caused the same Coppola, Spielberg, and Lucas raised the stan- terrors of great proportions, where in the end he threat to the fi lm industry as television did in the dard for moviemaking to come, as fi lm had become emerges as the slightly bloodied victor, in a world ’ 50s. But Hollywood, having learned from its mis- something of a high culture. Audiences who had that is safe to carry on. The Terminator fi lms were takes, was now savvy in fi nding ways to work in had enough of disco and the generally ordinary a riot of astounding special effects and pyrotech- concert with home viewing through residuals. This fare of network television shows demanded more nics to the percussion of Taiko drums, under the could reach a point where costs could be recouped for the rising cost of going to the movies. Like the directorial supervision of James Cameron. though video and cable sales alone. As part of orthodox established by Georges Mé li è s nearly In Ridley Scott’ s 1982 Blade Runner, tradi- this fi nancial formula, releasing a mediocre fi lm to 100 years before, amazing effects drew patron- tional effects were applied as high art. Harrison video soon after its short run on the big screen age into the theaters, and science fi ction, along Ford was cast as another 1930s-style character: could work to turn a profi t on it. Naturally, though, xviii INTRODUCTION studios still focused on saving production costs, Black Hole , and what they felt they got was chintzy the movie, the mercurial shape-shifting T-1000 sometimes so the money could be put toward Buck Rogers. The true value of Tron was in its robot, with the help of the geniuses at ILM, could advancing the fi lm. Case in point: Ridley Scott ’ s role as an antecedent for the most signifi cant morph into any form and kept audiences capti- 1979 Alien cost $10 million to produce and $15 advance in the history of special effects. vated. Movies such as the Terminator series and million to promote. In the case of Alien, this strat- Die Hard (1988, John McTiernan), with Bruce egy paid off, with much of the profi ts coming from THE ’ 90s: CGI— FROM ATOMS TO BITS Willis as the quintessential lone patriot, prolifer- residuals from video distribution. It also introduced In his 1995 book, Being Digital, MIT computer ated. Large numbers of viewers abandoned their the fi rst major female lone patriot, Warrant Offi cer guru Nicholas Negroponte commented that ele- TVs to fl ock to the movies to watch slo-mo action Ripley, played by Sigourney Weaver, who waged ments of our daily lives were undergoing a trans- choreographed against a backdrop of pyrotech- a solo battle against the nasty aliens. formation from “ atoms to bits.” (26) Even the less nics permeated with Dolby Digital surround sound. The costs of model making and editing were skeptical among us could not foresee how that Many of these viewers would later rent the video heightening with demand and sophistication. One could happen, as it was beyond our imaginations. or DVD to see what they might have missed the studio that was becoming painfully aware of this Now, 15 years later, we are routinely accepting fi rst time. This new classifi cation of viewer was was Disney. Having produced a good number of this fact without question. Part of the path that led becoming involved. modest fi lms that were predictably Disney, such us to this point had its genesis in special effects The most stunning development in the art of as The Shaggy D.A. (1974), the studio made its in fi lm, a transformation that had demonstrated to digital graphics and animation was through some- fi rst science fi ction fi lm, The Black Hole in 1979, us the possibilities of technology. thing incredible made to look quite credible. Spiel- costing Disney the most it had spent on a fi lm to Studios were turning to special effects houses, berg ’ s Jurassic Park (1993), based on Michael date ($20 million to produce, plus $6 million to such as Lucas ’ s ILM and James Cameron’ s newly Crichton ’ s 1990 novel, required the adaptation promote).(23) The fi lm was uncharacteristic for the formed Digital Domain, to effi ciently create their of dinosaurs co-existing with humans. Meshing studio in a number of ways. A Disney fi rst, the fi lm fi lms. Lucas and Spielberg in particular had mas- digital imagery into live action, Spielberg commis- contained light swearing, which earned it the stu- tered the art of working within budget and the sioned Stan Winston Studios and ILM to create dio ’ s fi rst PG rating. (24) Its relatively dense plot was tight, fi nished storyboard, which served to solidify an array of robotic animatronics dinosaurs and religiously metaphoric and ended enigmatically, the shoot without a lot of trial-and-error takes. digital effects. The fi lm’ s budget was $95 million along the lines of 2001 . But The Black Hole’ s most Also, the fi lms they made were based on action, ($65 million of that was for marketing and distribu- signifi cant contribution was the most extensive rather than the temperament of