Joumal of Califomia and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 93-120(1995).

Faunal Exploitation During the Middle to Late Period Transition on Santa Cruz Island, Cali­ fornia

ROGER H. COLTEN, Dept. of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20560.

This paper presents the analysis of faunal remains from four sites on the west end of Santa Cruz Island, California; a discussion of other Channel Island subsistence data; and a comparison across the three broad ecological zones of the Santa Barbara Channel area: the islands, the mainland coast, and the interior regions. The faunal analysis indicates that the inhabitants of Santa Cruz Island relied almost exclusively on marine resources, with terrestrial mammals and birds contributing relatively little to the animal portion of the diet. These data also demonstrate the increasing importance offish through time, with marine fish being the most important animal resource in all three ecological zones during the Late Period. New information on ancient sea temperature for the period from approximately A.D. 1150 to 1300 indicates environmental change during that time period. Some of this information was derived from analysis offish otoliths, a new method that may have broader application in coastal areas. These data support models that invoke environmental change as a factor in prehistoric cultural evolution in the Santa Barbara area, but do not indicate a major decline in marine productivity during the Middle to Late Period transition.

L HE Chumash Indians of the Santa Barbara evaluate the subsistence strategies of Native Channel region of southern California and their American people living in that zone. prehistoric predecessors practiced a hunting and The broad patterns of prehistoric subsistence gathering subsistence pattern that varied across in the Santa Barbara region have been known for three broad ecological zones: the northern many years. Early researchers, such as Rogers Channel Islands, the mainland coast, and the in­ (1929) and Olson (1930), noted the terrestrial terior regions (Landberg 1965). During later orientation of early sites and the greater prehistoric and ethnohistoric times, the Chumash visibility of fish remains and fishing technology practiced a distinctly marine-oriented subsistence in later prehistoric sites. In recent years, economy on the northern Channel Islands and systematic screening of archaeological deposits along the mainland coast, while the economies and more sophisticated dietary reconstmctions of the interior regions were focused more on ter­ have led to a more refined understanding of restrial resources. Most of the archaeological changes through time in subsistence. During the research conducted in the region has been con­ early Holocene, Native Californians of the Santa centrated in the mainland coastal zone due to the Barbara area relied on a diet of plant foods, high visibility of large middens, the focus of shellfish, and a few vertebrates (Erlandson et al. cultural resource management archaeology in 1988; Erlandson and Colten 1991; Erlandson this more developed zone, and the relative 1994). Towards the end of the Early Period, inaccessibility of the offshore islands. Until acorns were added to the diet, and the Middle recently, little quantified faunal information from through Late periods were characterized by the northern Channel Islands was available to increasing reliance on marine animal resources, 94 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY particularly fish. A frequently cited explanation faunal data from all three zones. Until the for the increasing reliance on fish is Glassow's completion of the current analysis, few quanti­ (1975) model in which rising population density fied faunal studies incorporating all major led to expanded exploitation of marine habitats. classes of fauna were available from the islands, The transition from the Middle to Late limiting regional scale analysis. periods has been the focus of much archaeo­ This paper presents the recendy completed logical research because many scholars believe analysis of faunal remains from four sites on the this is when complex social organization de­ west end of Santa Cmz Island, a discussion of veloped in the Santa Barbara Channel region. other Channel Island subsistence data, and a Additionally, there is clear evidence for comparison across the three broad ecological economic changes, including the development of zones of the islands, the mainland coast, and the craft specialization, during this period (Arnold interior regions. Additionally, new information 1987, 1991, 1992; Arnold and Munns 1994). is presented on ancient sea temperature for the Arnold (1992) argued that under conditions of period from approximately A.D. 1150 to 1300, high population density, people on Santa Cmz a period of cultural and environmental change in Island were confronted with severe fluctuations the Santa Barbara area. This new information is in environmental conditions that reduced the derived from analysis of fish otoliths, a new reliabdity of food resources. In response to method that may have broader application in these conditions, the islanders increased control coastal areas. The information on paleoenviron­ over microdrill and shell bead production on the ment is particularly relevant for evaluating island and intensified exchange for food with the models of culture change that invoke climatic adjacent mainland. Control over resources and stimuli. labor, perhaps by polidcally opportunistic THE STUDY AREA individuals, led to significant differences in status (Arnold 1992, 1993). The new organiza­ The archaeological material discussed here tional relationships remained in place after the was recovered from several sites on Santa Cmz return to relatively normal environmental Island, the largest and most ecologically diverse conditions. Studies of mortuary variability of the four northern Charmel Islands (Fig. 1). (King 1969, 1982; Martz 1984, 1992) and phys­ Santa Cmz Island is approximately 249 km.^ (96 ical anthropology (Walker 1986, 1989; Walker mi.-) of rugged, mountainous terrain, receiving and Lambert 1989; Lambert and Walker 1991) an average of 500 mm. of rain per year (Min- also indicate a late emergence of complexity. In nich 1980:123). The vegetation and native contrast. King (1990) believed that social animal population on the island are similar to the complexity developed near the end of the Early adjacent mainland, although there are fewer Period without an environmental stimulus. plant and animal species on the islands (Minnich Despite broad trends in subsistence for the 1980). Plant foods that were economically coastal and island regions, there is considerable useful to the native inhabitants of the island intersite variability related to local environmental include acorns (primarily from the coast live oak conditions (e.g., Glassow and Wilcoxon 1988), [Quercus agrifolia]), brodaeia bulbs {Dichelo- and the people of the interior regions apparently stemmapulchellum), seeds, and numerous others were never as reliant on marine resources as (Timbrook 1984, 1993). people from the islands and mainland coast. In The terrestrial fauna of the island is very order to understand the broad patterns of sub­ limited. The largest native mammal is the Santa sistence, it is important to examine quantified Cmz Island fox {Urocyon littoralis), which is FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 95

