Journal Volume 24, January 2020

INDEX Page S.N. Name of the Research Paper Author No. A Geographical Analysis of Rainfall distribution in Dr. C. Mallanna 1 1 State Prof. D. A. Kolhapure Food Crops versus Cash Crops: Policy Interventions : 2 Arunima Bhattacharya 7 A Case Study of Dr. S. A. Thakur 3 Migration of Workers 13 Pradnya Nikam 4 Floods in with special reference to Duars in WB Dr. Moushumi Datta 17 Dr. S. B. Jadhav 5 Use of Agro Meteorological Instruments in Agriculture 21 Mr. Rajesh S Kamble Flood : Climate Change the only Reason for Flooding in the 6 Dr. Prakash B. Holer 26 - A Geographical Analysis Geographical Analysis of Tehsil-Wise General Landuse Gurav S.T. 7 28 Pattern in Ratnagiri district of MS Dr. D. C. Kamble Dr. S. I. Biradar The Impact of Modern Agriculture on Public Health in 8 Prof. D. A. Kolhapure 39 District: Organic Farming A Solution Shri. B. N. Yaligar Literacy – A qualitative aspect of Human Resource – Bhakta Ranjan Mahato 9 45 A Geographical study in the district of . Dr. Bhupal K.Mahto 10 Floods in Kerala and its Impact on Human Life Dr. Achole P.B. 51 Geomorphological Regions of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya 11 Dr. Arijit Kumar Ghosh 54 upland of the West Bengal. 12 Climate change and its Impact on Indian Agriculture Mrs. Anupama Kamble 61 13 Agriculture Labour in India: Problems Prof. Kamlesh Kamble 66 14 Changing Agricultural Landuse Pattern in Raigad Dist.of MS Deepak S Narkhede 69 15 A Study Role of MicroLevel Planning for Rural Development Mr. Suryakant P. Mane 72 r%naaigarI ijalhatIla dLNavaLNaatIla maulaBaUt sauivaQaMacaa AaiNa saaQanaacaa ivakasa 16 Dr. R. B. Patil 76 ija(avar Jaalaolaa pirNaama : ek icaik%sak AByaasa Prof. R. D. Kamble Dr. R. B. Patil 17 piScama GaaTatIla mahajaOvaivaivaQata AaiNa jaOva¹ivaQatocaa ¹hasa : Baaogaaoilak AByaasa Prof. R. D. Kamble 82 Prof. D. A. Kengar 18 हवामान बदलाचा रत्नागिरी गिल्ह्यातील पिजꅍयावर झालेला पररणाम Dr. Pooja Mohite 87

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ACS College, Onde, Vikramgad, Palghar

Veer Wajekar ASC College, Phunde, Uran

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

A Geographical Analysis of Rainfall Distribution in Karnataka State

Dr. C. Mallanna Prof. D. A. Kolhapure Assistant Professor in Geography Associate Professor in Geography K.L.E’s G.H.College, , KARNATAKA

Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 ABSTRACT : The study of rainfall distribution of Karnataka state is so important because it is one of the most important agrarian state in the county, the economy of the state is mainly depends on rainfall distribution, mainly on south west winds. The state of Karnataka in India has a bittersweet relationship with rainfall. But the distribution of rainfall is not uniform across the state. Karnataka receives mean annual rainfall of around 1355 millimeters. Karnataka is divided into three meteorological zones, namely, Coastal Karnataka, North interior Karnataka and South interior Karnataka. Coastal Karnataka is the region that receives heaviest rainfall in the state. It gets an average annual rainfall of 3,456mm. ( in the is known as one of the places with the highest annual rainfall in India).South interior Karnataka is a region that receives an average rainfall of 1,286mm, which is much less than what Coastal Karnataka receives. But it is not as dry as North interior Karnataka which receives the least amount of rainfall in the state. North interior Karnataka receives just 731 mm average rainfall annually. Karnataka receives about 80% of the annual rainfall during the South-West monsoon period (June to September), 12% during the post-monsoon period (October to December), 7% during the summer season (March to May) and only 1% rainfall is received during the winter season (January to February). This paper is mainly spread on the light about the geographical personality of the study area, annual rainfall changes of Karnataka, and Districtwise rainfall distribution and also district wise rainy days of the study area. Key Words : Agrarian, annual rainfall, average, District wise rainfall, rainfall intensity, rainy days. INTRODUCTION : Among all the natural conditions, rainfall should be the fundamentals so for as progress of the society is concerned. Rather, it has always been treated as a fundamental sector for the total development of the society S.K.Sadhukan (1978). Rainfall is a crucial agro-climatologicall factor in the seasonally arid parts of the world and its analysis an important perquisite for the planning of watershed development, Alak Gadgil (1986). Rainfall distribution in Karnataka decreases as one move from the western part of the state to the eastern part. The Western Ghats and the coastal region of Karnataka receive mean annual rainfall of more than 4,000 mm. But as we approach the eastern parts of the state, the mean annual rainfall comes down to around 400 mm, showing the vast difference in the rainfall received across the state. While the coastal region on the windward side of the Western Ghats gets 3,350 mm of rainfall during the southwest monsoon, on the leeward side of the Western Ghats the rainfall drastically declines to around 600-700 mm. This means the state experiences a gradual decrease in rainfall as one moves towards the Eastern part of the state. STUDY AREA : Karnataka is located on the western coast of Peninsular India. Spread over an area of 1, 91,976 square kilometers or 5.83 % of the total geographical area of India. Karnataka is situated on a tableland where the Western and Eastern Ghat ranges converge into the Nilgiri hill complex. The state is confined roughly within 11.50 North and 18.50 North latitudes and 740East and 78.50 east longitudes. Karnataka is bordered by and states in the North and North-

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West; by the Arabian Sea in the West; by Kerala and Tamilnadu states in the South and by the state of and states in the East. The State spreads to about 750 km from North to South and about 400 km from East to West. (Map No: - 01) Map No. – 01 Karnataka State Location Map

OBJECTIVES : Following are the specific objectives of this paper. 1. To know the geographical personality of the study area 2. To understand the District wise actual amount of rainfall distribution in 2007 & 2012 3. To know the district wise rainfall intensity in 2007 & 2012 4. To analysis the district wise rainy days of the state in 2007 & 2012. DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY : The data, which is being utilized throughout the work of this paper; has been collected from different sources like Karnataka at a Glance, district census hand books and internet. The available data has been analyzed with charts & diagrams.

DISTRICT WISE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ACTUAL RAINFALL IN 2007 & 2012 : As per 2007 data, Bijapure district has received the lowest amount of rainfall with just 552 mm in the State. Whereas district has recieved5054 mm of rainfall in the same year in the study area. In 2012 of Karnataka State has received the least amount of rainfall just with 353 mm, although Udupi disctict has recorded the highest amount of rainfall i.e 4265mm. Karnataka state has received 1578 mm of rainfall in 2007, but it has decreased to 1094 mm in 2012. It is because failure of monsoon in the state. (See table no-01). DISTRICT WISE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RAINFALL INTENSITY IN 2007 & 2012: The intensity of rainfall is a measure of the amount of rain that falls over a period of time. It can be calculated with the using of following formula I = A/N Where, I = Intensity of rainfall A = Actual Rainfall N = Number of Rainy days According to the above formula, Except Chitraduga, Kolar and Chikkaballapur districts, the intensity of rainfall is less in all the district of State in 2007 as compare to 2012. As per 2007, the intensity of rainfall is varies from 13.17 mm to 19.12 mm in 19 districts of the State, where as in 5 districts it ranges from 20.42 mm to 28.74 mm and in another 5 districts it varies from 32.84 mm to 39.48 mm. the lowest intensity of rainfall was recorded in i.e. 13.17 mm and the highest intensity was recorded in i.e. 39.48 mm. Where as in 2012 the rainfall intensity is varies from 7.67 mm to 35.25 mm. In this year the lowest intensity was recorded in Haveri (7.67mm) district and the highest intensity was recorded in (35.25 mm) district. Whereas 2012 the rain fall intensity is varies from 7.67mm in to 35.25 mm in . According to the available data the intensity of rainfall is more i.e 25.87 mm in 2007, as compare to 2017 ( 10.62mm) in the state. (See table No: - 01 and Graph No: - 01).

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Actual Amount and Intensity of Rainfall in Karnataka (2007 & 2012) Table No. 01 Actual Intensity of Actual Rainfall Intensity of Sl. Districts Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm) Rainfall No. 2007 2012 1 Bangalore(U) 935 16.12 533 10.88 2 Bangalore(R) 832 17.7 487 11.88 3 Ramanagara 686 15.24 353 7.67 4 Chitradurga 702 15.6 528 17.03 5 Davanagere 821 15.79 542 12.6 6 Kolara 632 13.17 743 23.22 7 Chikkaballapura 818 15.43 602 16.27 8 Shivamogga 3395 37.31 2359 26.51 9 Thumkur 681 16.21 473 14.78 10 Chikkamangalore 2357 28.74 1542 17.72 11 S.Kenara 4107 33.12 3392 28.99 12 Udupi 5064 39.48 4265 35.25 13 Hasana 1892 25.23 1141 19.67 14 Kodagu 3448 32.84 2001 18.03 15 Mandya 647 17.03 446 12.05 16 Mysore 744 13.78 491 10.45 17 Chamarajanagara 848 16.63 438 10.19 18 Belgaum 1206 24.12 734 13.85 19 Bijapur 552 18.4 440 11 20 Bagalakote 686 19.06 372 9.3 21 883 15.82 526 9.07 22 Gadag 822 19.12 403 9.37 23 Haveri 955 15.16 550 9.02 24 N.Kenara 3349 34.53 2528 24.54 25 Ballary 553 17.84 418 10.45 26 680 17.44 727 14.84 27 Gulbarga 641 16.87 594 12.91 28 Yadagiri NA NA NA NA 29 Rayachur 674 20.42 447 12.08 30 Koppala 722 21.24 392 10.89 State 1578 25.87 1094 10.62

Source: Karnataka at a Glance: - ARC division DES (2008-09 & 2012-13).

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Intensity of Rainfall in the State (2007 & 2012) Graph No. 01

Source: - Karnataka at a Glance : ARC division DES (2008-09 & 2012-13 According to the available data the intensity of rainfall is more in 2007 i.e 25.87 mm, as compare to 2012 ( 10.62mm) in Karnataka state. (See table No. Graph No. 02) Intensity of Rainfall in Karnataka State (2007 & 2012) Graph No. 02

VII. ANALYIS OF RAINY DAYS IN KARNATAKA STATE (2007 & 2012) : Actual amount of rainfall is defers in all the district of the state in 2007 as well as 2012 also, it is because of the changes of rain days. Among all the district of the state, Bijapur district received very least amount of rainfall in 2007, because throughout the year the district enjoys only with 30 days of rainfall. At the same time Udupi district enjoys 128 days of rainfall, hence this district has recorded maximum amount of rainfall in the state. According to 2012 data, faced only 31 days of rainfall, hence the amount of rainfall is also less in this district.

