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Class and Politics in Malaysian and Singaporean Nation Building

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Class and Politics in Malaysian and Singaporean Nation Building CLASS AND POLITICS IN MALAYSIAN AND SINGAPOREAN NATION BUILDING Muhamad Nadzri Mohamed Noor, M.A. Political Science College of Business, Government and Law Flinders University Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2017 Page Left Deliberately Blank. Abstract This study endeavours to deliver an alternative account of the study of nation-building by examining the subject matter eclectically from diverse standpoints, predominantly that of class in Southeast Asia which is profoundly dominated by ‘cultural’ perspectives. Two states in the region, Malaysia and Singapore, have been selected to comprehend and appreciate the nature of nation-building in these territories. The nation-building processes in both of the countries have not only revolved around the national question pertaining to the dynamic relations between the states and the cultural contents of the racial or ethnic communities in Malaysia and Singapore; it is also surrounded, as this thesis contends, by the question of class - particularly the relations between the new capitalist states’ elites (the rulers) and their masses (the ruled). More distinctively this thesis perceives nation-building as a project by political elites for a variety of purposes, including elite entrenchment, class (re)production and regime perpetuation. The project has more to do with ‘class-(re)building’ and ‘subject- building’ rather than ‘nation-building’. Although this thesis does not eliminate the significance of culture in the nation-building process in both countries; it is explicated that cultures were and are heavily employed to suit the ruling class’s purpose. Hence, the cultural dimension shall be used eclectically with other perspectives. This study, thus, attempts to unravel ‘the politics’ behind the nation-building policy in Malaysia and Singapore. The three main themes explored in this thesis are, how the nation-building projects in both countries are connected and personalised with class interests of their ruling elites; how state elections impact nation-building politics; and how nation-building policies are endorsed to build political loyalty or support among the ruled to the ruling elites. For these reasons, a host of data-gathering and references would be included, ranging from historical reports, scholarly works and newspaper clippings (online and printed materials). The researcher also conducted several field trips in Malaysia (in 2010 and 2015) and Singapore (in 2010). Throughout the trips, the researcher observed a number of local and national events, spoke to some members of the communities and non-governmental organisations, as well as interviewed a numbers of politicians, academicians and government servants. i Declaration I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text. Muhamad Nadzri Mohamed Noor 17 August, 2017 Date ii Acknowledgement Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah for the strengths and blessing in completing this thesis. First and foremost I would like to express my greatest attitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Michael Barr for his continuous support, patience and motivation throughout the time it took me to complete this research and write the dissertation. His invaluable help of constructive comments and suggestions have contributed to the success of this research. Special thanks goes to my co-supervisor, Dr Priyambudi Sulistiyanto for simultaneously encouraging, guiding, and supporting my research ideas and me. To my wife (Hafaliza Ishak) and parents (Bibi Saihba Delawar and Mohamed Noor Hassan), a very special thank you for all the emotional support. The unconditional love and prayers will always be the strength and the joy in my life and motivating me to pursue my dreams and completing this research. They have consistently helped me keep perspective on what is important in life and shown me how to deal with reality. I would also like to take this opportunity to say warm thanks to all my colleagues, teachers, beloved friends, students, and librarians who assisted, advised, and supported my research and writing efforts over the years. iii Table of Contents Abstract _________________________________________________________________________ i Declaration______________________________________________________________________ ii Acknowledgement ________________________________________________________________ iii Table of Contents ________________________________________________________________ iv Abbreviation ___________________________________________________________________ vii PART I: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 ____________________________________________________________________ 1 Defining the Parameter ___________________________________________________________ 1 The Parameter of the Past Literature ________________________________________________ 3 The Studies on Nation Building in General ___________________________________________ 4 The Studies on Malaysia ___________________________________________________________ 9 The Studies on Singapore _________________________________________________________ 15 Comparative Studies on Malaysia and Singapore _____________________________________ 20 Theoretical Perspective: Nation-Building as Class Phenomenon _________________________ 24 Objective of the Study ___________________________________________________________ 31 Methodology ___________________________________________________________________ 33 Malaysia and Singapore: A Brief Overview __________________________________________ 34 The Organisation of the Study _____________________________________________________ 34 Conclusion _____________________________________________________________________ 35 CHAPTER 2 ___________________________________________________________________ 36 The Construction of the Party-State System in Parliamentary Democracies _______________ 36 The Post-Colonial Polities: Consolidation of the New Ruling Class, Emergence of the Party-State System and the Hegemonic Bloc __________________________ 38 Hegemonic Breakdown and the New Politics _________________________________________ 64 Conclusion _____________________________________________________________________ 69 PART II: MALAYSIA CHAPTER 3 ___________________________________________________________________ 70 The Politics of Malaysian Nation-Building Policy _____________________________________ 70 The Politics of Nation-Building Policy: From Tunku to Abdullah ________________________ 71 The Nation-Building Policy 1957 - 2009: Ethnicity, Class and the Regime Maintenance _____ 84 iv Public Service __________________________________________________________________ 87 Government Scholarships ________________________________________________________ 91 Special Schools, Universities, and Training Colleges ___________________________________ 93 Economic Development __________________________________________________________ 97 National Language Policy ________________________________________________________ 100 The Construction of Statist-Capitalist Class ________________________________________ 102 Conclusion: The Class Undercurrent in the Politics of Race ___________________________ 106 CHAPTER 4 __________________________________________________________________ 107 Malaysia’s Politics of Nation-State Building under Najib Razak ________________________ 107 Najib’s First Term: Towards the 13th GE – The Politics of 1Malaysia ___________________ 109 Economic Transformation Programme ____________________________________________ 110 Government Transformation Programme __________________________________________ 113 Political Transformation Programme ______________________________________________ 115 Najib Razak’s Second Term: Post-13th GE Policy Reversal and the Re-Building of Dictatorial Rule ________________________________________________________________ 120 The Return of Racial Politics and Policies, and the Disappearance of 1Malaysia __________ 122 Reversed Democratisation, Fuller Authoritarianism _________________________________ 125 The 1MDB Saga and the Return of One-Man Rule ___________________________________ 130 U-Turn in Economic Policy (Najibnomics): The Persistence of Crony Capitalism and the Widening of Income Gap _________________________________________________ 135 The Politics of Development and its Repercussions ___________________________________ 141 Conclusion: Plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose _________________________________ 144 PART III: SINGAPORE CHAPTER 5 __________________________________________________________________ 145 Personal is National: The Case of Singapore’s Nation-Building Policy under Lee Kuan Yew ___________________________________________________________ 145 Pragmatism, Racialism, Elitism and Lee Kuan Yew __________________________________ 148 The Matrix of Singapore Nation-Building under Lee Kuan Yew _______________________ 154 PAP’s Regime Survival and Consolidation, 1959 to 1965 ______________________________ 157 Lee’s PAP Era of Regime Legitimation: The Rise of Meritocratic Policy in Singapore’s Nation-Building ___________________________________________________ 166 Lee’s Regime Era of Perpetuation and Habituation: From Late 1970s to 1990 ____________ 171 Conclusion ____________________________________________________________________
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