O San Luis Obispo

OLompoc

_Q£aviota vSanta Barbara

I Northem Channel Islands Malibu San Miguel I. ^^ Anacapal. •30 miles Santa Cruz I. •40 km Santa Rosa I. PACIFIC OCEAN Fig. 1. Location of the study area. about the size of a small house cat. Other fauna coast from San Luis Obisbo to Malibu, including include the spotted skunk, nine species of bats, the northern Channel Islands and the interior re­ and a few reptiles (Collins MS). Birds are quite gions. The Chumash are known for their com­ abundant, particularly seabirds, and about 60 plex material culUire, including beautiful bird species nest on the island (Collins MS). basketry and elaborate rock art, as well as so­ Several taxa of marine mammals inhabit the cial, economic, and political organization that surrounding waters, and the marine fishery is was highly complex for a hunter-gatherer group particularly productive. The mgged coastline (Landberg 1965; Blackburn 1976; Johnson includes both rocky and sandy habitats, sup­ 1988). Some of the characteristics that identify porting a diverse array of shellfish and fish. the Chumash as a simple chiefdom include her­ The ethnohistoric inhabitants of Santa Cruz editary leadership, a two-tier settlement hier­ Island were the Chumash (Johnson 1982), one of archy, economic and religious integration of a the most complex hunter-gatherer societies in broad region, craft and occupational specializa­ California. Current data indicate that the island tion, and high population size and density. was occupied since about 8,000 B.P. (Glassow THE SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 1980), and the contact era population exceeded ARCHAEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS 1,500 individuals (Johnson 1982:110-114). The name Chumash refers to a series of related The faunal collections discussed in this paper polities located along the southern California were recovered from four sites as part of Jeanne 96 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Arnold's Santa Cruz Island Archaeological Pro­ exceeds 10 kg. m.' in Late Period levels, and ject (Arnold 1991. 1992); CA-SCRI-330, near the density increases significantly between the Forney's Cove; CA-SCRl-191 near Christy Transitional and Late periods (Table 1). Beach; CA-SCRl-474 at Posa Creek; and CA- The density of mammal and bird bones ex­ SCRl-192 at Morse Point (Fig. 2). Several ceeds 5,600 bones per cubic meter during the contiguous 1 X 1-m. units were excavated at Historic Period (Table 1). When considered each site. All excavated material was passed either by count or weight, the density of bird through 1/8-in. mesh metal screens and the resi­ and mammal bone is lowest in the Transitional due was retained and later sorted into midden Period levels while the density of shell and fish constituents. Sites on Santa Cruz Island exhibit bone increases during this time period. Although excellent stratification due to the absence of many factors affect the composition of middens, burrowing animals on the island and rare dis­ the relatively low density of mammal and bird turbance by modern development or nonscien- bone during this time period may reflect less tific collecting. Faunal materials were analyzed intensive use of these resources, or a shift to fish from four time periods: Middle, Transitional, and shellfish. This issue is discussed at greater Late, and Historic (Fig. 3). This chronology is length in the final section of this paper. The based on King's (1990) widely cited chrono­ very high density of bones per cubic meter in logical scheme for the Santa Barbara Channel the Historic Period levels is probably due to the region and refinements to that scheme proposed high degree of fragmentation of bones near the by Arnold (1992), based on her stratigraphic surface of sites; these levels also have the lowest excavations and numerous radiocarbon dates. average bone weight of all the time periods The faunal data presented here are derived (Table 1). This is probably due to greater from 75 levels from six excavation units at the impacts from domesticated animals cmshing four sites listed above. All four of these sites bones near the surface. This proposition is are very dense coastal shell middens that were supported by data on the average bone weight locations of intense shell bead manufacturing per time period, which tends to decrease through during later prehistory (Arnold and Munns time. Other than the greater fragmentation near 1994). General characteristics of the deposits the surface, bone is consistendy well preserved are summarized by time period in Table 1. throughout the deposits at these four sites. The assemblage shows that, through time, a Characteristics of the Faimal Assemblage steadily declining percentage is burned (Table The density of shellfish remains is very 1). This may indicate changes in processing, high, averaging over 300 kg. per cubic meter in such as new cooking techniques, or perhaps the Late and Historic periods (Table 1) and ex­ changing site functions in which less emphasis is ceeding 650 kg. per cubic meter in some levels placed on consuming animals and more on pro­ (Colten 1991). These densities of shellfish curement for trade. Brenda Bowser (personal remains are consistent with those reported by communication 1994) argued that one should Glassow (1980:82-83) for other sites on Santa expect to see more evidence of roasting Cruz Island. The present analysis reveals a (burning) at temporary camps and less evidence significant increase in shellfish density between of roasting at more permanent base camps, the Transitional and Late periods. where larger family units gather and are more Fish bone density, whether calculated as likely to be consuming soups. If her argument weight or count per cubic meter, is extremely is correct, these data would indicate increasing high in these deposits. By weight, the density permanence of occupation through time. FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 97

SANTA BARBARA CHANNEL

PACIFIC OCEAN iSkm

Fig. 2. Location of the four studied archaeological sites on Santa Cruz Island.

Chronological Period Date Historic A.D. 1782-Present Late Period A.D. 1300-1782 Transitional Period A.D. 1150-1300 Middle Period 1400B.C.-A.D. 1150 Early Period 6000-1400 B.C. Early Holocene 8000 - 6000 B.C.

Fig. 3. A prehistoric chronology for the Santa Barbara Channel (after Amold 1992:66).

Alternatively, bone may have been used as son of the percentage of burned bone to the fuel in fires when wood was scarce. A compari- amount of charcoal in these levels indicates an 98 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES FROM CA-SCRI-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI-330, AND CA-SCRI-474

Time Period Volume of Density of Density of Density of Density of Average Percent Excavated SbeU' Fish Bird and Bird and Bone Burned* Soil (m.-') Bones' Mammal Mammal Weighr' Bones' Bone"

Historic 0.25 313,783.7 9,000.4 5,612.0 2,767.68 0.49 6.98

Late 2.12 310,034.2 10,006.95 3,275.47 2,851.23 0.87 8.64

Transitional 0.38 217,733.2 4,943.95 1,963.16 1,365.84 0.69 17.83

Middle 1.15 203,869.2 3,451.96 2,951.3 2,525.44 0.85 23.77

• g/m'. ' count/m^. ' g/m'. ' for bird and mammal be)ne . ' for bird and mammal bem e (by weight). inverse relationship between the weight of char­ used (Colten 1993:103-111). For the purpose of coal and the percentage of bone that is burned analyzing the dietary contribufions of the various (Fig. 4). faunal classes, the bone weight method (Ziegler 1973) was used for estimating meat weight. This DIETARY RECONSTRUCTION method relies on multiplying the raw weight of The development of the maritime focus of bone or shell by an empirically derived con­ Chumash subsistence has fascinated scholars for version factor that represents the bone (or shell) decades, and the study of faunal remains from to flesh ratio for living animals of appropriate sites with deposits spaiuiing several time periods taxa. Although it has problems and some de­ can shed considerable light on this process. tractors (e.g., Grayson 1984), this method seems California archaeologists have been estimafing most appropriate for the purpose of estimating the relative contributions to the diet of various relative contribution to the diet of the broad classes of fauna for many years, using a variety faunal categories listed above. WhUe it would of techniques. Dietary reconstruction from be dangerous to assume that these estimates are faunal remains may be derived from several rigorous calculations of the diet of prehistoric sources, including meat weight estimates, bone people, they are useful for comparing data from weight, minimum number of individuals (MNI), different places and different time periods, when or the number of identified specimens (NISP) applied consistendy and explicidy. for each taxon. While each of these methods is Applying meat weight conversion factors useful in different situations, the reconstruction commonly used by archaeologists in southem of prehistoric diet from faunal remains from California (Table 2), the overall dietary coastal sites is particularly challenging due to the composition for each of the four sites and for presence of a wide array of taxa with signifi­ each time period was estimated. More detailed, candy different skeletal structures, including level-by-level analyses for each site were shellfish, fish, birds, terrestrial and marine presented elsewhere (Colten 1993). Not sur­ mammals, and reptiles. prisingly, the dietary composition for the entire A variety of methods of faunal analysis assemblage is dominated by marine resources suited to the data and the research questions was (Fig. 5).' Fish and shellfish are by far the most FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 99

80

^^ (D C 60 CQ w +-» ^ Ct3 A (D C A o 40 A QQ O A A 0) A D) A A A "c A A 4^ A CU 20 A O A A A (D A Q- A A A AA A A A. A A A A •^A^^A^ ^ ^ A A^ A A AA /^A^ ^ ^^ _L A 100 200 300 400 500 600 Weight of Charcoal (g)