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Whereas Udupi district enjoys with 121 days of rainfall, so it records the maximum amount of rainfall both in 2007 and 2012 also. (See table No: - 02 & Graph No: - 03). Analysis of Rainy days in 2007 & 2012 Table No. 02

Sl. Rainy Days Districts No. 2007 2012 1 Bangalore(U) 58 49 2 Bangalore(R) 47 41 3 Ramanagara 45 46 4 Chitradurga 45 31 5 Davanagere 52 43 6 Kolara 48 32 7 Chikkaballapura 53 37 8 Shivamogga 91 89 9 Thumkur 42 32 10 Chikkamangalore 82 87 11 S.Kenara 124 117 12 Udupi 128 121 13 Hasana 75 58 14 Kodagu 105 111 15 Mandya 38 37 16 Mysore 54 47 17 Chamarajanagara 51 43 18 Belgaum 50 53 19 Bijapur 30 40 20 Bagalakote 36 40 21 Dharwad 56 58 22 Gadag 43 43 23 Haveri 63 61 24 N.Kenara 97 103 25 Ballary 31 40 26 Bidar 39 49 27 Gulbarga 38 46 29 Rayachur 33 37 30 Koppala 34 36 Total 61 103 Source: Karnataka at a Glance: - ARC division DES (2008-09 & 2012-13

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Analysis of Rainy days in 2007 & 2012 Graph No. 03

CONCLUSION : Due to the changes of controlling factors of climate like, Monsoon winds, Height, distance from the sea, topographical features etc., of the state, the distribution amount of rainfall is differ from district to district. Normally rainfall distribution in the study region is decreases as one move from the western part to the eastern part. Rainy days are also decreases from western part of the state to eastern part of the state, ex: - Both in 2007 & 2012 western districts like Udupi(128 & 121),South Kenara(124 &117)Kodagu(105 &111)North Kenar(97 & 103 ) & Shivamogga (91 & 89) (Malnad Belt) enjoys with maximum rainy days. At the same time the districts like Koppala (34) (33) Ballar (31) & Bijapur (30) districts (Eastern Parts) are recorded with least days of rainfall. REFERNCE : 1. D.R.Khullar, India a Comprehensive Geography – Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. 2. Mohammad Shafi, Agricultural Geography – Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.Ltd. Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. 3. Dr. Ranganath, Regional – Vidyanidi Prakashan, Gadag 4. P.Mallappa, Regional Geography of Karnataka – Chetan Book House, Mysore. 5. Karnataka At A Glance - 2008-09 , 2012-13 & 2014-15

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

Food Crops Versus Cash Crops : Policy Interventions A case Study of Kerala

Arunima Bhattacharya Assistant Professor, Department of Geography Vidyasagar College for Women, Kolkata Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019, Edited on 30-12-2019 Abstract : Historically, the agricultural economy of Kerala is known for its export-oriented cash crop production with significant trade in spices (mainly pepper and cardamom), coffee, tea and rubber. Ever since the colonial period, the state‘s agriculture sector had witnessed tremendous transformation characterised by expansion of commercial crops essentially at the expense of food crops.Agricultural development and growth scenario of the state underwent several twists and turns over time.However, issues of the country‘s ‗perennial crops enclave‘ are revolving around a vicious circle of dualistic policy approaches without perspective planning and necessary co-ordination between the agencies under the Centre and the State‘s department of agriculture.The interests of farmers and market conditions were not considered while framing the policies and practices.The distortions created in the different components of input market by various protective practices and policies include fragmentation of agricultural land, lack of innovative and scientific technologies in agricultural production, low mechanisation in agriculture supported by the governments and poor irrigation management, all of which resulted in hampering agricultural growth in the state.Perhaps the time has come for a stock-taking of the entire gamut of issues for meeting the challenges of agricultural development of Kerala‘s fast growing economy and fast changing society. Keywords : agricultural economy, food crops, commercial crops, dualistic policy. Introduction : In India, the contribution of agriculture sector to the economy is very high, in terms of providing principal means of livelihood to around 58 per cent of rural households and contributing to 25 per cent of the country's Gross Domestic Product. Historically, the agricultural economy of Kerala is known for its export-oriented cash crop production with significant trade in spices (mainly pepper and cardamom), coffee, tea and rubber. Ever since the colonial period, the state‘s agriculture sector had witnessed tremendous transformation characterised by expansion of commercial crops essentially at the expense of food crops. The unique geographical features characterised by steep terrain and undulating topography has precluded the state from extensive cultivation of its staple grain, i.e., paddy on the hills and slopes, which have increasingly been utilised for growing commercial crops. Thus, overtime, the agriculture sector had profusely drifted away from food crop production, mainly paddy to cash crops and this trend had been justified on the grounds that rice, the staple food of Kerala, could be freely imported from neighbouring states. The process of intensive commercialization of agriculture continued unrestrained over time, though the state had made serious efforts to reinvigorate the food production sector, especially, rice through massive public investment for agricultural and irrigation infrastructure development under the five year plans.Agricultural development and growth scenario of the state underwent several twists and turns over time. The most critical phase in the history of development of the state‘s agriculture sector can be traced back to the early 1990s when the state launched economic reforms. It increased the market uncertainties posing serious challenges to the sustainability of agriculture sector across regions in the state, with the hilly regions of Wynad and Idukki districts

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becoming highly vulnerable to severe agrarian crisis, whilethe traditional food crop growing regions of Palakkad and Kuttanad in Alapuzha districts experiencing virtual collapse of the farm livelihoods. Study Area : Kerala is a state on the south-western Malabar Coast of India.Spread over 38,863 km2, Kerala is the twenty-third largest Indian state by area. It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Kerala is the thirteenth-largest Indian state by population. It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.

Methodology : The method used in this study is mostly a mixed method of qualitative and quantitative value. The study depends on secondary data from various sources like books, articles, newspaper and the internet. The Paradox of Kerala‟s Agriculture : The dwindling status of the agricultural sector is evident from its declining share in the State‘s GSDP from more than 52 per cent in 1960-61 to around 11 per cent in 2014-15.Although the observed trend has been in tandem with national trends, the dominance of the perennial crops sub-sector in Kerala imparted a unique regional dimension to the policy challenges confronted in the era of trade policy reforms.The eight perennial crops — coconut, rubber, arecanut, pepper, coffee, cashewnut, cardamom and tea — account for more than 65 per cent of total cultivated area in the State. Despite crop-specific variations, the crisis entangling the perennial crops sub-sector is manifested in the form of growing market uncertainties and a strategic vacuum of potential avenues for survival within the production sector.Therefore, issues of the country‘s ‗perennial crops enclave‘ are revolving around a vicious circle of dualistic policy approaches without perspective planning and necessary co-ordination between the agencies under the Centre and the State‘s department of agriculture.The genesis of the issues that surfaced during the past two decades are closely related to the five important features, viz; (i) a higher initial investment; (ii) longer gestation period and economic life; (iii) dominant share of crop harvesting costs in the total operational costs; (iv) inherited ‗export market‘ orientation in a regional sense; and (v) an overarching responsibility of promotional agencies under the Centre, providing institutional support and implementing.The resultant instabilities in farm income had a strong bearing on the dilution of routine agro- management practices and the resultant deceleration/stagnation of growth rate in productivity observed in the cases of the two major crops, rubber (-2.53 per cent) and coconut (0.66 per cent), during the past one decade (2005-06 to 2014-15).The combined share of these two crops is more than 51 per cent in the total cropped area in the State. Alongside, there has been a growing

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disengagement of the peasantry from farming activities reinforced by concerted attempts to diversify the sources of household income. The perpetual dependence on hired labour for crop harvesting across size-classes, a predominant share of crop harvesting expenses (50-70 per cent) in the total operational costs and increases in wage rates confounded the crisis. Table: 1 Long Term Trends in Cropping Pattern in Kerala- Cash Crops Crops 1960-61 to 1980- 1980-81 to 2000- 2000-2001 to 2009- 81 2001 2010 Coconut 30.1 43.7 -16.8 Rubber 75.1 99.1 10.8 Coffee 242.6 47.2 0.1 Tea -3.9 1.9 0.0 Cardamom 88.3 -23.5 0.7 Pepper 8.3 84.5 -14.0 Cashew 160.1 -39.1 -43.0 Arecanut 152.4 39.4 16.2 Source: Economic Review; Statistics for Planning; Agricultural Statistics Table: 2 Long Term Trends in Cropping Pattern in Kerala- Food Crops Crops 1960-61 to 1980- 1980-81 to 2000- 2000-2001 to 2009- 81 2001 2010 Rice 2.9 -56.7 -32.9 Banana 10.9 88.6 6.7 Tapioca 1.1 -54.6 -32.7 Pulses -23.3 -58.1 -63.3 Ginger 5.5 -11.0 -52.8 Source: Economic Review; Statistics for Planning; Agricultural Statistics As evident, the cropping pattern underwent dramatic changes since 1961 through the 1980s and thereafter leading to the virtual collapse of the food production sector. The magnitude of decline in area under food crops has been beyond imagination in the 1990s and 2000s as the share of area under food crops had reached the lowest at 16 per cent by 2009-10 with the share of area under commercial crops peaking at 67 per cent. A crop-wise analysis may be quite interesting as the agrarian change was triggered by area expansion in few commercial crops, viz., coconut and rubber at the decline of major food crops, viz., rice and tapioca. When the relative share of coconut in the total cropped area had increased by about 8 per cent between 1960-61 and 2009-10, which of rubber had increased by 14 per cent during the same period. More importantly, growth in rubber area has been the highest, with an average growth of 53 per cent as compared to coconut (12%) between the sub-periods.In sharp contrast, area under rice, the staple food crop of Kerala, had declined by 57 per cent between 1980-81 and 2000-01 The 1980s was the period of transition as the state‘s agriculture sector experienced a critical phase of persistent stagnation during the decade as caused by a host of price and non-price factors. By and large(from 28% to 11.5% of TCA) and further by 33 per cent between 2000-01 and 2009-10.These factors included: a) a major crop shift in favour of commercial crops on account of loss of comparative profitability and high cost of production of food crops, especially, paddy; b) perceptible decline in the size of operational holdings; c) institutional constraints in the development of land and water resources; d) changed agrarian relations; e) dynamics of the agricultural labour market - scarcity of labour even at high wage rates; (f) loss of interest in traditional farming among farmers and neglect of less dignified farming operations by the labourers (Narayana and Nair, 1983; Kannan and Pushpangadan, 1988, 1990; Nair, 1997; Kannan, 1998; Thomas and Thomas, 1999); (g) relative profitability of cash crops, especially, rubber (George, 1999); and (h) effective institutional support mechanisms provided by the commodity development boards, such as the Rubber Board (George et al., 1988; Lekshmi and George, 2003; Viswanathan, 2005). 9 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