actors: miniatures tion), and it grossed about 10 times that, making use of CGI and digital audio to date. More impor- and static and animatronic models never com- it the 10th highest grossing fi lm to current date. (27) tantly, their use had shown that fantastic effects plain. Finally, art worked in collusion with busi- Also, the computer imagery in Jurassic Park set could be generated in CGI, though a signifi cant ness, as Lucas and Spielberg were prominent the ideal for what would follow in the new millen- cost savings in their use was still 15 years away. creatives in their own right and knew the value of nium, notably Peter Jackson ’ s Lord of the In 1982, Disney produced Tron , a story about a shoot. They were the “ producers ’ producers,” Rings trilogy (2001) and his version of King Kong a programmer (played by Jeff Bridges) who and many mega studios (now themselves run by (2005). becomes part of a computer game, within the even bigger conglomerates) longed to work with From Jurassic Park, Spielberg went on to computer, in order to foil a greedy corporate them. Many of these special effects houses had direct the fi lm he had intended to direct before it, scheme. (25) The fi lm was roundly panned, but its staffs and departments easily larger than the Schindler ’ s List . Sid Sheinberg, the president of true signifi cance as to special effects was that whole studio crew it would have taken to produce Universal Pictures’ parent company MCI, allowed there were large numbers of scenes that were a 1950s feature fi lm. Spielberg to go ahead on Schindler ’ s List on the computer enhanced, along with others that were Blockbuster movies such as James Camer- condition that he shoot Jurassic Park fi rst. This purely CGI. Despite the kind of technical innova- on ’ s Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) drew an directive was as wise as it was emotional. Shein- tions only a programmer could love, the effects even larger audience than the original and dem- berg knew that Jurassic Park would not have had looked slapdash, even annoying at times, giving onstrated the types of wonders that could be the “ heart ” and would not have been the block- the movie a low-budget appearance. Audiences accomplished through special effects with the buster it was if Spielberg had fi rst experienced the wanted Star Wars , Blade Runner , or even another innovation of computer-generated characters. In weight of Schindler ’ s List. Spielberg later rea-

INTRODUCTION xix soned: “ He knew that once I had directed Schindler from the 1870s photographer Eadweard Muy- tional, profi table, older generation of viewer. The I wouldn ’ t be able to do Jurassic Park. ” (28) bridge, a battery of still cameras was set up to making of today’ s movies is faced with striking this In 1995, Disney Studios broke the digital capture fl uid movement. (34) The Matrix was also balance, which is continually changing, as each effects mold again with the release of Toy Story, in signifi cant in that it raised the bar higher still for generation of fi lmgoer is infl uenced by new techni- partnership with Apple ’ s Pixar Animation Studios visual effects production, as it seemed to close cal advances. for a three-fi lm serial deal. Toy Story was the fi rst out an era of optical, tactile effects to usher in yet One in particular is arguably the most signifi - fully digital fi lm ever produced. With a budget of a a new digital revolution in fi lm. The sequels Matrix cant techno-cultural invention since the wheel — mere $30 million, the fi lm and peripherals pulled in Reloaded (May, 2003) and Matrix Revolutions the Internet. It is here where virtual, interactive, nearly $370 million. (29) Inspired by the large profi t (November, 2003) would use primarily digital real-time social environments are making new that can be made with technology that was limited techniques. demands upon the role of special effects. In this only by the creativity of the team, Disney/Pixar The astounding value of CGI did not progress sense, the user has become the media, as much would produce seven more such high-grossing from the rudiments of Tron to the perfection of The as the media is the user. Marshall McLuhan ’ s animations to date (2009), with fi ve more to be Matrix through a vacuum of ideas. Around 1986, ubiquitous “ Global Village” (36) has fi nally been released before 2012. (30) Many of these fi lms have fi ve years after Tron was released, the home com- realized. not been just cartoons for kids. Weaving 40-year- puter was a growing staple in many workplaces old pop culture references into the plot, they also and households. Around the same time, computer appealed strongly to large numbers of former gaming, which had been a growing phenomenon THE NEW MILLENNIUM Mousketeers: the baby boomer market. since the early ’ 70s, was making its move from From 2000 forward, visual and special effects has Success such as this does not go unchal- the arcade to the personal computer. continued to be a work in progress, and these lenged. In 1994, ousted Disney corporate head Computer games had vastly improved in their recent innovations are covered in the pages to Jeffrey Katzenberg (producer of such successes quality and depth of interaction. By the mid- ’ 90s, follow. I suggest that conceptual formats for very as Who Framed Roger Rabbit? [1988] and The games had incorporated many special effects real possibilities were presented in two badly Lion King [1994]) joined forces with Steven Spiel- devices in their production, such as character reviewed movies early in the decade. The fi rst berg and David Geffen to form DreamWorks motion capture. (35) Three-dimensional role-playing was Simone (2002, Andrew Niccol), wherein a Studios.