Fig. 4. Relationship between burned bone and charcoal at CA-SCRl-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI-330, and CA-SCRI-474 (data combined, each triangle represents one excavation level). important categories of animals exploited, and If changing patterns of animal resources marine mammals make up most of the rest of through time are examined, it can be seen that the estimated meat weight. Meat from terrestrial the importance of marine mammals decreased, mammals and birds are minor contributors to the the importance offish increased, and the relative diet. A significant portion of the assemblage contribution of shellfish decreased (Fig. 6). was so fragmented that it could only be classi­ This pattern is consistent with Glassow's (1993) fied as mammal. Given the prevalence of mar­ dietary reconstructions based on estimated ine mammal over terrestrial mammal, the marine protein yields from faunal remains from Santa mammal conversion factor (see Glassow and Cruz Island sites (see discussion below). Wilcoxon 1988) was used for estimating the There is some intersite variability in this meat weight of the undifferentiated mammal pattern. SCRI-191, located at Christy Beach, bone. Reptile bones were so rare in the assem­ was occupied during the Middle through Late blage that the meat weight for reptiles was not periods. When estimated meat weight is calcu­ estimated. lated for each excavation level from one of the 100 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 2 which might have led to less travel time for MEAT WEIGHT CONVERSION FACTORS animal procurement and greater reliance on less mobile animals such as shellfish. Alternatively, TaxoD Meat Yield Reference Multiplier environmental changes could have influenced the availabUity of marine resources. shellfish X 0.332 Glassow and Wilcoxon (1988) TAXONOMIC COMPOSITION OF THE fish X27.7 Tartaglia (1976:170) FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE marine mammal x24.2 Glassow and Wilcoxon The composition of the shellfish assemblage (1988) varies little through the Middle, Transitional, terr. mammal X 10.0 Tartaglia (1976:170) and Late periods at SCRI-191 (Stevenson 1989), undiff. mammaP x24.2 Glassow and Wilcoxon being dominated by rocky intertidal species such (1988) as California mussel {Mytilus californianus) and bird X 15.0 Ziegler (1975) black abalone (Haliotis cracherodii). These two species constitute approximately 90% of the * Most undifferentiated mammal in these assemblages is probably marine mammal. shellfish in the assemblage. Although detailed analyses of shellfish are not available for the units, a more complex pattern emerges (Fig. 7). other three sites, the composition of the shellfish In the deepest (Middle Period) levels of this assemblage is similar to that reported by Walker unit, shellfish were the most important resource, and Snethkamp (1984) for Middle and Late per­ followed by fish and marine mammals. The im­ iod sites on San Miguel Island, California. portance of shellfish decreases steadUy through The taxonomic composition of the bird and Lens D, while fish increases in importance. In mammal assemblage from these four sites is the lower portion of Lens C, however, this very rich, with 38 independent taxa represented. pattern reverses, with shellfish increasing in In addition to these taxa, many bones were importance and fish declining in importance identified to higher taxonomic levels. The throughout the remainder of the deposit. marine mammal assemblage is dominated by The steady decline in importance of shell­ seals, particularly Guadalupe fur seal {Arcto- fish, followed by a sharp reversal in the relative cephalus townsendi) (Fig. 8, Table 3). Sea importance of fish and shellfish, may be due to otters {Enhydra lutris) and several types of overexploitation of shellfish or temporary site cetaceans are also present. The cetaceans are abandonment, followed by later reoccupation of primarily dolphins, including common dolphin the site. A pattern of decreasing shell and {Delphinus delphis). Pacific white-sided dolphin increasing fish is consistent with the traditional {Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), bottlenose view of changing prehistoric subsistence in the dolphin {Turslops truncata), and short-finned region, but patterns in the upper levels of this pilot whale {Globicephala macrorhynchus). site, above Lens D, do not fit the traditional Cetaceans decrease in importance after the scenario. Overexploitation does not explain the Middle Period. steadily increasing importance of shellfish after The terrestrial mammal assemblage is dom­ this time. The later pattern may be due to a inated by deer and dog bones, although island change in site function; these later levels are fox, skunk, domestic cat, and mouse bones are subsequent to the emergence of the shell bead also present (Table 3). The many mouse bones manufacturing specialization at this site, and of the genus Peromyscus in the assemblage are may reflect growing emphasis on craft activities. probably from naturally occurring island mice FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 101

Fish

Mannnnal

Terrestrial Mannmal Bird

Marine Mammal Shell

Fig. 5. Estimated meat weight for the combined archaeological assemblages from CA-SCRI-191, CA-SCRI- 192, CA-SCRI-330, and CA-SCRI-474. that died in the ancient houses and are not out the time periods considered in this analysis, considered in the dietary analysis. The dog and more detailed discussion of fish remains is bones are all of domesticated, coyote-sized dogs. warranted. The otoliths (ear bones) of over 80 The two domestic cat bones are from a Historic species of Teleosts (bony fish) were identified in Period level. All of the deer remains are limb these assemblages (Table 4). An additional 31 bones, primarily from lower limbs. It is likely fish taxa, some only identified to the family that these bones were used in the manufacture of level, were identified from column samples and bone tools and do not represent food debris. bulk fish remains from excavation levels (Table Interestingly, the two most common terrestrial 5) (Johnson MS). These samples include 11 mammals, deer and dog, are not native to the species of Elasmobranchi (cartilaginous fish), island, but must have been imported from the which do not have otoliths. mainland. Otoliths may be identified to the species level The bird assemblage is dominated by marine in most cases. A total of 1,754 otoliths repre­ species, with cormorants being more common senting 82 distinct species was identified from than all other identified birds combined (Fig. 9, 53 of the 75 excavation levels considered here. Table 3). Ducks of many varieties, gulls, As the otoliths were not classified to side, it was grebes, pelicans, raptors, and a few songbirds not possible to consider MNI for this analysis; are present as well. Most of the bird bones therefore, NISP was used instead. The fish were too fragmented to identify to species, assemblage from all four sites is dominated by however, and are classified simply as bird. various species of rockfish (Sebastes sp.) and According to the meat weight estimates, fish several species of surfperch (Embiotocidae) were the most important source of food through­ (Table 6). The rockfish are the most numerous 102 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

70

60

50

c 40 CD o (^30

20

10 TX 0 J czJ HISTORIC LATE TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE Time Periods Marine Terrestrial Fish % Mammal % Mammal % D Mammal % D-Bird % Shell %

Fig. 6. Changing diet through time at CA-SCRl-191, CA-SCRl-192, CA-SCRI-330, and CA-SCRI-474 (data combined). genus, constituting between 50% and 94% of the context, it is instructive to review other sources identified otoliths. Surfperch range between 5% of information on sea temperature. In recent and 44% of the identified otoliths in the various years, anthropologists working in the Santa analytical units. At three of the sites (excluding Barbara Charmel area have noted the correlation SCRI-192), rockfish become more important and between changes in sea temperature and cultural surfperch less important through time. Rockfish changes in subsistence, technology, overall are primarily rocky substrate species, whereas economic organization, and evidence of health surfperch are primarily sandy substrate species, from human skeletal remains. Identification of although the distribution of rockfish species changing environmental conditions and correla­ varies by water temperature and depth. tions with cultural change is therefore quite important. There is a growing body of evidence PALEOENVIRONMENTAL DATA FROM that allows us to reconstruct patterns of environ­ THE FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE mental change in this region. The first category The fish assemblage provides some evidence of paleoenvironmental data is Pisias's (1978, for sea temperature change. To put these data in 1979) sea temperature reconstruction based on FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 103

lens a upper lens b lens c lower lens e upper lens f lens g lower lens a lower lens c upper lens d lens e lower lens g upper Excavation Levels/Strata Marine Terrestrial Fish % Mammal % Mammal % D Mammal % Bird % Shell % (Lenses a through d are Late; Lenses e upper and e lower are Transitional; Lenses f through g are Middle Period)