Distortions in Input Markets : The Land Reforms Act implemented in 1970 set a ceiling on the absolute holding size by the landlords and redistributed the surplus land among the landless labourers and poor peasants.Reports show a high rise in the number of agricultural holdings in Kerala from 19.06 lakh in 1966–67 to 20.22 lakh in 1970–71 and again to 54.18 lakh in 1990–91. While only 81 per cent of the holdings were below one hectare in 1966–67 before the implementation of the Land Reforms Act, it increased to 92.6 per cent in 1990–91, 95.17 per cent in 2000–01 and 96.32 per cent of the agricultural holdings in 2014–15. Thus, land reforms have resulted in the fragmentation of landholdings and the consequent loss of scale economies. At present, the percentage of marginal farmers with landholding size less than one hectare is the highest in Kerala among the Indian states, while the agricultural growth here is one among the least in India in 2012, according to the statistics provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.The lands, which were taken over from these entrepreneurs, as a result of land reforms, were distributed among cooperative societies formed by the Government under the dominance of political parties. This has only resulted in large scale corruption in farming practices, leading to a rise in the cost of operation and high cumulative losses, as well as production methods based on non-scientific methods by marginal farmers. Controls on Land Use : The land use control policies like the Land Utilisation Order, 1967, issued by the Government of Kerala, under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955xxv , and the Kerala Conservation of Paddy and Wetland Act, 2008, created disincentives to farmers through enforcing food crop cultivation, without considering the interests of peasants. There were incidents of widespread crop destruction led by powerful agricultural labour unions, targeted at farmers, who switched to cultivate more profitable crops in Kerala. The prices of paddy had not been remunerative in the state compared to its cost of cultivation, mainly the labour costs,despite input subsidies and infrastructure incentives provided to the farmers. At the same time, the order favoured rich farmers, who could afford leaving the land under paddy cultivation fallow since they had alternative sources of income. Misconceptions in Irrigation : Logically, the shift in cropping pattern goes a long way in explaining the sub-optimal performance of the irrigation sector in the state, as most irrigation systems have been technically designed for irrigating food crops, mainly, paddy. The eventual shift from food to cash crops had resulted in lack of effective demand for water for irrigation purposes in most parts of the state. It also obstructed the process of effective and timely implementation of irrigation systems in Kerala causing large-scale capacity under-utilisation in case of completed irrigation projects and non- commissioning of the ongoing schemes (Viswanathan, 2001). Technological Constraints : The technological constraints confronting the agriculture sector in the state relate mostly to the challenges posed by the available infrastructure facilities and levels of technology adoption across crops and regions. Moreover, the tiny structure of the holdings along with lack of proper irrigation8 facilities has resulted in lower levels of adoption of inorganic fertilizers (40%), plant protection measures (30%) and other farm level secondary investments in the coconut holdings in the state (Viswanathan, 2005). The technological constraints facing other crops, viz., cardamom, arecanut and banana may also be regarded as similar to that of coconut. Wetland Conversions : The fact that wetland agro-ecosystem provides valuable goods and services to society are more often than not overlooked in the policies of the state. Conversion of paddy involves irreversible damage of the ecosystem. There was a 65 per cent fall in the paddy wetland area in the last 30 years in Kerala. Though farmers are independent as individuals to decide on the use of farm lands, more often the conversion of the paddy wetlands is highly motivated by an urge to maximize the economic returns by converting paddy fields into garden crop lands or plots for real estate

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development. It emerges that majority of farmers are not aware of the long term impact of ecological and environmental imbalances that may result due to conversion of the wetland agro- ecosystems in the state. Environmental problems caused by deforestation, disruption of backwater ecosystems and paddy land conversion have already affected the livelihoods of large numbers of the economically backward sections in rural areas (Gopikuttan and Kurup, 2004; Kurian, 1995; Narayanan, 2003). Threat to Food Security : It is reported that the State‘s deficit in rice has increased steadily from 50 to 55 per cent during the early 1950s to mid-1970s to more than 80 per cent of its requirement at present (Gopikuttan and Kurup, 2004). Yet, scholars seem to be divided on the food security implications arising from decline in area under food crops in Kerala. For instance, Kannan (2011) argues that though Kerala has lost a major chunk of its rice area to non-food crops and non-economic as well as real estate activities, the concern about food insecurity is misplaced. On the contrary, Tharamangalam (2011) refutes such a claim by arguing the reverse. Kerala now produces less than 15 per cent of its food requirements, down from over 50 per cent in the 1950s. In line with Patnaik (2010) he points that Kerala‘s heavy dependence on food imports from neighbouring states (at higher costs) is bound to affect intake adversely for the lower fractals of the population unless their real incomes also rise adequately.Notwithstanding the two arguments, one might tend to take a realistic view that the domestic food security issue is a cause for concern, especially, in regions where farm livelihoods are severely constrained by limited resources and farming options. Conclusion : The disincentives generated by the successive governments in Kerala through imposing artificial barriers on the freedom of farmers and agricultural entrepreneurs have resulted in the collapse of agriculture in the state. The interests of farmers and market conditions were not considered while framing the policies and practices. The middlemen and intermediaries continue to benefit from these measures rather than the farmers.The protective practices that were supposed to favour food crops like paddy without considering the requirements of farmers have resulted in creating distortions in the agricultural market. This has resulted in disincentivising small and marginal farmers for paddy cultivation, favouring the rich and powerful. The distortions created in the different components of input market by various protective practices and policies include fragmentation of agricultural land, lack of innovative and scientific technologies in agricultural production, low mechanisation in agriculture supported by the governments and poor irrigation management, all of which resulted in hampering agricultural growth in the state. Along with these, distortions in the pricing, procurement and marketing of agricultural products caused by government interventions, following the model of a centralist-planned economy and not based on market conditions, as well as distortions in the credit delivery system by the governments have resulted in inhibiting the formation of productive capital in the agricultural sector. This crisis in agricultural sector in the state is mystified by several contradictions arising from the agriculture development model driven by considerations of ‗peasant rationality‘ alone, which in turn, has caused disruptions in the agrarian society destabilizing the livelihoods of a large segment of traditional food producers and farm workers. The scenario of agriculture development in the state also poses several developmental issues and policy as well as governance dilemmas, raising concerns on the conventional role of the state in protecting the farmers and farm workers by conserving the agro-ecosystems, natural resources and the environment that shape their livelihoods.From a policy angle, the ongoing rubber expansion programmes in the state should receive immediate interventions that restrict the further expansion of the crop compromising on the agro-ecosystems and the hydrological regimes served by the inland wetlands, including paddy fields. This also necessitates close co-ordination between the crop promotional agencies at the state level as well as the nationally sponsored commodity boards, such as the Rubber Board and Spices Board in matters of devising action plans for promoting integrated farming systems instead of the mutually exclusive promotional schemes as exist today.Development of technological solutions to address the labour market crisis in agriculture is an important challenge needing

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immediate attention across crops in the state. While some innovations are already being tried in case of plucking coconut and harvesting in rice, it is essentially important to evolve and scale up innovative models and incentive systems to address the labour market dilemmas in case of most of the crops in the state. The state should also devise means and ways of supporting the paddy farmers through proper incentive mechanisms by supporting rice production and paying premium price for procuring paddy from farmers. Since the basic constraint is both land and labour, solutions will focus on raising agricultural productivity and the incomes of farming households through a combination of farming and non-farming activities. Measures in covering risks in agriculture and other related activities should be a part of the new strategy. Perhaps the time has come for a stock- taking of the entire gamut of issues for meeting the challenges of agricultural development of Kerala‘s fast growing economy and fast changing society. References : 1. Devi, P. Indira (2010): ‗Pesticides in Agriculture – A Boon or a Curse? A Case Study of Kerala‘, Economic and Political Weekly, 45(26 & 27): 199-207 (June 26) 2. Government of Kerala (2011): Economic Review 2010, Government of Kerala, State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram. 3. Kannan, K. P. (2011): ‗Agricultural Development in an Emerging Non-Agrarian Regional Economy: Kerala‘s Challenges‘, Economic and Political Weekly, 46(9): 64-70 (February 26). 4. Ranjan V and K Pratap (2012): Current State of Agriculture in India 2012, NewDelhi: Golden Peacock Publication 5. Sharban K P and T P Shabana (2015): Agricultural Land Decline in Kerala; an Investigation, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 5, Issue 6, 1-3; Economic review, various issues. 6. Viswanathan, P. K. (2002): ‗Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Kerala: An Analysis of Missed Linkages‘, Review of Development and Change, 7(2): 279-313 (July – December).

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

MIGRATION OF WORKERS

Mrs. PRADNYA B. NIKAM Dr. S. A. Thakur Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, Head, Dept. of Geography, University of Mumbai S. P. K. College, Sawantwadi

Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Introduction : Migration is the movement of people from one place to another and this mobility is not of a casual nature, like a visit or a tour, but is with the purpose of living in the place of destination. (Sundari & Rukmini 1998). According to the Indian Census Commission, ‗A migrant is one who reports to the census enumerator that he was born in a place other than that of enumerator that he was born in a place other than that of enumeration and is not a commuter‘ (Bhaskar Rao et.al,1987). Migration is very common from rural to urban or one urban area to metro and megalopolis cities within the boundaries of countries and outside the countries. Migration in India past and present : Man is always found in his community. Without community he has consider himself very alone. Every community has its own identity, traditional thoughts and cultural activities. In India, migration in the past take place due to following reasons. Reasons of migration in ancient period :  Searching water  Agriculture land  Regions for suitable climatic condition  For the purpose of business gold, armed weapons, luxurious items etc.  Education in Aashram or Gurucul -Nalanda Vidyapeeth, Takshasheela. Reasons of migration in medieval period :  Settlement near kingdom  Migration for mines (coal, gold, other minerals)  Agricultural labour (plantation agricultural mainly)  Transportation of goods on ports and harbors  Political and religious purpose (establishing colonize institute)  Searching of new land for future (mainly Polynesian island, South African countries, potential land for mother country) Reasons of migration in present period :  Truly economic  Better education (higher education for experience)  Good environment (mainly after retirement, prefer hill station or native place or people belongs to elite groups)  Good job opportunity (safe and secure job)  Social issues (peaceful situation in countries or different areas) Following are some important characteristic of migration : 1. Migration has no limits. It is personal purpose or mass. 2. Duration of residence depend upon the work, community and political and economical factors. 3. Migration of natural hazards such as tsunami, landslide and flood or in decease is comparatively very less than the searching of water or savior condition of drought. 13 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

4. Migration is main cause diffusion of culture, language and thoughts. 5. It will increase a population of an industrial area at the same time density of population is less in rural areas or areas of no industrial footprints. 6. It changes the landscape of a Geographical area. Most of the cultivated land transform into industrial, markets and residential purpose etc. 7. Migration has no limits. It is personal purpose or mass. 8. Duration of residence depend upon the work, community and political and economical factors. 9. Migration of natural hazards such as tsunami, landslide, flood or in decease is comparatively very less than the searching of water or savior condition of drought. 10. Migration is main cause diffusion of culture, language and thoughts. 11. Duration of residence depend upon the work, community and political and economical factors. 12. Migration of natural hazards such as tsunami, landslide, flood or in decease is comparatively very less than the searching of water or savior condition of drought. Internal and International Migration in India : Migration in India mainly from rural to urban where distance from own place is short. After completing harvest period most the farmer have no job next four to five months .where the marginal land labour faced the problem of survive .This is the time of December to May when number of villagers workers poor people come to cities to search a job as a carpenter ,packaging , work on daily basis , transportation field etc. some of them earn quite well as they required .some are returned to home after May for further work of farm. Those who earn quite well thought they were settled in cities and try their best performance. In city, citizen who left there village more than 30 to 40 years ago continuously struggling for work because the wages which providing from the contractor are not same all the time. The cost of life sustainability in urban areas comparatively high than village life. It is very difficult to take action in both the situation, so migration is complex phenomena to explain. It shows extreme imbalance in material growth and successive plans. Uneducated, illiterate people, very poor, no skilled people are earn very low and this group in mainly clustered in slum and Ghettos. They have no idea about Government facilities. Lobo and Das (2001) state that ‗more often than not such population movements in India and elsewhere in Asia have been caused by ‗push‘ factor from rural areas, especially from households lacking support for raising a sustainable income from agriculture, livestock, wage- labour and non-agriculture activities.‘ It is makes the rural vacant and increase urban density of population which also started diminishing the gap between rural urban fringe zone. Bose (2000) has considered ‗better employment ‘as pull factor and ‗in search of employments as a push factor that affect migration. Banerjee–Guha (2000) maintain that the large cities of the country having limited interaction with their hinterlands actually exacerbated regional inequalities. Rapid urbanization and the concentration of economic activities in few locations, particularly in large cities are in inevitable outcome of a skewed economic and industrial development. manufacturing for instance, flocks to major urban centers to benefits from economics of agglomerations (Oberoi & Singh 1981) Urbanisation has been the most visible manifestation of the enormous population upsurge of the past four decades (Banerjee & Guha 2012). The important industrial regions of India where the migration of people found continuously increase for the better opportunity of jobs and social welfare. such example are Metro cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Pune, Bangalore, Delhi, Chennai and coastal cities of India etc. Beside this famous places migration of worker in source of manufacturing areas and distribution markets of an area such as Bangalore, Jharkhand, Assam, Bhopal, Himachal Pradesh, Goa and many more. In recently, observation of last two decade after post liberalization it means in the year after 1990-2000 when the economy of India began to start with new ideas and recovery. Majority of people from rural area migrate to various places of industrial expansion in India. The rate of internal migration from rural to urban even urban to urban is quite positive. The second phase of economy was year 2001-2011 where a drastic change observe. speed of migration from rural to urban continuously up due to various reasons. This migration shows the wider range of internal migration.