(31) In the the 10-year span from Antz games (RPGs) such as the fi rst-person Doom clandestinely digitized avatar replaces a real (1998) to Madagascar II (2008), DreamWorks pro- (1993) and Myst (1993) would soon lead to more actress who has walked off the set. Believing she duced 11 digital animation fi lms, each a succes- sophisticated third-person games, such as Lara is real, the media make her a sensation. Real- sion in refi nement of the art. The most anticipated Croft-Tomb Raider (1996) and Grand Theft Auto world applications of digitized actors are not that of these has been Shrek , whose initial $60 million (1997). These employed user-controlled charac- far afi eld. Consider a real Brad Pitt playing a role budget produced $485 million (Shrek 1 , 2001). (32) ters within an interactive— and debatably violent — with a virtual Clark Gable. Concepts like this were All of these immensely successful digital fi lms are story. In interactive computer games, corporate hinted at long ago in fi lms such as Woody Allen ’ s totally dependent upon the kind of special effects Hollywood found a new extremely lucrative option Play It Again, Sam (1972), where a Humphrey produced in computer graphics, and have created for extending the life of their blockbusters, assur- Bogart look-alike plays against Woody. (37) a solid golden age for special effects opportuni- ing more sequels, such as The Matrix. Games However, digitally created actors can be made to ties — and challenges. were also (relatively cheaply) developed for some look and act fl awlessly real, and they make no One key groundbreaking special effects movie, box offi ce bombs in an attempt to recoup the lost demands and work (relatively) cheap. The Matrix (1999, Andy and Larry Wachowski), costs. Another movie to consider is 2001’ s Final won the Visual Effects Academy Award for the The later ’ 90s ushered in more sophisticated Fantasy . Though also badly received, the fi lm year, beating out the much-anticipated Star Wars RPGs, but more importantly, gave defi nition to the cannot be slighted for its convincing animation. 1: The Phantom Menace .(33) The Matrix was sig- “ user ” — a separate generation of audience who The viewer is hard-pressed at times to not accept nifi cant for its trademark visual effects using stop would command more action and more immersion the animated characters as real. Such real-world action photography morphed together as a clip, into the fi lm. This tactic has often sacrifi ced advances in digital animation make just about called “ bullet-time. ” With a technique borrowed the depth of plot demanded by the more tradi- everything possible. xx INTRODUCTION These developing ideals have created a whole 6. Cousins , M. ( 2007 ). The story of fi lm, a worldwide 21. Industrial Light & Magic . (n.d.) Retrieved from new kind of audience. The viewer-turned-user history . New York : Thunder ’s Mouth Press, an http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Light_ eventually may wish to change the outcome of the Avalon Publishing Group, Inc . and_Magic fi lm to their liking. This could change the tradi- 7. Nosferatu . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia 22. Apocalypse Now . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// tional defi nition of “ special effects.” Once creating .org/wiki/Nosferatu en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalypse_now 8. Murnau , F. W. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en 23. The Black Hole . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// a purely audio/visual shared experience, these .wikipedia.org/wiki/F._W._Murnau en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Hole ; Cinefantas- elements are now taken for granted. Special 9. Sh ü fftan process . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// tique Magazine, “ Black Hole Special Issue, ” Spring effects could now become much more about what en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuftan_process ; Pinteau, P., 1980 . isn ’ t readily seen, but what is truly experienced & Hirsch, L. (Translators) (2005). Special effects: 24. The Black Hole . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// through programming. The work is cut out for the an oral history — interviews with 37 masters span- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Hole special effects artists, as we are now only begin- ning 100 years. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 25. Tron . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/ ning to realize Georges Mé li è s ’ s illusion through 10. Fritz Lang . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia wiki/Tron_(fi lm) the magician that is special effects. All in all, .org/wiki/Fritz_Lang 26. Negroponte , N. ( 1996 ). Being digital , Chapter 1 . though, the progress isn ’ t bad for a century’ s 11. Cousins , M. ( 2007 ). The story of fi lm, a worldwide Alfred A. Knopf, Inc . worth of special effects. history . New York : Thunder ’ s Mouth Press, an 27. Jurassic Park . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// Avalon Publishing Group, Inc . en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(fi lm) 12. Max Fleischer . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// 28. Jurassic Park . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en REFERENCES en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Fleischer; Fleischer, R. .wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(fi lm) ; McBride, The Overall Resource for This Writing (2005). Out of the inkwell: Max Fleischer and the J. (1997). Steven Spielberg . Faber and Faber. Rickitt , R. ( 2007 ). Special effects — The history and animation revolution. University Press of Kentucky . 29. www.the-numbers.com/movies/1995/0TYST.php techniques . Billboard Books, an imprint of 13. Tod Browning . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en 30. List of Disney feature fi lms: upcoming releases. Watson-Guptill . .wikipedia.org/wiki/Tod_Browning (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 14. Borden , D. , Duijsens , F. , Gilbert , T. , & Smith , A. Disney_fi lms#Upcoming_releases Supplementary Resources ( 2008 ). Film: a world history . New York : Abrams. 31. Jeffrey Katzenberg . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// 1. Handy , E. ( 2004 ). “ Robinson, Henry Peach (1830– 15. Godzilla . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Katzenberg 1901),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , .org/wiki/Godzilla_(1954_fi lm) 32. DreamWorks Animation . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// Oxford University Press . 16. Godzilla . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DreamWorks_Animation 2. Special effect. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en .org/wiki/Godzilla 33. The Matrix (series) . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// .wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_effects 17. Ed Wood . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matrix_(fi lm_series) 3. Cousins , M. ( 2007 ). The story of fi lm, a worldwide .org/wiki/Ed_Wood 34. The Matrix . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia history . New York : Thunder ’ s Mouth Press, an 18. Medved , H. , & Medved , M. ( 1980 ). The Golden .org/wiki/The_Matrix Avalon Publishing Group, Inc . Turkey Awards . Putnam . 35. Motion capture . (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// 4. Miller , A. I. ( 2001 ). Picasso, Einstein, Picasso: 19. Westworld . (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_capture Space, time and the beauty that causes havoc. .org/wiki/Westworld_(fi lm) 36. McLuhen , M. ( 1964 ). Understanding media. Basic Books . 20. Jaws. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/ Cambridge, MA : MIT Press . 5. Cousins , M. ( 2007 ). The story of fi lm, a worldwide wiki/Jaws_(fi lm) ; Spotlight on Location: The Making 37. Play It Again, Sam (1972 fi lm). (n.d.) Retrieved history . New York : Thunder ’ s Mouth Press, an of Jaws. (2005). Jaws 30th Anniversary DVD from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_It_Again,_ Avalon Publishing Group, Inc . documentary. Sam_(1972_fi lm)

INTRODUCTION xxi FOREWORD Jakob Trollb ä ck

In the beginning, there was imagination. When we about discharge of accumulated atmospheric life, a more interesting future. If you can’ t imagine fi rst gained consciousness, there must have been electricity? where you ’ re going, why would you have an urge precious little knowledge around. We were basi- But imagined realities can sometimes help to to go there at all? However unbelievable and cally guided by instincts, but besides that, we anchor us. Like Einstein ’ s famous fudge factor, far-fetched the stories of Jules Verne were, they must have been pretty perplexed. Our brains must the stories can be what make the equation work. surely inspired us to dream of an amazingly have compensated for the lack of understandable From an existential point of view, it may be better different tomorrow. I’ m sure that after reading his facts by making up stories. Those early stories to live in a fantastic, slightly made up but some- stories, thousands of kids became explorers and attempted to explain what reason couldn ’ t readily what understandable reality than one that is totally scientists. The