Fig. 7. Changing diet at CA-SCRI-191. the analysis of temperature sensitive radiolaria faunal data presented in this analysis. The third from deep sea cores recovered from the Santa category of sea temperature data is Stevenson's Barbara Channel. Pisias's analysis demonstrates (1989) analysis of shellfish from SCRI-191, one changing sea surface temperature over an 8,000- of the sites on the west end of Santa Cruz Island year period, including unusually warm tempera­ considered in this analysis. Stevenson's analysis tures between approximately A.D. 1100 and suggests an increase in warm water shellfish 1300. species during the Transitional Period. For The second source of ancient sea temper­ example, Astrea undosa and Norrisia norrisi, ature data is from Arnold and Tissot's (1993) two gastropods, occur only rarely in these analysis of black abalone shells recovered from deposits but are most abundant in the Transi­ middens on Santa Cruz Island. This analysis tional Period levels. Santa Cruz Island is near indicates that warm water conditions similar to the northern limit of these animals (Rehder those currently present near Baja California 1981) and their increased abundance suggests occurred during the Transitional Period, approx­ warmer water during the Transitional Period. imately A.D. 1150 to 1300. These shells are The fish data from this analysis provide from the same excavations that produced the additional information on sea temperature. 104 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Historic Late Transitional Middle Time Periods

Cetacean % ^ Otter % |Ij Pinniped % 0 Undiff. %

Fig. 8. Combined marine mammal bone weight by time period at CA-SCRI-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI- 330, and CA-SCRI-474. Using modern geographical range data from fish northern species increased, suggesting changing guides (Miller and Lea 1972; Eschmeyer et al. patterns of fish distribution during this time 1983), the fish identified from otoliths were period. Furthermore, the taxonomic diversity of classified as either southern, transitional, or the Transitional Period levels is greater than that northern species, using the Santa Barbara of the other time periods (as calculated using Channel area as the dividing line. Northern Simpson's index of diversity [Krebs 1978]). species are those whose ranges were generally These data suggest that the fish population of north of the channel, southern species are those the Santa Barbara Channel was affected by whose range was generally south of the channel, climatic change during the Transitional Period, and transitional species are those whose range providing further support to the existing include the channel. Table 7 shows that most of evidence for ancient sea temperature change. the identified fish were classified as transitional, While studies by Arnold and Tissot (1993), having ranges that include the Santa Barbara Pisias (1978), and Stevenson (1989) indicate Channel. During the Transitional Period, the warmer water during the Transitional Period, percentage of otoliths from both southern and paleoenvironmental data from this analysis are FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 105

Ducks

Cormorants

Other Birds

Gulls

Undiff. Birds

Fig. 9. Bird taxa in the combined assemblages of CA-SCRl-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI-330, and CA- SCRI-474. more ambiguous in terms of sea temperature. significant impacts on the subsistence and econ­ These data demonstrate that local fish popula­ omy of hunter-gatherers in southern California. tions were not simply replaced by a warm water COMPARATIVE FAUNAL DATA assemblage; instead, more complex changes in fish distribution occurred during the Transitional While few other comprehensive faunal studies Period. exist for the northern Channel Islands, those that Other sources of paleoenvironmental data have been published in recent years provide suggest that the Transitional Period was also a interesting comparative material. Glassow's time of severe droughts in southern California, (1993) study of faunal remains from column and perhaps on a regional or global scale as samples from several Santa Cruz Island sites well. Larson et al. (1989) developed dendro- includes samples from the Early, Middle, and chronological data that indicate several periods Late periods, including samples from several of of prolonged drought during the Middle Holo­ the sites discussed here. In his analysis, cene of southern California. Their data indicate Glassow (1993) used conversion factors to esti­ that the period from A.D. 1120 to 1200 was mate protein yield for fish, shellfish, and marine particularly arid. These data are consistent with mammals, calculating the percentage of protein those of Stine (1994), which suggest several contributed by each of the three faunal cate­ periods of global warming and desiccation, gories for each column sample from each time including one period from approximately A.D. period. In general, Glassow found that shellfish 1209 to 1350. The combination of warmer sea provided the most protein during the Early temperature and severe drought probably had Period, contributing over 80% of the protein in 106 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 3 NON-FISH FAUNA FROM ALL SITES

Taxon/Category Conunon Name NISP Weight (g.) Birds Aechmophorus occidentalis westem grebe 1 0.50 Anas crecca green-winged teal I 0.17 A. ptatyrynchos mallard 6 4.39 Anas sp. undifferentiated duck 16 4.49 Anser albifrons white-fronted goose 3 5.98 A. caerulescens snow goose 1 8.49 Anserlformes undifferentiated goose 1 1.66 Aves undifferentiated bird 1.762 277.99 Aves large bird 1 0.67 Brachyramphos hypoleucus murrelet - xantus 1 0.02 Cepphus columba pigeon guillemot 1 0.62 Chen hyperborea snow goose 2 3.08 Diomedea sp. undifferentiated albatross 3 7.94 Gavia sp. undifferentiated loon 1 0.75 Larus californicus Califomia gull 7 8.13 L. glaucescens glaucous-winged gull 1 0.97 L. heermanni Heermann'sgull 2 0.59 L. occidentalis westem gull 5 6.04 Larus sp. undifferentiated gull 4 3.26 Melanitla fusca deglandi white-winged scoter 2 3.49 Melanitta sp. undifferentiated scoter 1 0.22 Mergus serrafor common merganser 1 0.81 Pandion haliaetus osprey 2 0.81 Passerifomie songbird 22 0.63 Pelecanus californicus Califomia brown pelican 1 3.49 Pelecanus sp. undifferentiated pelican 35 33.18 Phalacrocorax auritus double-crested cormorant 392 415.55 P. pelagicus pelagic cormorant 4 1.93 P. penicillatus Brandt's cormorant 27 19.55 Phalacrocorax sp. undifferentiated cormorant 8 5.20 Podiceps nigricollis eared grebe 1 0.37 Ptychoramphus aleulicus Cassin's auklet 2 0.26 Zenaida macroura mourning dove 2 0.39 SUBTOTAL 2,319 821.62 Reptiles Chelonia sp. green sea turtle 2 2.14 Clemmys marmorata westem pond turtle 1 1.42 Piluophis melanolecus gopher snake 4 0.09 SUBTOTAL 7 3.65 FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 107

Table 3 (Continued) NON-FISH FAUNA FROM ALL SITES

Taxon/Category Common Name NISP' Weight (g.) Terrestrial Mammals Artiodactyla undiff. ungulate 1 1.18 Canis familiaris dog 18 72.43 Felis catus domestic cat 2 0.29 Odocoileus hemionus mule deer 18 83.07 Peromyscus sp. mouse 136 3.36 Spilogale putorius spotted skunk 1 0.35 Urocyon linoralis Island fox 26 9.83 mammal undiff. terr. mammal 109 127.95 SUBTOTAL 311 298.46 Marine Mammals Arctocephalus townsendi Guadalupe fur seal 48 884.76 Callorhinus ursinus northem fur seal 1 36.14 Cetacea whales and dolphins 27 656.13 Cetacea (large) large whales and dolphins 99 176.50 Delphinidae dolphin/porpoise 31 70.19 Delphinus delphis common dolphin 1 11.94 Enhydra lutris sea oner 263 720.29 fur seal undiff. fur seal 31 243.25 small fur seal small fur seal 1 44.05 Globicephala macrorhynchus short-firmed pilot whale 1 14.36 iMgenorhynchus obliquidens Pacific white-sided dolphin 2 35.33 Otanidae sea lion and fur seal 689 1,937.49 Otariidae (large) large eared seal 9 143.65 Otariidae (small) small eared seal 36 272.96 Phoca virulina harbor seal 17 166.42 Phocidae undiff. seal, earless seal 2 0.75 Pinnipedia sea lion, all seals 59 119.27 Pinnipedia (large) large pinniped 2 13.61 Tursiops Iruncata bottlenose dolphin 2 7.63 Zaiophus californianus Califomia sea lion 1 1.11 marine mammal undiff. marine mammal 2,105 788.72 SUBTOTAL 3,427 6,344.55 Undifferentiated Mammals Camivora carnivore 7 3.42 Mammalia undiff. mammal 6.416 2,688.10 SUBTOTAL 6.423 2,691.53 GRAND TOTALS 12,487 10,159.80