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(2011 Census : Part of Indian population consisting on migration) The census study of migration 2011 Census surveys are important for plans from the census 2011 elaborate that dependency on agriculture sector as well as primary sector started decline. Path of developing country like India give more stress on fundamental facilities like roads, sanitization, education etc. some who positive way development approach finding some negative aspects like increasing pressure on urban land, rates are goes high, slums are increasing, problem of social life and security of women labour is again on high risk. This census 2011 mention that migration during this period having various social, economical and political reasons. The fast growth of technology in digitalization of machineries, programming having burden to collect the large data of migration and their consequences. According to the census. When a person is enumerated in census at a different place than his /her birth place she/he is considered a migrant. This may be due to marriage, which is the most common reason for migration. For understanding the actual increase in migration in cities or other place census information of data play an important role to analysis the positive as well as negative impact. In India as per census 2001 about 307 million persons have been reported as migration by place of birth. Out of them about 259 million (84.2%), migrated from one part of the state to another i.e. from one village or town to another village or town. 42 million (2%) from out side the country. The data on migration on last residence in India as per census 2001 shows that total number of migrants has been 314 million. Out of these by last residence, 268 million (85%) has been intra state migrants. 41 million (13%) where interstate migrants and 5.1 million (1.6%) of outside of the country. Table No.1 Number of Intra-state & Inter-State Migrants in the country (Duration of years residence)

Category Migration by place of birth Percentage A Total population 1,028,610,328 B Total migrations 307,149,736 29.9 B.1 Migrants within the state of enumeration 258,641,103 84.2 B.11 Migrants from within the district 181,799,637 70.3 B.12 Migrant from other district of the state 76,841,466 29.7 B.2 Migrants from other states in India 42,341,703 13.8 B.3 Migrants from other countries 6,166,930 2.0 Source : Table D1 India, Census of India 2001

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Table No. 2 Rural urban place of last residence Total Rural Urban Total 97,560,320 61,428,374 36,131,946 Rural 73,949,607 53,354,376 20,595,231 Urban 20,655,277 6,266,503 14,388,774 Unclassified 2,955,436 1,807,495 1,147,941 Migration in Maharashtra : Maharashtra is vast state as well as consider as economical state of India. Table No. 3 Percentage of labour migration for different employment in urban. Self Regular Casual Total not in labour Status employed wage/salaried labour employment force Self employed 15.2 6.9 3.0 25.2 20.9 Regular 1.6 26.4 1.7 29.7 11.8 wage/salaried Casual labour 1.6 17.4 21.6 27.0 26.4 Total employed 5.5 2.5 4.0 3.5 16.5 Not in labour force 0.5 1.1 0.3 1.3 0.2 Migration in Mumbai city, Mumbai Suburb and Thane : 2001 % of Population 2011 % of Population Total Population 2.01cr. 2.35cr. Total migrants 0.71cr. 35.51 1.01 cr. 43.02 Migrants from 0.41cr. 57.43 0.46 cr. 45.92 Outside state Migrants from other 0.28 cr. 39.43 0.43 cr. 42.54 Mumbai is economical capital of India. Number of different kinds of jobs are available in Mumbai, Pune, Thane, Nagpur. Socially and Economically as well as culturally Maharashtra has it‘s own identity. Mumbai has present population around approximately 17 million in the year 2020. A such huge burden of population on small island with harmony and peace. Mumbai is one of the important business centre of the world. To control this economic activities CIDCO take initiative and Navi Mumbai emerged with the hub of industries and providing lots of jobs to youth. Migration in Maharashtra is a pull factor for all of those who having skilled, unskilled, techniques to run programs, hardworking people. Maharashtra is comparatively well industrialized and having good basic infrastructure, roads, good connectivity of railways and airports. Again, jobs provide a very wealthy package in industries at the top levels. Due to this Gravity migration in Maharashtra continuously increase from the last 50-60 years. The main reason of migration employment, Business, Education, Marriage, other. Here other means natural calamities mainly floods and droughts or scarcity of water and agricultural loss. ‗Marriage‘ is the most prominent reason of migration for female. Let‟s Discus population survey Maharashtra : This survey was conducted by the NSS of 64th round. Information collected of migration data for each household member of the sample household through through the employment– unemployment schedule. It is very tedious job but at the same time providing such minute information of particular person to person where he or she migrant for small duration of 6 months or two years or more than that.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

FLOODS IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DUARS IN WEST BENGAL

Dr. Moushumi Datta Professor & Vice-Principal, Nagindas Khandwala College, Mumbai

Research Paper Accepted on 28-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : Floods are a result of overflow of water during heavy combined with poor drainage. Floods have been a common occurrence in India.The research objectives are todiscuss some severe floods in India and to understand the causes of floods in Duars region of West Bengal. The present research is based on secondary data as the study is based on satellite imageries. A large number of rivers and streams originate and pass through the study area. In fact, the bulk of Duars population is concentrated in the riverine plains. Floods have a very detrimental effect on the population of the present study area by destroying crops, property, human and animal lives.River widening is another significant manifestation of the devastating flash floods in the study area. It is recommended that being a flood prone state, the citizens must be made aware and trained and disaster management system must be strengthened. Keywords : Floods, Satellite Imageries, Duars, Devastating, Disaster Management. Introduction : Floods are a result of overflow of water during heavy monsoons combined with poor drainage. Floods are probably the most recurring, widespread, disastrous and frequent natural hazardsof the world. India is one of the worst flood-affected countries, being second in the world afterBangladesh and accounts for one fifth of global death count due to floods. About 40 millionhectares or nearly 1/8th of India‘s geographical area is flood-prone. Floods like many other natural disaster have the capacity of causing massive destruction to property, economy and administration and loss of life. The following paper aims at analysing the floods of India and to discuss the floods in the region of Duars in West Bengal. The present research is based on secondary data as the study is based on satellite imageries. Review of Literature : (Asthana and Shukla, 2014) Several parts of India are affected by floods that devastate huge patches of land and human habitation. Villages and farmers are worst affected followed by urban infrastructure. Floods in 2008 and thereafter have been very destructive and prove that nature is more powerful than mankind. (Viju, 2019) In August 2018, huge boulders came rolling down as landslides destroying many regions along the Western Ghats in the hill towns of Kerala and Karnataka. This episode took lives of 499 people and many were evacuated. (Chadha and Pandya eds., 2019) There is no doubt that floods have been managed effectively by the State and Central Government, but, floods do not understand administrative boundaries. It has been affecting all possible states even if it has occurred in any one of the major rivers in India. Therefore, while tackling floods, cooperation is needed from all states so that an integrated effort can be taken to mitigate the effects of the same. Area of Study : The area of study chosen is the state of West Bengal. The area is extended between 260 15' 50" and 270 17' 00" North Latitudes and 880 13' 40" and 880 52' 58" East Longitudes. It is bounded in the north by Bhutan and Sikkim, in the east by Assam, and the south by Bangladesh

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and Koch Bihar district of West Bengal and in the west by part of Bangladesh and parts of districts of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts.

Research Objectives :  To discuss some severe floods in India.  To understand the causes of floods in Duars region of West Bengal. Research Methodology : The present research is based on secondary data as the study is based on satellite imageries. The satellite imageries are collected from the official website of Bhuvan through the flood monitoring portal. Satellite imageries have also been collected through Google Earth Pro. The imageries have been studied and the research paper is prepared. A literature review has been undertaken from relevant books available online. Major Floods in India : Floods have been a common occurrence in India. The floods in Mumbai in July 2005 was the first occurrence in the history of Mumbai. However, it became common thereafter. Mumbai is an island and has many low-lying areas which are affected by water-logging every monsoon season, but, the entire city being flooded was a rare scenario until 2005. Blocked drainages and poor maintenance of creeks was held responsible for the same. A lot of efforts were then taken by the administrative authorities to clear the drains. The floods caused many casualties and brought the life to a standstill. The episode created a sense of fear among the citizens. Year 2006 also experienced some flooding but did not cause much damage to life and property. However, in the recent years, flooding has started taking place again. In 2017 also, floods occurred in Mumbai and was considered as the second worst regional flooding that can be compared with the floods of 2005. It is said that due to climate change Mumbai received 468 mm of rainfall in 12 hours. In the current year, again, most of the parts of Maharashtra along with Mumbai faced flooding as a result of heavy rainfall and poor drainage. Flooding caused loss of property and animal life followed by human life. People were stuck in the premises for a long time and life came to a standstill once again. It is therefore high time that the Indian Meteorological Department issues timely warnings about heavy rainfall and the city needs to improve its disaster management system. In 2017, there was a devastating flood in Gujarat which occurred due to heavy inflow to Dharoi Dam and Dantiwada Dam. In the same year in West Bengal cyclone Komen caused heavy rainfall in July and caused dangerous floods. In 2017, Bihar flood was the result of water discharge into the rivers of Gandak and Kosi. Northeast India experienced flood in this year due to overflowing of Brahmaputra river. 18 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

In 2016 Assam floods affected 1.8 million people in India. In 2015 floods affected the Coromandel coast and most particularly the city of Chennai. Parts of Gujarat also experienced floods in the same year. In 2014 Kashmir floods affected about 1000 villages of Jammu and Kashmir state. In 2013 Uttarakhand experienced flash floods due to heavy rain. According to the report of India Today dated 9th October, 2019 more than 2100 people have lost their lives and about 46 reported to be missing due to floods in India in the current year. Infact, till September 2019 more than 25 lakh people in 22 states were affected. Results, Analysis and Discussion : Alarge number of rivers and streams originate and pass through the study area. In fact, the bulk of Duars population is concentrated in the riverine plains. At diluvial andriverine plain the gradient of landform decreases sharply and the sedimentation rate increases. These sediments, gravels, pebbles and boulders choke the river basins and it becomes flood prone (Ghosh et. al, 2008).