true genius of a visionary mind is grasp. Occurrences in the outside world as opaque. the ability to project and inspire. well as our innermost, sometimes inexplicable, Besides the ability to fi ll in the blanks when Still, our creative mind is not limited to fi nding thoughts and dreams were ascribed mystical, reason grinds to a halt, imagination is essential explanations for what we can ’ t comprehend and imaginative meanings. The arch of those stories when we try to fi gure out how things work. It inspiring us to move on. Imagination— and its became part of our reality. Archetypes made our allows us to experiment with different ideas and physical manifestation which we call magic— is lives a little more understandable, and through get a better perspective on life. In the game of essential for our well-being. To have the ability to mythology, we attempted to fi nd a larger purpose imagination, it is much, much better to be original, stretch our thoughts and imagine a different life is for our lives. weird, and passionate than to be right and true. a powerful antidote to hardship and suffering. We As a kid in Sweden, I learned everything about The ability to inspire and project a different reality see it clearly in hard times, when we fl ock to the the old Norse Gods. I was taught that in the past, is essential for human progress. Imagination, and theatre and to the movies. There, we have a people believed that whenever they heard the nothing else, makes us ask “ what if? ” and “ why chance to take fl ight and trade our worries for a loud cracks of thunder, it was the mighty Thor not? ” journey to magical places. Stories take us to other riding the sky with his power girdle and iron gloves, People with open minds full of creativity are places where we can feel strong, righteous, and throwing his mighty hammer to create striking vital if you want to initiate change. But before we happy. bolts of lightning. I thought it was cool. Man, those go ahead and change things at random, it’ s impor- It is no wonder that magic, in whatever form, Vikings were really loopy. Hadn ’ t they ever heard tant to fi rst be able to conjure images of a better has fascinated people for thousands of years. In xxii FOREWORD the past, magic was conjured through primitive, hard to fi nd new ways to amaze us with their increased about 30 thousand times and we have but cleverly hidden, effects that depended on dis- visions. The fi rst goal has always been to make seen a hundred other futuristic visions, but the fi lm tractions to mask the fi b that made the wonderful the effect look more real. Robotic monsters and still stands out as one of the most amazing trips deception possible. Magicians were behind the matte paintings were largely retired when rapid into the future. The seamless integration of effects fi rst rudimentary special effects in the movies. developments in computer graphics made it and reality is incredibly powerful. Looking at them today, they seem pretty transpar- possible to enhance and manipulate the visual But what makes the visual effects fi eld so end- ent and it ’ s hard to believe that anyone actually experience in new ways. Though those early com- lessly fascinating is that you can never stay still. bought the deceit. But back then, we were still puter-generated visual effects may have my Renewal is a must because the ultimate achieve- very much in awe of the large screen, and not 10-year-old son in stitches, back then it worked ment lies in making us believe in imagination, much was needed to make us believe. If the wonders. something that can only happen if we see some- monster was scary enough — and the musical All too soon, all that over-the-top CGI started thing that our minds haven ’ t already processed score made that abundantly clear— few people to wear off. Here lies the true challenge in visual- and fi led under Effects, comma, Visuals. Great noticed, or cared, that it was clearly made out of izing fantastic images: as soon as you have seen storytellers and ingenious image-makers are well papier-m â ch é and that a 2 × 4 was sticking out the effect on a screen, you know that it was all aware of this as they try to fi nd new ways take us the bottom. To eyes not yet used to visual tricks, made-up. It can still inspire our imagination the on fantastic expeditions. In the end, though, it’ s and minds that wanted to believe, that imaginary way a book does, but when the fantastic gets not about showing us things that we haven ’ t beast was real. The wish to believe in wonder is juxtaposed with the known world, it tends to lose seen before. We are only truly moved when the the best friend of all visual effects. Only cynics some of its imaginative power. Could it be that the images tell a story that we haven ’ t heard before. deny themselves the joy of being carried away. more you try to visualize the fantastic, the more In the end, the most important thing is to never Even the simplest of setups had the power to common it becomes? lose the ability to