' number of identified specimens. 108 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 4 FISH TAXA BY TIME PERIOD (NISP' FOR OTOLITHS) FROM CA-SCRI-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI-330, AND CA-SCRI^74

Taxon Common Name Range'' Middle Transitional Late Historic Total Amphislichiis argenteits barred surfperch 2 2 1 0 5 A. koelzi calico surfperch 0 0 1 0 1 Anoploma fimbrina sablefish 0 0 1 0 1 Arherinops affinis topsmeil 1 0 0 0 1 Atractoscion nobilis white seabass 2 1 1 0 4 Brachyistius frenalus tcelp surfperch 2 2 0 0 4 Caulotatilus princeps ocean whitefish 0 1 0 0 1 Chilara taylori spotted cusl(-eel 0 0 2 0 2 Cymarogasrer aggregata shiner surfperch 0 0 1 0 1 Embiotoca jacksoni blacl\ surfperch 55 26 40 6 127 E. lateralis striped surfperch 3 1 0 0 4 Embiotocidae surfperch family 2 1 7 0 10 Cenyonemus Unealus while croaker 0 0 1 0 1 Cirelta nigricans opaleye 0 0 1 0 1 Hermositla azurea zebraperch 1 0 0 0 I Hlppoglossus stenolepis Pacific halibut n 0 0 0 1 1 Hyperprosopon anale spotfin surfperch 1 1 3 0 5 H. argenteum walleye surfperch 31 5 8 1 45 H. ellipticum silver surfperch 3 2 2 0 7 Hypsurus caryi rainbow surfperch 4 7 14 1 26 Merluccius productus Pacific hake 1 0 0 0 1 Micromelrus minimus dwarf surfperch 0 0 1 0 1 Paralabrax clalhrattis kelpbass 0 1 0 0 1 Paralichthys californicus Califomia halibut 0 1 2 0 3 Parophrys velulus English sole 0 0 2 0 2 Phanerodon arripes sharpnose surfperch 0 0 1 0 1 P. furcalus white surfperch 4 2 3 0 9 Pleuronichlhys ritteri spotted turbot 0 0 2 0 2 Porichthys nolatus plainfin midshipman 2 0 0 0 2 Rhacochilus loxores fubberlip surfperch 6 1 3 1 11 R- vacca pile surfperch 4 2 8 2 16 Scorpaena guttata Califomia scorpionfish t 1 0 0 0 1 Sebastes alutus Pacific Ocean perch t 0 0 2 0 2 S. alrovirens kelp rockfish t 10 2 10 1 23 S. auriculatus brown rockfish t 2 5 13 1 21 S. babcocki redbanded rockfish I 0 1 5 0 6 S. camaliis gopher rockfish t 0 0 7 0 7 FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 109

Table 4 (Continued) FISH TAXA BY TIME PERIOD (NISP' FOR OTOLITHS) FROM CA-SCRI-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI-330, AND CA-SCRW74

Taxon Common Name Range" Middle Transitional Late Historic Tola S. chlorostictus greenspotted rockfish 0 0 8 0 8 S. chrysomelus black-and-yellow rockfish 0 0 2 0 2 S. constellalus starry rockfish 3 1 7 0 11 S. crameri darkblotched rockfish 1 0 14 3 18 S. dalli calico rockfish 1 9 2 0 12 S. diploproa splitnose rockfish 2 0 3 0 5 S. elongarus greenstriped rockfish 3 4 15 0 22 S. enlomelas widow rockfish 5 3 15 4 27 S. eos pink rockfish 0 0 4 0 4 S. flavidus yellowtail rockfish n 17 13 30 3 63 S. gilli bronzespotted rockfish 2 0 3 0 5 S. goodei chilipepper 72 9 187 15 283 S. helvomaculalus rosethom rockfish 0 1 3 0 4 S. hopkinsi squarespot rockfish 1 0 4 0 5 S. jordani shortbelly rockfish 0 5 13 0 18 S. levis cowcod 0 1 3 3 7 S. macdonaldi Mexican rockfish 4 3 19 0 26 S. maliger quillback rockfish n 2 0 6 0 8 S. melanops black rockfish n 1 0 1 0 2 S. melanostomus blackgill rockfish 0 0 2 6 8 S. miniatus Vermillion rockfish 10 16 50 5 81 S. myslinus blue rockfish 2 0 4 0 6 S. ovatis speckled rockfish 3 1 5 0 9 S. paucispinis bocaccio 11 9 25 2 47 S. phillipsi chameleon rockfish 4 0 5 0 9 S. pinniger canary rockfish 3 6 27 3 39 S. raslrelliger grass rockfish 0 1 2 0 3 S. rosaceus rosy rockfish 1 0 3 0 4 S. ruberrimus yelloweye rockfish 5 4 11 1 21 S. rubrivinctus flag rockfish 0 1 3 0 4 S. rufus bank rockfish 1 0 7 7 15 S. saxicola stripetail rockfish 1 0 1 0 2 S. semicinclus halfbranded rockfish 0 0 2 0 2 S. serranoides olive rockfish 4 1 14 1 20 S. serriceps treefish 1 0 0 0 1 cf. S. serriceps treefish - 0 0 1 0 1 110 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 4 (Continued) FISH TAXA BY TIME PERIOD (NISP' FOR OTOLITHS) FROM CA-SCRI-191, CA-SCRI-192, CA-SCRI-330, AND CA-SCRI-474

Taxon Common Name Range^ IVliddle Transitional Late Historic Total 5. simulator pinknose rockfish s 0 0 3 0 3 cf. 5. simulator pinknose rockfish t 0 0 1 0 1 S. umbrosus honeycomb rockfish s 1 2 3 0 6 S. vexillaris whitebelly rockfish t 2 0 4 1 7 S. zacentrus sharpchin rockfish t 0 0 0 1 1 Sebastes sp. undifferentiated rockfish 106 39 355 40 540 Sebastolobus alascanus shortspine thomyhead t 0 0 1 0 1 Semicossyphus pulcher Califomia sheephead s 1 0 1 0 2 Seripiius polllus queenfish t 0 0 1 0 1 Sphyraena argentea Califomia barracuda s 1 7 13 0 21 Thunnus aiaiunga albacore t I 0 0 0 1 Trachurus symmetrlcus jackmackerel t 3 1 3 1 8 Zaniolepis frenata shortspine combfish t 0 0 1 0 1 teleoslei undifferentiated bony fish 0 1 1 0 2 TOTALS 412 202 1,030 110 1,754

number of identified specimens. n = north; s = south; t - transitional; • categories were not included in Uie range or diversity analyses. most of his samples. During the Middle Period, tance of fish increasing and the relative impor­ the importance of these three categories was tance of marine mammals decreasing during the much more variable, with shellfish most impor­ Middle and Late periods. Early Period shellfish tant in one sample, marine mammal most impor­ assemblages were more diverse than Middle and tant in three samples, and fish most important in Late period assemblages, which were dominated six samples. By the Late Period, fish were the by California mussel {Mytilus californianus) most important source of protein in all of (Walker and Snethkamp 1984:102-106). The Glassow's samples, Glassow's results support San Miguel Island fish assemblage is similar to the general pattern of increasing importance of that recovered from the western Santa Cruz fish through time, while documenting some Island sites, being dominated by rockfish and intersite variability. The Late Period sample surfperch (Walker and Snethkamp 1984:149). with the greatest amount of protein from shell­ More detailed analysis of the San Miguel Island fish is from SCRI-236, a site very close to fish assemblage by Bowser (1993a) indicates that SCRI-191, the site for which the current analy­ surfperch became relatively more important than sis showed that shellfish was the greatest source rockfish from the Middle to Late periods, a of meat during the Late Period. pattern opposite of that from Santa Cruz Island. Walker and Snethkamp (1984) analyzed Walker and Snethkamp's (1984:144) and column sample data from several sites on San Guthrie's (1980) analyses of bird remains from Miguel Island, also located in the northern San Miguel Island produced results similar to Channel Islands. Their results show trends those of the current study of Santa Cruz Island broadly similar to Glassow's, with the impor­ bird remains. These studies demonstrated that FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 111