The entire study area is well drained by various major rivers flowing gently from north to south according to the regional slope of the area. The major drainage systems areTista, Jaldhaka, Torsa, Raidak and Sankosh.Other rivers in the area are ChelNadi, Dharla, Mukaddam Nadi, Jarda Nadi, Satanga, Kaljani, Dima, Jainti, GangadharandMahananda to name a few. The length of some of the rivers are Tista 41.186 kms, Torsa 40.567 kms, Jaldhaka 30.362 kms, Chel 36.159 kms etc. Tistawas originally a river of Ganga basin as per history. Frequent floods in the lower reaches have forced many rivers to change their coursesin the past. Following a disastrous flood in 1787, River Tista which used to flow into the Ganga deserted its channel and emptied itself into the Brahmaputra through a still more ancient channel. Since the flood of 1954, river Jaldhaka has shifted towards East near Tandu Tea Garden in Nagrakata block. The river devastated approximately 10 km of forest and almost 50% of the Tandu Tea Garden. To prevent the tendency of avulsion of Jaldhaka to river Bamni, an embankment had to be constructed. Floods have a very detrimental effect on the population of the present study area by destroying crops, property, human and animal lives. The 1968 mega flood on the Tistariver in Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts was an example of such disaster. It caused devastating floods (water level is 10 m or more above the danger level) in the area. The devastating Tista flood of 1968 brought havoc in the region. Thereafter another flood in 1993 in Kalchini and Alipurduar blocks caused severe damage to livestock and properties along with severe erosion and degradation of agricultural land. Due to frequent floods, many areas under productive agriculture become uncultivable as there is deposition of sand. The Jaldhakais a trans-boundary river which originates from high mountain fronts in Sikkim and Bhutan Himalayas and flows southward across Bhutan into the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. Since the flood of 1954, river Jaldhaka was shifting towards east near Tandu tea garden in Nagrakata block. The river devastated 10 km of forest and almost 50% of the Tandu tea garden. To prevent the 19 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

tendency of avulsion of Jaldhaka to river Bamni, an embankment had to be constructed. In the late 90‘s another shifting took place. Jaldhaka, by breaching the left bank embankment avulsed into river Doikhowa and ruined a huge area of north-western part of Dhupduri block. Reasons for high frequency of floods in the lower piedmont plains of the region are also due to excessive and continuousrainfallof several days in the catchment areas of the rivers. The Duars is among the rainiest parts at the Himalayan margin and it has a normal seasonaldistribution of rainfall, with 80–90% concentrated in the rainy season and a slight to meagre rain during thewinter (0–50 mm). Mean annual rainfall fluctuates between 3000 and 6000 mm and the highest totals occurringclose to the steep front of the Lesser Himalaya. Clustering of heavy and continuous rain, noted either in everyyear or at 1–3 year intervals, is a very important factor from the geomorphologic point of view. Sudden bursting of artificial embankmentson the rivers may also cause floods in the region. Soil erosionis also remarkable inthe catchment area of the rivers due to high deforestation and unscientific cultivation on the hill slopes. The siltsand debriscollected, are carried by the rivers from the hills and simultaneously are deposited on theirriverbeds. Thus, gradual rise of riverbeds results a severe bank erosion, channel degradation, and diversion withmarked changes of channel pattern. Numerous paleo-channels, valley fills and aggradational channels have thus been formed in the study area which are now occasionally used as spilled channels and usually marked as abandoned channels. The marked water level fluctuation of Jaldhaka and Diana clearly reveal the flow characteristics and subsequent fluvial dynamics in relation to flood level situation in the study region. River widening is another significant manifestation of the devastating flash floods in the study area. Rivers tend to wide their valley to cope with excessive discharge during flash floods as well as to make up for the loss in the cross sectional area due to siltation of beds. Study on the major rivers in the area revealed that such increase in some sections have been as high as 250% during the last eight years. Comparative analysis of the old topographical maps and recent satellite imageries show that most of the small and medium rivers in this area expanded as much as 2-3 times in their valley width during the last 100 years. Due to flash floods there is a destruction of rich tropical forests. Bank erosion and river channel shifting has also resulted in loss of acres of valuable tea gardens, agricultural fields and has disturbed the lines of communication. In July 2018 there was severe flood in this region in which a number of tea gardens were flooded. The worker‘s quarters were also under water in some of the gardens. In July 2019 landslides were triggered due to continuous floods in this region. In fact, parts of the study area was cut off from Siliguri for a few days. Conclusion : The study concludes that floods have caused a massive destruction wherever they have occurred. The images have helped to understand the study area that has undergone damage due to flooding. Land uses like built up area, natural water bodies and tea production have been affected by the floods in Duars region of West Bengal. Loss of many lives has been reported and livelihood had come to a standstill. Recommendations :  Being a flood prone state, the citizens must be made aware and trained to save their life during a flood situation.  Steps should be taken to provide immediate relief during the time of floods.  The disaster management system must be strengthened not only in the study area but in the whole country References :  Asthana, V. and Shukla, A. (2014) : ‗Water Security in India: Hope, Despair, and the Challenges of Human Development‘, Bloomsbury Publishing Inc., New Delhi.  Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W., (2000) : Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation (4th Edition). John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 736.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

USE OF AGRO METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS IN AGRICULTURE

Mr. Rajesh S. Kamble Dr. S. B. Jadhav Research Student Research Guide & Principal Rajashri Shahu Arts, Commerce & Sci. College, Pathri, Tq. Phulambri, Dist. Aurangabad.

Research Paper Accepted on 28-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : Meteorology is the science of atmosphere that includes both the weather and the climate. This study includes some methodological instruments that help to collect physical, dynamic and chemical state of the atmosphere. Here, I am going to give a clear concept about some most important meteorological or weather instruments and their usage that will make you realize how blessed we are because of these instruments and how they help to collect accurate weather data. Agro meteorological observatories are the stations at which elements of climate related to agriculture are observed to explore crop environment relationship. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has divided agro met observatories into 4 categories- Principal, Ordinary, Auxiliary and Specific purpose. Agro meteorological instruments are the equipments used to sample the state of the atmosphere to allow the farmers, agronomists, and researchers to monitor most of the weather conditions that affect plant health. Introduction : Until the 18th century, people were utterly dependent on sensory observations for any weather data, i.e., they understood the wind direction through the movement of leaves or estimated the time of rain through the number of clouds in the sky. Now, the time has changed. Today, we are blessed by modern technology which includes different weather instruments that help us to accumulate accurate weather data. Meteorology is the science of atmosphere that includes both the weather and the climate. This study includes some methodological instruments that help to collect physical, dynamic and chemical state of the atmosphere. Here, I am going to give a clear concept about some most important meteorological or weather instruments and their usage that will make you realize how blessed we are because of these instruments and how they help to collect accurate weather data. Agro meteorological observatories are the stations at which elements of climate related to agriculture are observed to explore crop environment relationship. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has divided agro met observatories into 4 categories- Principal, Ordinary, Auxiliary and Specific purpose. Agro meteorological instruments are the equipments used to sample the state of the atmosphere to allow the farmers, agronomists, and researchers to monitor most of the weather conditions that affect plant health. Objective : 1. To list the instruments used in recording Weather 2. To point out the importance of measuring and recording weather for agricultural uses Weather, as opposed to climate, is the short term condition of the atmosphere of a particular place(small area).which is therefore recorded for a short period of time as an hour or a day (24 hours) The weather condition in a given place and time may be described as either sunny, rainy windy, frosty, hot, cool etc. on the other hand, Climate is the average condition of the atmosphere of a region(large area) recorded over a long period of time usually after 35 years. Climate of a place therefore can be described as equatorial, tropical temperate, desert climate etc.

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Table No. 1 : Agro meteorological observatory Instrument Height from ground level Height from In feet Instrument ground level approximately Sunshine recorded 3.68 m 12 Anemometer 3.08 m 10 Wind vane 3.08 m 10 Automatic rain gauge 75 cm 204 Ordinary rain gauge 30 cm 0.9 Evaporation pan 30 cm 0.9 Stevenson screen 1.22 m 4.0 Thermometers : 1. These consist of enclosed tubes with a reservoir ―bulb" at the bottom. As the air gets hotter, the level of the liquid rises and, as the air gets cooler, the level falls. 2. Thermograph - Automatic self recording thermometers which mark the prevailing temperature continuously on graph paper are called Thermograph. Uses of thermometers in agriculture : By measuring temp. farmers should control the losses due to- Chilling injury (When the night temperature is below 15°C), Freezing injury, Scorching & Burning off. In general, High temperature during booting stage results in pollen abortion & for maximum dry matter accumulation optimum temp is required. Table No. 2 : Favorable Temperature for Crops Maximum Minimum Crops Optimal Centigrade Centigrade Corn 22-25 32-34 20 Wheat 20-25 38 05 Rice 30-33 37-40 18-22 Potato 15-20 28-34 12 Soybean 25-28 37-40 10-14 Under low soil temperature conditions, nitrification is inhibited and the intake of water by roots is reduced. Extreme soil temperatures injure plants and thereby affect growth. In COTTON, high soil temperature causes stem scorches at the ground level called as Stem girdle. Anemometers : Anemometers are instruments used for the measurement of wind speed. The most common type anemometer is the Robinson Cup Anemometer. Now-a-days digital anemometers are also used for the measurement of wind speed. Ultrasonic Anemometer-This instrument consists of a number of ―Z" shaped sensors/transducers through which sonic pulses are transmitted and received. These pulses measure the wind speed very accurately. Uses of thermometers in agriculture : It is important to know wind speed for spray application and for the design of wind protection. Early in the morning, when wind speeds are low (<3kmph), may seem to be a good time to apply herbicides. Extreme winds cause mechanical damage to crops (for example, lodging or leaf damage). In general plant growth appears to be inhibited by wind speed more than 10km/hr. Moderate turbulence promotes the consumption of CO2 by crops during photosynthesis. Action of wind on soil causes soil erosion and transport of particles and dust. Wind vane : Wind vane is an instrument that indicates the direction of wind from which the wind is blowing. It consists essentially of a broad arrow head placed in ball bearings to enable the arrow to move freely in the horizontal plane. The arrow indicates the direction of wind.

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Uses of Wind vane in agriculture : Wind direction is also considered for spray application. Cross pollination occurs at the direction of wind. Pscychrometer : This is an instrument used to measure humidity (A humidity reading is achieved by comparing temperature readings from a wet bulb and a dry bulb thermometer). Table No. 3 : Favorable Temperature for Crops

Diff. between Dry bulb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 None 0.5 1.0 1.5 9.0 9.5 14.5 15.0 18.0 and Wet bulb temperature

Relative Humidity 100% 96% 93% 89% 44% 42% 19% 17% 5%

Uses of Psychrometers in agriculture A reading of 100% RH- creates the possibility of rain. Transpiration and water requirements of plants are dependent on humidity. Extremely high humidity enhances the growth of some saprophytic and parasitic fungi, bacteria and pests, the growth of which causes extensive damage to crop plants. Extremely low humidity reduces the yield of crops. The Grain equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is dependent on the relative humidity and the temperature of the air. Table No. 4 Relation between grain EMC relative humidity Relative Humidity (%) Grains 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Equilibrium Moisture Content (% wb) at 250 C Barley 8.5 9.7 10.8 12.1 13.5 15.8 19.5 26.8 Shelled 8.3 9.8 11.2 12.9 14.0 15.6 19.6 23.8 Maize Paddy 7.9 9.4 10.8 12.2 13.4 14.8 16.7 - Milled 9.0 10.3 11.5 12.6 12.8 15.4 18.1 23.6 Sorghum 8.6 9.8 11.0 12.0 13.8 15.8 18.8 21.9 Wheat 8.6 9.7 10.9 11.9 13.6 15.7 19.7 25.6 Rain gauges : Manual rain gauges collect water in a tube so one can see how much rainfall is received. Automatic rain gauge (siphon type or the tipping- bucket type) help to track daily, weekly, and monthly rainfall history on a chart mounted on a drum which rotates round a vertical axis once per day. Uses of Rain gauge in agriculture : Knowing the amount of rainfall received, farmers should plan for amount of irrigation according to crop water requirement. The amount of rainfall is the most important determinant of the type of crop raised. Wet crops are raised in wet zone and dry crops in the dry zone. Measurement of rainfall can greatly aid in the overall goal to improve plant health and yields, to preserve valuable resources, to use inputs more effectively, and to minimize the overall impact on the environment. Table No. 4 : Relation between grain EMC relative humidity Sr. Water Requirement Crops No. (cm) 1 Rice 90-250 2 Wheat, Sorghum, Soybean, Tobaco 45-65 3 Maize, Groundnut 50-80 4 Sugarcane 150-250

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5 Soybean 45-70 6 Cotton 70-130 7 Potato 60-80 Evaporimeter : Evaporimeter is the instrument that measures the rate of evaporation of water into the atmosphere, sometimes called an atmometer. A variety of evaporation pans are used throughout the world. The standard USWB Class-A pan evaporimeter is the most widely for finding evaporation from the free water surface. Evaporation is measured daily as the depth of water (in mm) evaporates from the pan. Uses of Evaporimeter in agriculture : For Irrigation scheduling. Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers to understand how much water their crops will need. For reducing the effect of evaporation and transpiration losses. Daily Epan readings provide a practical basis for estimating daily ETc by use of a pan factor (Kp) and thus determining the amount of water required to replace crop water use. A pan coefficient (Kp) has been used to convert pan evaporation (Epan) to grass-reference evapotranspiration (ET0), an important component in water management of irrigated crops.