believe. If we do, we ’ ll quickly capture our imagination. Remember the infamous To counter this dulling effect, today ’ s visual turn old and gray. Whenever you hear a child tell fi rst screening of the Lumiere brothers’ train fi lm effects are carefully incorporating the physics of a story and sense the fantastic power of imagina- where the audience stampeded out of the theatre real life, and the best effects are carefully inserted tion, pray that she will always keep that spark. If in panic as the train seemed to overtake them? into the world we live in. An enhanced reality is she can hold onto that gift and stay afl oat above Amusingly, in that case the only effect was a clev- much more believable than one that is totally over the gravitational pull of life, her stories will be erly positioned camera. But to the virgin eye still the top. The movie Blade Runner set the stage by beautiful and true, and thus in the end, we will all not familiar to movement on a two-dimensional showing a future where levitating ships and video be well. plane, it was all too real. As our eyes have become pay-phones were worn and riddled with graffi ti. more used to fi lmic tricks, visual artists are working Twenty-fi ve years later, computing power has

FOREWORD xxiii DIGITALKITCHEN ARTIST INSIGHT: JUST BECAUSE YOU CAN DOESN ’T MEAN YOU SHOULD: CAMPING IN THE UNCANNY VALLEY WITH JAR JAR BINKS

Visual effects, circa 2008. Take a quick moment tally – intentionally discovered this subtle, powerful capture sets and actors crying to tennis ball track- to stand up, stretch, and ask yourself, is it every- difference with Jaws . A mechanical shark was not ing markers leave little room for the serendipity, thing it promised you it would be? fully functional when shooting began. Most of the failure, and fl aw that fi lmmakers often cite as the Like a shimmering black Hummer with mud fi lm shoot transpired shark-free, but audience fear saving grace of the fi nished work. fl aps reading “ Back Off, ” the greater VFX industry is only magnifi ed thanks to the glitch. Spielberg The idea that VFX as a craft can execute in a still maneuvers astonishingly well, chasing down instead shot from the point of view of the shark. style that moves with and toward audiences with and often catching (in fl eeting two-hour spells) an This serendipitous diffi culty created a fi lm that accessible fl aws is more the exception than the insatiable audience appetite for a faster, louder, played not on our fear of sharks, but on our fear rule. As fi lmmakers, we would do well to let our deeper, more visceral experience. But as the chal- of being helpless in the water. We as an audience audiences in on our joke occasionally. The do-it- lenge of fooling the eye becomes ubiquitous and brought the most immensely powerful visual effect yourself VFX work of Michel Gondry connects to expected, the overdue discourse between the with us: our own psyche. its audience by exposing and celebrating the hand science of what can be done and the art of what It seems that some work, several decades old, of the fi lmmaker. Older, analog techniques, includ- should be done will be forced to take place within holds such strong relevance, while other pieces, ing stop motion animation, continue their resur- the industry. shortly after their completion, are relegated to an gence. Nonetheless, much of the contemporary We only ask one thing of the realm of VFX: to uncanny valley fl oor of unwatchable, toy-like trivia. VFX industry seems content to expand the dis- transport us. Truly moving visual effects fi nd their This valley is littered with artwork that banked on tance between maker and viewer, establishing power by honoring the existing, diverse psycholo- the effect as the story. VFX work that remains bragging rights via a “ you could never do this ” gies of the viewer. Effects work that opts for emo- loyal, obedient, and conforming to the story main- philosophy. tional connection and service to story retains tains a remarkable level of transportive power, Take, for instance, the notion of the “ uncanny signifi cance well after the technique, science, and even if the execution itself runs past its expiration valley, ” the idea that human characteristics are execution grow repeated, dated, or even obso- date. perceived in forms that are very non-human, lete. The distinction is as important as the differ- Today ’ s logistical, high-render workfl ows generating great empathy. Meanwhile, “ almost ence between a homemade dinner and a plastic make it all but impossible for fi lmmakers to create, human ” forms stand out. Viewers’ negative reac- facsimile in the microwave. Spielberg acciden- re-assess, and create again. Green motion- tions range from distanced to repulsed. Belea- xxiv DIGITALKITCHEN guered audience reactions to the Beowulf and participation. No longer could we absorb Jar Jar delude our emphasis on storytelling? The craft of The Polar Express characters are cited as being with our own informed history, for he is so over- VFX