Table 5 FISH IDENTIFIED FROM NON-OTOLITH DATA

Taxon Common Name Habitat' Elasmobranchi - Sharks and Rays Family Carcharhinidae Carcharhinidae requiem sharks highly mobile'' Prionace glauca blue shark Family Lamnidae far out to sea' Lamma ditropis salmon shark Family Myliobatididae epipelagic'' Myliobatis californica bat ray Family Platyrhinidae BE sandy coastlines' Platyrhinoidis triseriata thornback Family Scyliorhinidae sandy bottoms BE' Cephaloscyllium ventriosum swell shark Family Squatinidae shallow water to 1,380 ft.'' Squatina californica Pacific angel shark Family Torpedinidae shallow sand mud bottoms' Torpedo californica Pacific electric ray Family Triakididae sandy bottoms' Galeorhinus galeus soupfin shark Mustelus sp. smoothhounds H/NSB to offshore 411 m.' Triakis semifasciata leopard shark H/NSB OC BE DC BE' Osteichthyes - Bony Fishes Family Atherinidae Atherinops californiensis jacksmelt MW H/NSB OC IT SRRF KB Leuresthes tenids California grunion MW OC BE Family Bothidae Citharichthys sordidus Pacific sanddab SB H/NSB Family Carangidae Seriola lalandi yellowtail RRFKB' Family Clinidae Heterostichus rostratus giant kelpfish MW H/NSB OC IT SRRF KB Family Clupeidae Sardinops sagax Pacific sardine MW Family Cottidae Cottidae sculpins BE' Leptocottus armatus Pacific staghorn sculpin H/NSB BE Scorpaenichthys marmoratus cabezon IT RRF SRRF KB Family Engraulididae Engraulididae anchovies nearshore'' 112 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table S (Continued) FISH IDENTIFIED FROM NON-OTOLITH DATA

Taxon Common Name HabiUf Family Kyphosidae Medialuna californiensis halfmoon RRF SRRF KB Family Labridae Halichoeres semicinctus rock wrasse MW SRRF KB Oxyjulis californica Senorita RRF SRRF KB Family Molidae Mola mola ocean sunfish oceanic at surface'' Family Muraenidae Oymnothorax mordax Califomia moray eel SRRP Order Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectiformes flatfishes SB' Family Pleuronectidae Eopsetta jordani petrale sole SB' Hypsopsetta guttulata diamond turbot H/NSB BE Psettichthys melanostictus 5 to 27 ft." Family Pomacentridae sand sole Chromis punctipinis RRF SRRF KB blacksmith Family Sciaenidae Sciaenidae SB BE' Family Scombridae drums and croakers Sarda chiliensis MWRRFKB Pacific bonito Scomber japonic us MW Pacific or chub mackerel Thunnus sp. open water, rarely nearshortf tunas Family Scorpaenidae Sebastes caurinus copper rockfish rocky or mixed sand to 600 ft.' S. rosenblatti greenblotched rockfish rocky substrate 200-1,300 f' Family Serranidae Paralabrax maculatofasciatus spotted sand bass BE P. nebulifer barred sand bass all but IT Serranidae sea basses and groupers bottom dwellers'" Family Stichaeidae Cebidichthys violaceus monkey face prickleback IT to 80 ft." Family Xiphiidae or Istiophoridae Xiphiidae/Istiophoridae swordfishes/billfishes offshore'

Habitats: bay/estuary (BE), open coast sandy beach (OC), harbor/nearshore soft bottom (H/NSB), nearshore midwater (M'W), offshore soft bottom (SB), rocky intertidal (IT), shallow rock reef (SRRF), deep rock reef (RRF), and kelp bed (KB). Habitat information from Allen (1985) unless otherwise noted. Habitat information from Eschmeyer et al. (1983). Habitat information from Sails (1988). Habitat information from Miller and Lea (1972). FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 113

Table 6 bone or shell in parentheses): 52.92% fish ABUNDANCE OF ROCKFISH AND SURFPERCH (13.5 g.), 17.46% marine mammal (5.1 g.), 13.75% mammal (9.72 g.), 4.56% bird (2.15 Site and Period Rockfish Surfperc g.), 2.73% shellfish (112.8 g.), and 8.56% from SCRI-191 unidentified vertebrates (6.05 g.; calculated using the terrestrial mammal conversion factor). Late Period 69.38% 23.75% Another site of interest is CA-SBA-1731, on Transitional Period 65.96% 29.25% the mainland coast west of Santa Barbara. Middle Period 50.92% 44.44% Although the report on investigations at CA- SBA-1731 (Dames and Moore 1993:188-193) SCRI-192 stated that it was occupied during the Middle Historic Period 85.14% 12.16% and Late periods, radiocarbon dates and densities Late Period 92.13% 6.23% of cultural materia! suggest that the most intense occupation was during the Transitional Period, SCRI-330 approximately A.D. 1150 to 1300. The overall Historic Period^ 94.44% 5.5% composition of the diet, when calculated in the Late Period 89.23% 7.69% same manner as the Santa Cruz Island data, in­ dicates a more terrestrially oriented economy SCRW74 than the Santa Cruz Island sites (Fig. 10, Table Transitional Period'' 92.86% 7.14% 8). As much as 9.5% of the assemblage is from Middle Period 74.67% 22.70% terrestrial mammals in some strata. Marine mammals are also much more important, rang­ ing between 25% and 64% of the estimated meat ' represents only one excavation level. weight. Shell is very rare in this site, par­ cormorants were the most common identified ticularly when compared to the island sites. bird in the San Miguel Island archaeological Fish increased in importance through time at deposits. CA-SBA-1731, A broader regional perspective on these The fish remains from CA-SBA-1731 provide results, achieved by comparison to similar an interesting contrast to the Santa Cruz Island analyses from the mainland coast and the main­ assemblage (Bowser 1993b). Rockfish and surf­ land interior, is instructive. Few sites from perch were also important at CA-SBA-1731, al­ these zones span the transition from the Middle though not as important as on the island, con­ to Late periods and few faunal data are avail­ stituting 41.51% of the identified otoliths able. Macko's (1984) analysis of faunal remains (Bowser 1993b: 163). The relationship between from a column sample from CA-SBA-485, a rockfish and surfperch is different than that on Late Period site in the interior Santa Ynez River the island. In the Santa Cruz Island samples, Valley, is one of the few published reports for rockfish increase in importance while surfjperch that area that provides information on subsis­ decrease in importance through time (Table 6), tence. Using the data from Macko's (1984:79- while at CA-SBA-1731 rockfish decrease in 84) column samples, the meat weights were importance. In the CA-SBA-1731 Transitional estimated employing the same methods as those Period levels, rockfish otoliths are more used for the Santa Cruz Island material (Table common (27.05%) than those of surfperch 8). Macko's data indicate that the relative (8.9%), while in the Late Period levels, contributions to the diet were (raw weight of surfperch otoliths are more prevalent (42.86%) 114 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 7 GEOGRAPHIC RANGE" AND TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY" OF FISH SPECIES

Time Period % South % North % Transitional Diversity Historic 0.0 5.7 94.3 0.91 Late 3.8 5.6 90.7 0.90 Transitional 6.2 8.1 85.7 0.94

Middle 2.6 6.6 90.8 0.89

" percentage offish that could be classified to range. ^ Simpson's Index of Diversity (Krebs 1978).