Sunshine recorder : Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder which uses a spherical glass lens to focus the sun rays on a specially designed tape. When the intensity exceeds a pre- determined threshold, the tape burns. The total length of the burn trace is proportional to the number of bright hours.

Uses of Sunshine recorder in agriculture : Sunshine, directly through radiation, and indirectly through its effect upon air temperatures, influences the distribution of crops. By using photodiode based readings, farmers should predict an idea about dry matter yield in advance. Evaporation and transpiration losses can be estimated.

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Irrigation should be managed to avoid water stress during periods of high solar radiation and high temperature Barometers : Barometers are used to measure the current air pressure at a particular location in "inches of mercury" or in ‗mill bars‘ (mb). [29.92 inches of mercury is equivalent to 1013.25 mb]. The commonly used barometer in meteorological observatories is Fortin‘s barometer. Barograph : Continuous recording of pressure is made with this instrument. Uses of Barometer in agriculture : Atmospheric pressure has no direct influence on crop growth. It is, however an important parameter in weather forecasting. Falling air pressure usually means that warmer, moister air is coming, so there will be wet weather. Low-pressure systems are associated with cloudy, rainy, or windy weather. Rising air pressure usually means that cooler, drier air is coming, so there will be fair weather. A rapid increase in atmospheric pressure pushes the cloudy and rainy weather out, clearing the skies and bringing in cool, dry air.

Conclusion : 1. Agro meteorological instruments have great practical utility in Agriculture. 2. They are used in protection of agriculture against adverse climatic risks (crop losses due to drought or floods). 3. Weather information obtained through agro-meteorological instruments are used in- i) Efficient land use planning ii) Determining suitable crops for a region iii) Risk analysis of climate hazards and in iv) Adoption of farming methods and choice of farm machinery. References : 1. Agricultural Meteorology - G.S.L.H.V. Prasada Rao 2. https://study.com 3. https://sciencing.com 4. https://the-weather-station.com

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

FLOOD : CLIMATE CHANGE THE ONLY REASON FOR FLOODING IN THE WESTERN GHATS - A GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

DR. PRAKASH B. HOLER, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Geography Shri Kumareswhar Arts & Commerce College, Hangal - 581 104, Di. Haveri (Karnataka)

Research Paper Accepted on 25-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : Historically floods are known to cause damage to property and life leaving a long term traumatic impact on those who get affected by them. The intensity and magnitude of floods is supposed to be increasing world over in the recent decades because of climate change and global warming phenomenon. The Western Ghats are globally important, not only being rich in biodiversity, but primarily because of the role, they play in influencing climatic regime and annual precipitation in Indian subcontinent. The climate change has caused uncertainty and wide fluctuations in precipitation pattern from extreme droughts to heavy rains and periodic cloud bursts. Thus, floods, which were locally almost unknown, are becoming a potential disaster in the earlier relatively safe and climatically stable areas such as Western Ghats. Introduction : Disaster is a natural or human, caused phenomenon, which causes serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic and environmental losses which elicited the ability of the affected community, society to cope using its resources. Floods are a common feature in the country that occurs every year in many parts including South India. A flood occurs when the Geomorphic Equilibrium in the river system is disturbed because of intrinsic or extrinsic factors or when a system crosses the geomorphic threshold. Flooding in a river due to aggradations of river bed (intrinsic threshold). Flooding in a river due to heavy rainfall (extrinsic threshold) . Floods in major cities especially during rainy season are proving to disastrous not only to the environment but also have serious implications for human life and property. Types of Floods : Flash floods River floods Coastal Floods Urban Flood According to their duration flood can be divided into different categories: Slow-Onset Floods: Slow Onset Floods usually last for a relatively longer period, it may last for one or more peeks, or even months. Rapid-Onset Floods: Rapid1Onset Floods last for a relatively shorter period, they usually last for one or two days only. Flash Floods: Flash Floods may occur within minutes or fe1w hours after heavy rainfall, tropical storm, failure of dams or levees or releases of ice dams. And it causes the greatest damages to society.

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FLOODS IMPACT :  Human Loss  Property Loss  Affects the Major Roads  Disruption of Air / Train / Bus services  Spread of Water-borne Communicable Diseases  Communication Breakdown  Electricity Supply Cut off  Economic and Social Disruption  Increase in Air / Water Pollution FLOOD CONTROL :  In many countries around the world, waterways prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent waterways from overflowing their banks.  In the riparian zone near rivers and streams, erosion control measures can be taken  to try and slow down or reverse the natural forces that cause many waterways  to meander over long periods of time.  Flood controls, such as dams, can be built and maintained over time to try and reduce the occurrence and severity of floods as well. OBJECTIVE OF STUDY : . To identify the causes of floods . To describe the overall impact of flooding . To formulate a strategy for the flood affected areas in Western Ghats with reference to Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, Recovery. HYPOTHESES : . Change in rainfall and land use patterns . Moving away from a culture in tune with nature . Storing water instead of letting rivers flow METHODOLOGY : Scientific study of any problem requires a systematic investigation using appropriate method and procedures in order to arrive at a reliable unbiased and practical conclusion. Beginning with a general description of the study, the data base and the analytical tools used in the present study are discussed in this paper.

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CLIMATE CHANGE THE REASON FOR FLOODING IN THE WESTERN GHATS : Our earth has taken billions of years for its formation and to bring life forms on it. It is the only living planet that we are aware of. Every natural system is so well engineered that most of it still remains beyond our knowledge. Western Ghats, known to be older than the Himalayas, stabilized after sustaining severe climatic variations ever since its formation. The combination of rich vegetation, porous soil and rocks on the mountains helps in percolation, making water sources and rivers perennial, with a large quantity of water available continuously. An overflowing bridge near Khandya. The landscape is also ecologically sensitive because of the same factors. RAINFALL TRENDS AND VARIABILITY IN WESTERN GHATS : In the Western Ghats region for the 1931–2015 periods, It shows a negative trend in the southern and positive trend in the northern regions during the period. These opposite trends (i.e. positive in the northern and negative in the southern region) are mostly restricted to the upstream flow of low level westerlies. Therefore, any change in the low level westerlies during the period will lead to change in the rainfall pattern over the windward side of Western Ghats. The topography of Western Ghats also affects the lifting of low level westerlies as a mountain barrier, and therefore, the low level westerlies start to uplift from the offshore and form shallow convection over the windward side. A study by Sandeep and Ajayamohan (2015) found that the changes in the low level flow modified the rainfall pattern by drying over the south and flooding over the north. It shows negative trends in rainfall in the southern region, with high values over the area bounded by 75.5°E–76.5°E and 11°N–12°N. The coastal regions south of 13°N experience dry conditions as evidenced by the negative trends in rainfall there. In the northern region, an increasing trend is observed north of 13.5°N up to 17°N. The wetting trend is more in the low altitude plains, oriented southeast to northwest between longitudes 73.75°E and 74.75°E and latitudes 14°N and 16°N. To closely examine these contrasting trends, we considered the regions of opposite rainfall The rainfall data considered is only for the continental region and for the period from 1931 to 2015 (85 years), as these regions do not exhibit any significant trends in rainfall prior to the year 1931. The time series of rainfall and corresponding linear trends, and slopes for the northern and southern regions. The average positive trend in rainfall over northern region and is statistically significant at the 99% confidence interval. The rate of decrease in the southern region is relatively higher than that in the northern region. The variability of rainfall is also large in the southern region as shown by the correspondingly large standard deviation there. The anomalies of rainfall in north and south regions show distinct differences in interannual and decadal time scales. The base period for computing anomalies in rainfall is 1986–2015 for both regions. The bars in the figure represent the year-to-year variability and the horizontal lines represent the 11-year running mean. It is clear that the southern region has positive anomalies (excess rainfall) in the past decades and negative anomalies (deficit rainfall) in the recent decades. In the northern region, the earlier decades are deficit years and recent decades are surplus years. The interannual variability of rainfall in both the regions shows almost similar variation, and the correlation coefficient between the two rainfall time series is 0.35 with a significance at 1% level, suggesting the influence of monsoon flow in both regions. however, this variability shows an out-of-phase relationship between north and south regions. CHANGE IN RAINFALL AND LAND USE PATTERNS : With the mountains blocking the south west monsoon winds from the Arabian Sea, receiving continuous heavy rainfall of 125 to 250 millimeters a day was quite normal in the Malnad

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area, a region in the Western Ghats in the southern state of Karnataka. The number of rainy days ranged between 90 and 120 with an average annual rainfall of about 1500 to 3000 mm. But, in the last few years, the rainfall pattern has changed drastically. Chikkamagaluru district in Karnataka, in recent days, along with other areas of Western Ghats, have witnessed the worst climate disasters in their history. While prima facie it may seem that global warming and climate change are playing Landslide at Madhugundi in Chikkamagaluru district a role, there can be no denying that land use change has also contributed to this calamity. Floods and landslides in the human habitation areas with undisturbed forests remaining unaffected by heavy rains is proof enough for the whacking disturbance caused by people in the landscape. It is also observed that major affected areas during the calamity are repeatedly disturbed water catchment and sensitive areas categorized as ‗highly susceptible to landslides‘ by Geological Survey of India. To name a few – Balur, the birth place of river Hemavathi; Kalasa, the catchment of river Bhadra, Shringeri, the catchment of river Tunga and Charmadi Ghats of Chikkamagaluru. Normally when it rains, water first seeps into the earth. After absorption, the land leaves out the excess water that flows in the form of rivers. Steep mountains evolved with flowing water system with hardly any natural stagnant water bodies. Water flow is naturally broken and slowed down at every stage by grass, shrubs, trees and other vegetation. It is therefore that many rivers taking birth in the Western Ghats, unlike the north Indian rivers, do not have rapids. Slow movement of rivers, availability of plenty of water throughout the year and rich biodiversity has been complementary factors in Malnad. MOVING AWAY FROM A CULTURE IN TUNE WITH NATURE : The culture and livelihood practices of people in Malnad also were in tune with the landscape and ecology. Rain, rivers, fire, air, wildlife, forests and trees were worshipped, as the ancestors knew the power of natural forces. Very few people lived on the mountains in scattered areas and practiced organic farming. Paddy was grown in swamps and marsh lands and coffee with natural tree cover on the hills. Cultivation of land supported the natural process of retaining water in the valleys and maintaining temperature on the mountains. There was a culture inclined more to food and clothing based on respect to land. There was a specific time for every activity influenced by natural factors – a time to sow, to harvest, to extract trees, to restrict diet etc. All of this seems to be a forgotten culture today. Without giving much importance or understanding of the structure, land has been repeatedly assaulted in various ways, the severity of which probably increased in the last 15 to 20 years. Commercialization has taken a toll on nature. Forest spread has drastically reduced with increasing human population and growing needs. The way our land was used, has been modified as opposed to the natural geography of the area. STORING WATER INSTEAD OF LETTING RIVERS FLOW: Water in catchment areas is collected and stored at the source itself in plantations for irrigation purposes, without allowing it to flow its natural course. This is a trend that did not previously exist. To give a rough calculation of water stored in these tanks – a one acre land with a five feet long embankment stores up to 220,000 square feet or 6,230,400 liters of water weighing 6,230 tones. Going by the thumb rule calculation of construction industry, this weight is roughly equivalent