has its best days ahead. There is a wealth caused by the uncanny valley. Surely there are characterized that there is no room for interpreta- of untapped power waiting in the form of personal countless other as-yet-undiscovered valleys in the tion. We were gifted with a coloring book that had memory, psychology, and tangible connection to vast VFX mountain range. already been fi lled in. Take Chewbacca, on the the image on the screen, and the real magic lies It sounds like Jungian gibberish, but consider other hand. Now there was a character. He was in our ability as viewers to bring our own experi- audience psyche as part of the equation for suc- not only wildly accessible from a fi lmmaking per- ences into the story. Here’ s to the expectation that cess — or even most of the equation for success. spective (put an actor in a fur suit), but he set off we as audiences will begin to scrutinize and ques- A truly “ affective effect” does not assume that all tiny sparks of emotional access, like our fi rst tion visual works that play stand-in for story and viewers are transported to the same place in the family dog, our childhood teddy bear, and our experience. Our imaginations are not seeking a same way. Working away from spoon-feeding FX instinctive desire to connect with something that surrogate. We ’ re still hungry, but not for more imagery to audiences goes a long way in allowing cannot speak to us in words. That puppy-like rations of empty-calorie, over-rendered fare. We’ ll audience participation in the story (Alien, Clover- throttle-mourn that emanates when Chewy learns settle most days for the beautiful fl aw of a Wookie fi eld, Jaws ). The heart of the viewer, the history of his best friend’ s demise? Wait, stop … apple in suit and a chipped platter of mom’ s macaroni and that viewers bring to the table, should take a the throat just thinking about it. cheese. It just tastes better. higher priority in the art of visual storytelling. So, will audiences continue to regard execu- The moment Jar Jar uttered his fi rst line, so tion as the pre-eminent aspect of visual effects began the desecration of audience psychological work? Does reliance on the power of VFX dull or

DIGITALKITCHEN xxv THORNBERG & FORESTER ARTIST INSIGHT: VISUAL EFFECTS 2.0: MASTERING THE IMPOSSIBLE

Artists have been manipulating images since the four hooves of a galloping horse ever left the This concept of entertainment being a driving birth of photography in the 1820s. From the begin- ground at the same time. Muybridge successfully force in the development of new technologies is ning, mattes, superimposition, and dodging and photographed a horse in fast motion using a common. The need for better visual effects to burning techniques were used to alter images with series of 12 cameras controlled by trip wires. Muy- entice audiences combined with the wish for stunningly convincing results. Visual effects have bridge ’ s photos showed the horse with all four feet cheaper production costs (on both the studio and continued to evolve over time and now utilize off the ground. This series, “ The Horse in Motion ” personal level) led to the move toward digital fi lm miniature sets, models, animatronics, CGI, motion (1878), helped push the boundaries of the processes. The digital production of fi lms eventu- matte paintings, global illumination, and ray tracing photographic process as well as break down the ally led to the digital projection of fi lms. Digital among other newer practices, in addition to the physiology of movement to smaller units than projection, in turn, led to the resurrection of the original techniques that began these visual illu- were previously possible. We can see a similar, 3D movie and an overhaul of the 3D process, sions so long ago. Those who produce this magic albeit more high tech, version of this process another evolutionary step in visual effects. On with an ever-growing arsenal of smoke and mirrors being used today, 130 years later, in the special January 16, 2009, Lionsgate released My Bloody strive to create the new illusion, one that has effects of The Curious Case of Benjamin Button Valentine 3D, the fi rst horror fi lm and the fi rst never been seen or achieved before. In a world (2008). The head of “ old Benjamin” is entirely R-rated fi lm to be projected in RealD 3D. The where there is so much beyond our scope of view computer generated. It was created using a new RealD 3D system is based on the push-pull and understanding, it is no surprise that we are camera system, Contour, which was developed electro-optical modulator called the ZScreen, con- smitten with the magic of visual effects. This realm by former Apple Computer engineer Steve ceived by Lenny Lipton, an American inventor and allows the human race to master forces that Perlman to capture facial deformation data. The fi lm innovator. As an interesting side note, Lipton otherwise remain beyond our comprehension use of this new camera system combined with the also wrote the lyrics to the song