70

60

D) 50 CD

•S 40 CO CD 5 30 cz / CD o o 20 10 -

Strat. 1 - Late Strat, 4 - Late Strat. 8 - Mid. Strat. 3 - Late Strat. 7 - Mid. Strat. 8+ - Mid. Stratum

Marine Shell % Fish % Mammal % Terrestrial Bird % Undiff. Vert. % Mammal %

Fig. 10. Estimated meat weight by stratum at CA-SBA-1731. FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 115

Table 8 MEAT WEIGHT ESTIMATES FOR THREE ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Location Zone Fish SbellTish Marine Terrestrial Mammal Bird Undiff. Mammal Mammal Bone'' SCRI" Island 62.21% 23.10% 9.41% 0.17% 4.20% 0.89% N/A SBA-1731'' Mainland 43.04% 0.36% 31.78% 5.69% N/A 0.60% 19.07%

SBA-485' Interior 52.92% 2.73% 17.46% N/A 13.75% 4.56% 8.56%

Late Period levels from three sites combined. Late Period levels only. Calculated from column sample data (Macko 1984:79-84); 3.962 mm. mesh screens (approximately 1/8-in.); shell meat weight calculated using conversion factor for Chione undatella (Erlandson 1994:59). Undifferentiated bone, estimated using terrestrial mammal conversion factor.

than those of rockfish (16.48%). Bowser importance of various marine resources. These (1993b) concluded that faunal exploitation at this general patterns of faunal exploitation are site is related to increased availability of warm consistent with those found at other sites on water marine resources, particularly fish. Santa Cruz Island (Glassow 1993) and San Miguel Island (Walker and Snethkamp 1984). DISCUSSION In contrast, sites on the mainland coast and in This analysis is important for several the interior exhibit different patterns of faunal reasons. First, it provides new faunal data from remains (Table 8). CA-SBA-1731, a Middle to the northern Charmel Islands, an area for which Late period transitional site on the mainland few quantified faunal data exist. Second, these coast, contained little shell while fish and marine data may be examined at the regional level to mammals were important in the diet. Not sur­ learn more about Santa Barbara area prehistory, prisingly, terrestrial mammals were more impor­ particularly regional and temporal variability in tant at this site than on the islands. At CA-SBA- subsistence and patterns of animal resource use. 485, a Middle to Late period site in the Santa Third, it provides additional information about Ynez River Valley, the order of importance in paleoenvironment during the critical Transitional the diet was marine fish, marine manmials, ter­ Period, approximately A.D. 1150 to 1300, a restrial mammals, birds, and shellfish. These time of cultural and environmental change in the data demonstrate that marine resources were Santa Barbara Channel region. Finally, these important in all three of the broad ecological data have relevance for understanding cultural zones of the Santa Barbara Chaimel area during change during the Transitional Period. the Late Period. In general, the faunal data presented here The importance of marine resources in the support the traditional model of decreasing interior is surprising because these animal importance of marine mammals and shellfish and products would have been carried over the Santa increasing reliance on fish. According to meat Ynez Mountains. These data suggest that the weight estimates, the Middle through Historic Santa Ynez Mountains were not a significant period occupants of western Santa Cruz Island barrier for transporting animal resources firom relied almost exclusively on marine resources for the coast to the interior and may indicate animal foods, with terrestrial mammals and birds regular, perhaps daily, interaction between these playing relatively minor roles. There was some two areas. The faunal data from the mainland intersite variability, however, in the relative coast and the Santa Ynez River Valley are from 116 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