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to a building with at least 50 houses of 1,200 sq. ft. area each. If every 50-acre coffee plantation has a water tank of this size, one can imagine the pressure built up on these sensitive lands. Adding to it are the numerous mini hydroelectric projects, check dams and reservoirs that store huge quantities of water. Trees that play a vital role in maintaining the temperature are fast disappearing. Arabica plantations of coffee have been converted to Robusta on a massive scale. As a result, native growth shade trees in the coffee plantations, that naturally maintain humidity for coffee cultivation, have been removed and artificial humidity is created using sprinkler system and stored water. With the recent introduction of Brazilian way of growing coffee directly under the sun as opposed to the traditional way of growing them under the shade, the tree cover in plantations has further deteriorated. Even wherever trees are seen, native species have been replaced by monoculture of silver oak. Widening of roads is also wiping out hundreds of years old trees on the roadsides. Permanent loss of natural canopy has increased temperature and exposed the fragile lands directly to the sun and rain. Many paddy fields have also disappeared and are mostly replaced by areca nut plantation. Even worse is that the fields have been turned into residential plots, concretized into houses, home stays, hotels and resorts. So the majority of the marsh lands are A landslide at Madhugundi in Chikkamagaluru district gone and water has been completely drained. This is a dangerous trend that is moving towards coffee plantations too. Extreme use of weedicides and pesticides in farms and plantations have killed the fertility of soil in addition to insects, birds and other small creatures that play a vital role in the ecological cycle. Further, with the introduction of mechanized earth movers, every area has been excavated and every water stream has been diverted to a damaging level. Legal/illegal sand mining and land grants/encroachment of river beds and forests have been rampant even though they are prohibited under the law. NATURE TOURISM AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT : With the promotion of nature tourism, the inflow of people to these areas have gone up. As per 2016 records of the tourism department, Chikkamagaluru district with a resident population of about one million, recorded the visit of a whopping 8.5 million tourists. To accommodate such a huge number of people, more and more home stays, resorts and tourist facilities have been built. Increased activities, particularly during weekends have caused tremendous stress on limited resources, in addition to the water sources being littered and severely polluted. Beyond all, large scale development projects such as highways, hydropower, river diversion, pipelines and power lines are implemented by chopping off mountain slopes, clearing forests, blasting rocks with disregard to the susceptibility of the area. Over the years, we have systematically killed the natural balancers and caused irrevocable damage to the landscape. With just one big rain, mountains that withstood climatic variations with great stability for millions of years have become unstable and started to slide down. The land has contracted so much so that water runoffs are very quick and rivers are flowing fast with rapids. Since there is no percolation, the already exploited groundwater is not recharging and the perennial rivers are running almost dry in summer. Meddling with land has had a direct relationship with hydrology, geography, ecology and the climate disaster. As a result, we have been experiencing severity of both droughts and floods in the last two to three years.

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The cost of this ecological imbalance is quite high. As per the official report of Chikkamagaluru district administration, nine people died and 1631 people were displaced due to recent rains. Additionally. In terms of property loss, 950 km of road, 2065 electric poles, 159 bridges, 34 lakes were damaged and 45 villages lost their power connection. Around 1565 hectares of agricultural lands were damaged. All of this accounting to an estimated loss of rupees 1.40 billion to the economy. In hindsight, it seems that we probably became too complacent in our biodiversity-rich area and conveniently ignored our own tradition and culture towards the land. In the absence of appropriate governance, lack of regulations and guidelines of land use, it is the local population that that face the brunt of the loss and destruction. It is high time that we start respecting the land we depend on, protect our forests and secure our future. If we do not learn now, we never will. MITIGATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR THE FLOOD IN WESTERN GHATS : Floods are now an annual nightmare in many parts of southern and western India. Valleys in the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala that weren‘t considered flood-prone until recently are at risk. These floods appear to be getting more severe. Climate change is causing stronger and more erratic rainfall with recurrent floods in low-lying areas while population growth is putting more people in risky areas. And another problem comes from deforestation in the mountain range where much of the water first fell in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats run for 1,600km in parallel with India‘s west coast, from Gujarat right down to Tamil Nadu at the tip of the subcontinent. It is – or was – a picturesque landscape of serene valleys, steep gorges and virgin forests. Yet recurring floods and landslides in the mountains, hills and areas downstream (between the Ghats and the sea) show that India must rethink its environmental law to balance the needs of nature and humans. The mountains are teeming with life. Though they cover only a small part of India‘s total land area, the Ghats are home to more than 30% of the country‘s species of plants, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals, including both wild elephants and tigers. Its combination of unique species and habitat loss means UNESCO has recognized it as one of eight global “hottest hotspots” of biodiversity. Climate change is already having an obvious impact, with unprecedented rains in monsoon seasons and severe drought and dry rivers in summer. And as the human population has grown, people have chopped down the forests and replaced them with spice, tea, coffee and rubber plantations. Thousands of illegal stone quarries now also operate in the Ghats, where mountainsides are demolished to generate stones and sand for the construction industry. Deforestation and the use of highly destructive explosives mean these areas are prone to increased seismic tremors and landslides. Large dams on major rivers offer renewable energy yet also raise another set of environmental problems. In Kerala, many are located in eco-sensitive parts of the Western Ghats, with some dating back to British rule. As demand for energy increases, India plans to build more dams which in turn could lead to massive deforestation and ecosystem destruction. All this makes flooding more severe, as deforestation in the catchment area of a river reduces the land‘s ability to retain water. Whether triggered by damming, deforestation, or exacerbated by climate change, human- induced natural disasters in the region have pointed to a need for stronger environmental protection laws. Existing legislation primarily focuses on pollution control, meaning the law has little to say about preventing or even managing floods which result from mismanagement of dams or too much riverside development. CONCLUSION : The Western Ghats are south India‘s lifeline, with millions dependent on the range either directly or indirectly. These mountains need protection. However, while new development in the region continues to be human-centric, the entire concept of nature preservation is relegated. To protect the Western Ghats, what we require is an attitude that recognizes the significance of these

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mountains, and that will involve specific laws. The Western Ghats mountain chain that lies parallel to west coast of India has highly heterogeneous rainfall. The average seasonal rainfall in the west coast is about 300 cm, which decreases towards west with the terrain elevation, but rainfall peaks are normally observed in low elevated areas. The rainfall over Western Ghats behaves differently in the north and south sectors (both rainfall and its variability) and it also shows large interannual variability. Our study finds that the rainfall in north is increasing and that in south is decreasing, and they are statistically significant at the 99% confidence interval. These results suggest slow change in the climate of the peninsular region, as the Western Ghats mountain chain is highly influential in modulating the monsoon rainfall in southern India, and hence, the study cautions about the changes in regional precipitation and climate patterns.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF TEHSIL-WISE GENERAL LANDUSE PATTERN IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA

Gurav S. T. Dr. D. C. Kamble Research Student Research Guide Department of Geography D. K. A. S. C. College Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Ichalkaranji

Research Paper Accepted on 30-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 ABSTRACT : Land is the basic resource of human society. Its utilization shows a mutual relationship between the prevailg environmental conditions of particular region and man. Land use is the surface utilization of all developed and unoccupied land on a specific point, at a given time and space. landuse pattern of the Ratnagiri district of Southern Konkan region under study differs from the tehsil to tehsil, due to the location and physical setting, the existing pattern of landuse, is shown in figure appears to have been resulted from a process of land exploitation within the frame of physical socio economic complex and modified by the expansion of irrigation and the growth of population. To avoid fluctuation and get reliable result the quinquennial average for 1981 and 2011 is taken into consideration. For this analysis quinquennial averages for 1981 and 2011 are used. The Ratnagiri district is formed in 1981 and 2011 by splitting of Ratnagiri, therefore, the data of nine tehsils of Ratnagiri district for the period of 1981 and 2011. INTODUCTION : The present paper consists of general land use, Land use classification, tehsilwise trends in general land use pattern, net sown area, in the study area, quantity of change in Land use from 1981and2011, and Land use good organization are discussed. Land is our great inheritance – a deserted, subjugated and robbed inheritance. The appalling part of the story is that the inheritors are themselves plunderers and yet the land continues to supply the lifeblood of our civilization and national survival (Ali S. M., 1949). Land is the basic resource of human society. Its utilization shows a mutual relationship between the prevailing environmental conditions of particular region and man. Land use is the surface utilization of all developed and unoccupied land on a specific point, at a given time and space (Dr. Patel Ganesh, 2114). This ―Leads one back to the village farm and the farmer, the fields, gardens, pastures, fallow land, forests and to the remote farmstead‖ (Freeman T.W,. 1968). The idea of landuse pecking order varies with the production and utilization factors. The production factors are land, transportation facilities and the stage of technological improvement. The utilization factor includes the number of people, utilization of goods per person and the gross exports. Any shift in the consumption of supplies may change the consumption of other commodities. Landuse a function of four variables – Land, water, air and man. Each plays it‘s possess role in composing its life history. Land constitutes its body; water run through is veins life blood, Air gives it Oxygen and man alts as the dynamic actor to reflect its types, pattern and distribution (Singh R. P., 1992). Landuse is an important aspect of geographical studies predominantly related to agricultural geography, as geography deals with the spatial relationship between these aspects and planning (Mandal R. B., 1990). The demand for new uses of land may be stimulated by a technological change or by a change in the size, composition and necessities of a group of people. Some changes are short-lived, whereas others correspond to a more invariable demand (Jackson J.N., 1963).

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OBJECTIVE : To find out tehsil wise landuse pattern distribution in the study region is the main objective of the present study. STUDY AREA : The region selected for present investigation is southern part of littoral Maharashtra, located between 16030‘north to 18004‘north Latitude and 73002‘east to 73053‘east Longitudes. It had north south length of 180 Km and east west of 64Km having average height of 2000 mt From mean sea level, the region is bounded by Arabian Sea to the west, the Sindhudurg district is to the south, Raigarh district to north and Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur districts to east. Administratively it is divided into 09 tehsils comprising 8208 sq.km areas and supporting 1,615,069 populations. Geographically the Southern Konkan has considerable variation in relief, climate and socio- economic environment. The region is a narrow coasted strip with hilly and ragged topographic features along the Sahyadri hills, the valleys are more open and the hills are less rugged, towards the coast it valley into hearty level plains. In general, the region experiences moist and humid climate. The rainfall is heavy, especially in the hilly eastern part that is on high Crestline of Sahyadri, weather in rainy season is humid and in winter season it is cool. The average rainfall of Ratnagiri district is about 3047 mm. The rainfall is concentrated in four months from June to September in all over the region. The average temperature in summer season is 330c and winter season is 180C. Broadly the year may be divided into three seasons, the summer season from March to May, the monsoon season from June to October and winter season from November to February. METHODOLOGY : The present study is based on secondary data collected from the socio –economic review of Ratnagiri district 1981 and 2011, forest survey of India, Dehradun, (Annual state of forest Report, 2016-17), India‘s Forest cover contribution as a carbon sink, ministry of Environment and Forest (Government of India, August 2009), Maharashtra ISFR 2017,State Environment Report and Forest Government of India, Maharashtra Forest Policy 2016, and electronic data have collected to the internet facility, Local forest department, books, Journals, Wikipedia the free encyclopedia etc. And also used a GIS technique of preparing a map, for the construction of per cent of various indicates by applying statistical and mathematical formulas and graphical techniques are used. Table - 1 LANDUSE PATTERN IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA 1981-2011

Sr. Ratnagiri District No. Landuse (Area in %) 1981 2011 1 Forest 1.46 0.72 2 Net Cultivable area 1.86 31.6 3 Fallow Land 28.76 14.5 4 Area not available for cultivation 33.91 26.8 5 Others 34.01 26.4 Total 100 100

Source - Socio-Economic Review of Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri District 1981 and 2011. Table 1 reveals the landuse pattern in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra in the year of 1981 and 2011; the landuse pattern is shows in percentage. In the landuse pattern the forest area is deceased because to increased the population, increase the industrial area, increase the agriculture land also. In this table shows the net cultivable area is increased then it is show that the cultivable area is increased and the forest area is decreased.