Puff the Magic and control. skills of talented artists and engineers allowed Dragon as a 19-year-old at Cornell University and Eadweard Muybridge is considered by many director David Fincher and the artists at Digital has been granted 25 patents in the area of ste- to be the father of visual effects. This happened Domain to achieve, over the course of two reoscopic displays. purely by chance. He was hired by railroad tycoon years, something that was previously deemed Unlike the 3D technology from the 1950s, Leland Stanford to settle a bet over whether all impossible. RealD cinema does not require two projectors. xxvi THORNBERG & FORESTER Instead, a high-resolution digital projector using visual effects in almost every fi lm produced today. shoot to the creation of extremely complicated Texas Instruments ’ DLP Cinema technology is This saturation of effects combined with the speed algorithms, all of which serve to create scenes used. A RealD 3D movie can be projected with a at which they are improving have led many a that surprise and delight viewers. These pro- single Christie, Barco, or NEC DLP cinema pro- production down the path of “ more effects, less cesses, while new and highly technical, evoke jector at 144 frames per second, six times as fast story. ” It is tempting to use the shock and awe of the same reactions as Georges M é li ès did with as a normal movie. This single projector alter- visual effects to stand in for a good plot. Unfortu- his groundbreaking effects fi lm Voyage to the nately projects the right-eye frame and left-eye nately for those who succumb to this strategy, Moon in 1902. The rate of advancement in both frame and circularly polarizes these frames, clock- these fi lms usually underperform at the box offi ce visual effects and other technologies over the wise for the right eye and counterclockwise for the and are quickly forgotten. past century has been exponential. It is inspiring left eye, using a liquid crystal screen placed in In some instances the visual effects are so to think about how the media landscape will look front of the projector lens. The very high frame spectacular that they trump the story. This can be in another 100 years. rate, 72 frames per second per eye, guarantees seen in Michael Bay ’ s Transformers (2007), Our imaginations are infi nite. Humans love to that the image looks continuous, and each frame based on Hasbro ’ s Transformers franchise. Bay’ s fantasize, and visual effects provides a vehicle is projected three times to reduce fl icker. The dedication to a realistic portrayal of the robots with which to transcend time and space. The use source video is typically only 24 frames per transforming into and out of vehicle form resulted of visual effects in fi lm, commercials, and televi- second. The result of this technology is a 3D in the creation of extremely intricate digital sion makes the ordinary extraordinary and picture that seems to extend behind and in front models of each Autobot and Decepticon. Even enables society to connect on levels that are of the screen itself without the imbalance of colors the simplest notion of turning a wrist needed 17 both primitive and futuristic. We share knowledge that occurs with the old form of 3D, a new and visible parts. Each of the guns of the character and wisdom through storytelling. Our mechanisms improved visual effect that has the potential to Ironhide is composed of 10,000 parts. The photo- of control and simulation within this tract of revolutionize fi lm viewing. realistic look of the Transformers was achieved shared stories is what sets the human experience Much of the current innovation in the visual by utilizing the ray tracing technique, wherein an apart. Visual effects heighten the drama and effects fi eld is possible though proprietary meth- image is generated by tracing the path of light intrigue of such narratives by employing tech- odologies, dynamic algorithms, and faster hard- through the pixels in an image plane. The audi- niques to make an otherwise simple narrative ware. The effects in the later fi lms of the Harry ence became enamored with the immensely more engaging on screen. Effects are much Potter franchise look much more sophisticated complex, realistic-looking robots and as a result, more than entertainment; we stand at the edge of and natural than those in the fi rst fi lm, Harry Potter that is what was remembered when they left the human potential at an intersection where art, and the Sorcerer’ s Stone (2001); this is mostly theater. The story of Transformers may not be science, and technology all converge and due to the speed increase in computer proces- that memorable, but this fi lm reminds us how continue to drive us toward radically new sors. Visual effects in fi lms have become so pro- visual effects have evolved to encompass a dra- innovations that never fail to surprise and delight lifi c that we take for granted the fact that there are matic range of techniques, from a green screen viewers.

THORNBERG & FORESTER xxvii