only two sites and sample sizes are relatively combination with data on animal exploitation, small, so these results warrant further exam­ have a bearing on alternative models for the ination. emergence of cultural complexity in the region. Both the island and the mainland data show While these data do not pertain to the Early a decrease in the importance of marine mammals Period, the time that King (1990) asserted that through time. This could be the result of over- chiefdoms emerged in the region, they are rele­ exploitation by Native American hunters, a pat­ vant to the period when Arnold (1992) main­ tern consistent with Hildebrandt and Jones's tained complexity developed. Arnold's (1992) (1992) study of marine mammal hunting.^ The model includes environmental change as one of result is an emphasis, in both areas, on animals several factors in the emergence of social lower on the food chain, such as fish and shell­ complexity in the Santa Barbara Channel region, fish, at some sites on the island. This is also a and these data indicate changes in prehistoric shift from "k-strategy" species, or animals that environment during that time. The exact nature produce few offspring and invest a lot of energy of the changes, and their importance for human in raising them, to "r-strategy" species, or adaptation and organization, are subject to species that produce many offspring and invest various interpretations. little energy in raising them. K-strategy species It should be clear from this analysis that, are not reproductively adapted to drastic changes rather than decreased densities of faunal remains in number caused by overexploitation by hunter- during the Transitional Period, data from Santa gatherers or severe environmental change. Cruz Island show slightly increased density of An alternate, or additional, factor in the fish remains during that period. In addition, declining importance of marine mammals in the data from CA-SBA-1731, on the mainland coast, diet is the effect of environmental change on show that the highest density of fish remains these animals. Pinnipeds are the most common occurred during the Transitional Period. While marine mammals in the Santa Cruz Island as­ the density of faunal remains in middens is not semblage, and studies of a recent El Niiio- a direct reflection of marine productivity, it Southern Oscillation (ENSO) indicate that seal seems that fish populations were not significantly and sea lion populations are severely impacted reduced by the water temperature increase that by major changes in water temperature occurred during the Transitional Period. The (Trillmich and Limberger 1985; Trillmich and severe drought that occurred during the Transi­ Ono 1991). During recent warm water events, tional Period probably caused a reduction in the pinnipeds suffered major population declines and availability of terrestrial resources, forcing pup mortality. A combination of overexploita­ people to turn to marine resources for food. tion of marine mammals by Native Californians The increased water temperature, in combination and changing environmental conditions may have with hunting pressure, would have decreased been an important stimulus in the development marine mammal populations, leaving fish, and in of fishing as a major source of animal food. some places shellfish, as the best sources of Fish and shellfish data from the islands also animal food. provide information about prehistoric environ­ CONCLUSIONS ments. While these data do not indicate extreme environmental fluctuations, they support paleo­ It is argued here that the paleoenvironmental environmental reconstructions that show sea data derived from these faunal collections dem­ temperature change during the period from A.D. onstrate environmental change during the Transi­ 1150 to 1300. The paleoenvironmental data, in tional Period. Rather than reduced marine pro- FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 117 ductivity, more complex changes probably oc­ the otoliths. I thank Sarah Berry and Jean Hudson curred. Clearly, there is much that can be for comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Michael Glassow, Associate Editor for the Journal, and four learned about prehistoric diet, paleoenvironment, not-so-anonymous reviewers provided many valuable and culture change by studying faunal assem­ comments that greatly improved the clarity and blages such as those discussed here. If we take accuracy of this paper. a regional perspective and apply uniform meth­ REFERENCES ods, we can better address issues of paleo­ environmental and culture change using faunal Allen, Larry G. data. 1985 A Habitat Analysis of the Nearshore Marine Fishes from Southem Califomia. NOTES Bulletin of the Southem Califomia Acad­ emy of Sciences 84(3): 133-155. 1. The bones were identified with the aid of the Amold, Jeanne E. reference collections in the Zooarchaeology Labor­ 1987 Craft Specialization in the Prehistoric atory in the Institute of Archaeology at the University Chaimel Islands, Califomia. Berkeley: of California, Los Angeles, the Natural History University of Califomia Publications in Museum of Los Angeles County, and the Page Mus­ Anthropology Volume 18. eum, and by consulting with other zooarchaeologists. For the general dietary reconstruction, I combined 1991 Transformation of a Regional Economy: data from specimens positively identified to element Sociopolitical Evolution and the Pro­ and taxon with those from the more general cate­ duction of Valuables in Southern Cali­ gories such as marine mammal. Undifferentiated fomia. Antiquity 65(249):953-962. marine mammal bones were identified by the pres­ 1992 Complex Hunter-Gatherer-Fishers of Pre­ ence of large amounts of cancellous bone or very thin historic Califomia: Chiefs, Specialists, cortical bone. Undifferentiated terrestrial mammal and Maritime Adaptations of the Channel bone was identified on the basis of thick cortical Islands. American Antiquity 57(l):60-84. bone, and was very rare. Undifferentiated bird bones 1993 Labor and the Rise of Complex Hunter- were often identified to element but could not be classified to taxon due to erosion or lack of diagnostic Gatherers. Joumal of Anthropological Ar­ features, or were bone fragments with the character­ chaeology 12(1):75-119. istic surface and/or interior texture of bird bone. Amold, Jeanne E., and Ann Munns 2. While aspects of Hildebrandt and Jones's 1994 Independent or Attached Specialization: (1992) study are supported by the current analysis, The Organization of Shell Bead Produc­ their presentation of data from the Santa Barbara area tion in California. Joumal of Field Ar­ is marred by at least one serious error. They stated chaeology 21(4): 473-489. (1992:388) that seals and sea lions made up roughly Amold, Jeanne E., and Brian Tissot 35% of the vertebrate fauna at CA-SBA-142, the 1993 Measurement of Significant Marine Paleo- Glen Annie Canyon site. The page they cited is a list temperature Variation Using Black Aba­ of shellfish taxa present at that site (Owen et al. lone Shells from Prehistoric Middens. 1964:464), and no counts or weights of marine Quatemary Research 39(3):390-394. mammal bones exist in the referenced report. Blackbum, Thomas 1976 Ceremonial Integration and Social Inter­ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS action in Aboriginal California. In: The field and laboratory processing of the Santa Native Californians, A Theoretical Retro­ Cruz Island material was supported by National spective, Lowell Bean and Thomas Black- Science Foimdation Grant BNS 88-12184, which was bum, eds., pp. 225-244. Menlo Park: awarded to Jeanne Amold. My research has been Ballena Press. supported by the UCLA Friends of Archaeology and Bowser, Brenda a UCLA Chancellor's Dissertation Year Fellowship. 1993a Dead Fish Tales: Analysis of Fish I thank Joyce Gerber and Jon Erlandson for access to Remains from Two Middle Period Sites the CA-SBA-1731. data. The late Tim Seymour on San Miguel Island, Califomia. In: created the maps, and Daimy Brauer modified them Archaeology on the Northern Channel for this publication. Richard Huddleston identified Islands of Califomia, Studies of Subsis- 118 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

tence, Economics, and Social Organiza­ Glassow, Michael tion, Michael Glassow, ed., pp. 55-136. 1975 Considerations in the Evaluation of the Coyote Press Archives of California Archaeological Significance of Sites of the Prehistory No. 34. Santa Barbara Channel Mainland. Paper presented at the Society for Califomia 1993b Fish Remains. In: Archaeological Invest­ Archaeology Fall Data Sharing Meeting, igations at CA-SBA-1731: A Transitional Califomia State University, Northridge. Middle-to-Late Period Site on the Santa Barbara Channel, by Dames and Moore, 1980 Recent Developments in the Archaeology pp. 141-170. Report on file at the Central of the Channel Islands. In: The Cali­ Coast Infonnation Center, University of fomia Islands: Proceedings of a Multi- Califomia, Santa Barbara. disciplinary Symposium, Dennis M. Power, ed., pp. 79-99. Santa Barbara: Collins, Paul Santa Barbara Museum of Natural His­ MS Checklist of Vertebrates of Santa Cruz Island. MS in possession of the author. tory. 1993 Changes in Subsistence on Marine Re­ Colten, Roger H. sources Through 7,000 Years of Prehis­ 1991 Preliminary Analysis of Faunal Remains tory on Santa Cruz Island. In: Ar­ From Four Sites on Santa Cruz Island, chaeology on the Northem Channel Is­ Califomia. In: Proceedings of the lands of Califomia, Studies of Subsis­ Society for Califomia Archaeology, Vol. tence, Economics, and Social Orgamza- 5, Martin D. Rosen, Lynne E. Christen­ tion, Michael Glassow, ed., pp. 75-94. son, and Don Laylander eds., pp. 247- Coyote Press Archives of Califomia 267. San Diego: Society for Califomia Prehistory No. 34. Archaeoiogy. 1993 Prehistoric Subsistence, Specialization, Glassow, Michael, and Larry Wilcoxon and Economy in a Southern California 1988 Coastal Adaptations Near Point Concep­ Chiefdom. Ph.D. dissertation. University tion, Califomia, with Particular Regard to of Califomia, Los Angeles. Shellfish Exploitation. American Antiq­ uity 53(1):36-51. Dames and Moore 1993 Archaeological Investigations at CA-SBA- Grayson, Donald 1731: A Transitional Middle-to-Late 1984 Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics m Period Site on the Santa Barbara Channel. the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas, Report on file at the Central Coast New York: Academic Press. Information Center, University of Cali­ Guthrie, Daniel A. fomia, Santa Barbara. 1980 Analysis of Avifaunal and Bat Remains Erlandson, Jon M. from Midden Sites on San Miguel Island. 1994 Early Hunter-Gatherers of the Califomia In: The Califomia Islands: Proceedings Coast. New York: Plenum Press. of a Multidisciplinary Symposium, Dennis M. Power, ed., pp. 689-702. Santa Bar­ Erlandson, Jon M., and Roger H. Colten (eds.) bara: Santa Barbara Museum of Natural 1991 Hunter-Gatherers of Early Holocene History. Coastal Califomia. University of Cali­ fomia, Los Angeles, Perspectives in Cali­ Hildebrandt, William R., and Terry L. Jones fomia Archaeology 1. 1992 Evolution of Marine Mammal Hunting: A View from the Califomia and Oregon Erlandson. Jon M., Roger H. Colten, and Michael A. Coasts. Joumal of Anthropological Ar­ Glassow chaeology 11(4):360-401. 1988 Reassessing the Chronology of the Glen Annie Canyon Site (CA-SBA-142). Jour­ Johnson, John R. nal of Califomia and Great Basin An­ MS Observations on Fish Remains from Five thropology 10(2): 237-245. Santa Cruz Island Archaeological Sites. Eschmeyer, William N., Earl S. Herald, and Kather­ MS in possession of the author. ine Hammann 1982 An Ethnohistoric Study of the Island 1983 A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes. Chumash. Master's thesis, University of Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Califomia, Santa Barbara. FAUNAL EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND 19

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