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Table - 2 TEHSIL WISE LAND USE PATTERN IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA 1981 Sr. Net Area not Tehsils Geog. Forest Fallow Other No. Cultivable available for Total % Area % % land % land % Area % cultivation % 1 Mandangad 3.33 2.4 3.96 6.26 3.04 1.85 3.4 2 Dapoli 6.75 2.4 8.23 7.31 5.76 5.74 6.55 3 Khed 7.95 6.14 5.17 12.14 5.44 10.34 7.72 4 Chiplun 8.73 0.53 12.39 4.84 8.22 7.54 8.45 5 Guhaghar 4.97 4.07 4.36 7.78 5.58 5.77 5.46 6 Ratnagiri 7.26 2.64 9.07 11.94 7 10.42 9.02 7 Sangmeshwar 9.78 0.53 9.22 6.62 9.83 11.59 9.43 8 Lanja 5.78 2.67 6.72 6.47 5.34 4.63 5.6 9 Rajapur 9.29 8.81 8.21 5.31 11.42 9.42 9.04 Source : Socio-Economic Review of Ratnagiri District 1981 Table - 3 TEHSIL WISE LAND USE PATTERN IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA 2011

Sr. Net Area not Geog. Forest Fallow Other No. Tehsils Cultivable available for Total % Area % % land % land % Area % cultivation % 1 Mandangad 3.23 0.28 3.66 6.73 2.5 1.17 3.27 2 Dapoli 6.54 7.72 6.79 3.6 6.7 9.6 6.69 3 Khed 6.57 8.14 8.24 3.11 5.54 9.08 7.29 4 Chiplun 8.45 0.54 8.78 14.04 8.6 8.87 9.06 5 Guhaghar 5.95 3.62 4.92 7.9 5.89 8.58 5.82 6 Ratnagiri 7.02 2.64 6.05 0.66 10.34 8.61 6.63 7 Sangmeshwar 9.48 4.07 9.38 19.77 10.88 6.54 10.06 8 Lanja 5.6 2.36 5.76 7.98 5.59 5.79 5.86 9 Rajapur 9 1.86 11.16 2.24 4.43 27.73 11.03 Source : Socio-Economic Review of Ratnagiri district 2011 In table no 2 and 3 reveals that the tehsil-wise landuse pattern in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. It shows follows - Area under forest : The area under forest includes all lands which are under forest, whether private or state owned. There is close association between the Nature of the terrain, the amount of rainfall received and the area under forests (Diddee, et al., 2002).In the study region the area under forest was 1.46 per cent during the year 1981 For the period of 1981 - 2011 it has decreased 0.74 per cent in the district. Some tahsils like Dapoli, Lanja have recorded moderate concentration of area under forest (1 to 2 per cent). The remaining tahsils namely Chiplun, Sangameshwar, Guhagar, Ratnagiri, tahsils have recorded very low concentration of area under forest. The Mandangad, Dapoli, Guhagar, Ratnagiri tahsils have recorded low concentration of forest land. This part of region has been denuded the forest cover due to constant overgrazing, excessive and unplanned cutting of trees and lack of forest management. Volume of change in area under forest during the period under review is depicted in table. Although no large scale changes are marked in the pattern, the region has undergone some changes in the forest cover. The overall increase in forest area is 0.34 per cent only which is insignificant. ii) Land Not Available for Cultivation : The area under non-agricultural uses includes the area under settlements, roads, railways, embankments, canals, tanks etc this category of land in the region covers 33.91 in 1981 and 26.80 in 2011. In the study region the comparison of land not available for cultivation was 33.91 per cent 35 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

and in 2011 26.80 per cent. It has decreased by 7.11 per cent in the district during study period. The regional variation of land not available for cultivation is shown in table. There are no table changes in the distribution of land under this category. Most of the land in Rajapur during 1981. The spatial distribution of volume of change in land not available for cultivation as depicted in table is uneven. Except these tahsils Ratnagiri (12.28 per cent), Khed (4.69 per cent) tahsils have recorded increase of land under this category. Maximum decrease under this category is confined to coastal area such as Guhagar (7.26 per cent) and Rajapur (22.19 per cent). iii) Other Uncultivated Land Excluding Fallow : The culturable waste land, permanent pastures land and land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves are considered as other uncultivated land. Culturable waste land includes the land which can be brought under cultivation for some times but which has been not cultivated successively for more than five years. The category of miscellaneous tree crops includes lands under casuarina trees, thatching grass, bamboo bushes or other trees used for fuel etc. Actually these are the lands which are put to some agricultural use but said area extent is not included in the category of net area sown. Total area under this category recorded is 34.01 per cent in 1981 and 26.40 per cent in 2011. Khed tahsil (37.40 per cent) has recorded highest percentage of area under this category followed by Sangameshwar (34.05 per cent) and Guhagar (33.33 per cent) tahsils. The remaining tahsils excepting have moderate proportion of land under this category. The tahsils have relatively higher proportion of these lands mainly due to culturable waste; Grazing lands (Gayran‘s) hilly areas with thin cover are included in this category. The volume of change in this category is shown the table. iv) Fallow Land : Unlike the other agriculture related uses, fallow lands are regular part of the cultivated land on which cultivation has been temporarily suspended due to some reasons. Fallowing is either enforced by unfavorable weather conditions like droughts and floods due to which land just cannot be sown or seeding get destroyed or farmers resort to fallowing because returns from cultivation of the involved land may be too low and hence the work uneconomic, or if they lack the necessary where withal for taking up cultivation of such lands (Sharma, 1999). If the land remains fallow for only the current year, it is recorded as current fallows (ICAR, 1980). The other fallow lands include all land which are used for cultivation, but are temporarily unsown for a period of not less than one year and not more than five years. For present study these two categories are grouped together. Total area under this land use category is 28.76 per cent in 1981 and 14.50 per cent in 2011. Areal distribution under this category varies from 10 to 20 per cent. Proportion of land under this category is relatively high (Above 20 per cent) in Sangameshwar, Lanja tahsils. Due to the rugged nature of terrain, the lands are kept fallow to enrich soil fertility. Mandangad, Chiplun, Rajapur tahsils have recorded low proportion (below 10 per cent). Volume of change in this category is uneven. Sangameshwar have shown high increase (above 10 per cent) in area under fallow land due to unremunarative nature of cultivation and deforestation. Whereas Mandangad tahsil has shown high decrease (above 10 per cent) of area under fallow land due to increase in net sown area. v) Net Sown Area : The extent of cropped lands in any region determined by net sown area and fallow lands of that region which is of vital significance in studies related to agricultural geography. The net sown area is the actual area under crops in the same year. Table reveals spatio-temporal distribution of net sown area which has been influenced by physiographic constraints. This category has occupied about per cent area 1.86 per cent in 1981 and 31.60 per cent in 2011. Mandangad tahsil has recorded high proportion (67.84 per cent) followed by Chiplun (51.12 per cent) tahsil. The remaining tahsils have recorded moderate proportion of net sown area. It is due to rugged terrain, poor soils and scarcity of water supply coupled together with poorly developed transport network and low technological development. The spatial distribution of volume of change in net sown area as depicted in the variation table is uneven. The Mandangad tahsil has shown an increase (above 6 per cent) in area under this category followed by Khed, Chiplun, Guhagar, Sangameshwar, tahsils. This is due to technological innovations used by farmers (based on questionnaire and personal interviews). The maximum

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decrease (above 6 per cent) under this category is confirmed to some tahsils such as Dapoli and Ratnagiri. This can be well attributed to the area increased under settlement, industry and roads. Table - 4 Variation in Total Landuse Pattern in Ratnagiri District of Maharashtra 1981-2011 Sr. Total in % Total in % Tehsils Variation No. (1981) (2011) 1 Mandangad 3.4 3.27 -0.13 2 Dapoli 6.55 6.69 0.14 3 Khed 7.72 7.29 -0.43 4 Chiplun 8.45 9.06 0.61 5 Guhaghar 5.46 5.82 0.36 6 Ratnagiri 9.02 6.63 -2.39 7 Sangmeshwar 9.43 10.06 0.63 8 Lanja 5.6 5.86 0.26 9 Rajapur 9.04 11.03 1.99 Source : Socio-Economic Review of Ratnagiri District 1981 and 2011. Table no 4 reveals the variation of land use pattern in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra the year of 1981 and 2011. In this table shows the tehsil-wise landuse pattern variations, the landuse pattern is change some tehsils because increase the population, increase agriculture land, increase industrial area, increase road facilities. This is interpreted the tehsil-wise in Mandangad tehsil the total landuse pattern land is decreased because this area is hilly so the people is migrated to Mumbai for some work. In Khed, Ratnagiri the total landuse pattern is decreased because in this area the Industrial area is increased also increased tourism. And in above tehsils means Rajapur, Guhaghar, Chiplun the total landuse pattern is increased because the agriculture land is increased under the mango, cashew and vegetables cultivation. Conclusion : The landuse pattern of the study region is the reflection of the effect of physical and socio- economic factors. Net sown area in the region ranks first by occupying 12.39 per cent area followed by fallow land (9.22 per cent). Hence there is a large potential for brining area under cashew cultivation. The areal extent of cashew cultivation has increased over fourfold during the period under review. Although cashew and mango is cultivated throughout the region, the concentration is observed in few pockets. Keeping in the view the area under fallow land, there seems to be a large potential for increasing the area under cultivation which will help to increase the economic status of the region as a whole. Rice is the dominant crop occupying 37.45 per cent of the cultivable area. The tahsilwise temporal dynamics in the cropping pattern indicates that fruit crops (cashew and mango) are leading increasing, where as leading decreasing crops are mainly cereal traditional crops (ragi and rice).This is good indication of commercialization of agriculture in the region. However it needs to be strengthened by providing technical know-hows and financial aid to the small and marginal farmer of the region. REFERENCES : 1. Ali S. M. (1949): Land utilization survey in India, The Geographer, Vol. 2, No. 1, P. 4. 2. Balak Ram and Joshi D. C. (1984): Landuse relationship in Arid zones the Deccan Geographer Vol. XX, No. 11, p. 505. 3. Buck J. L. (1937): ‗Land utilization in China‘, University of Chicago Press, Chapter- VI. 4. Chandel, Ajitesh Singh (2013): Land utilization in Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh, research paper in IJSR, volume: 2, Issues: 5, May 2013, p 301. 5. Das M. M. (1981): ‗Landuse pattern in Assam‘, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 43. November 3.pp. 243-244. 6. Freeman T.W. (1968): Geography and Planning, Hutchinson University Library, London, P.74. 7. Hillman A. (1952): ‗Community organization and planning‘, The Mac-Milan Co. New York. pp. 44-48

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8. Jackson J.N. (1963): ‗Survey For town and country planning‘, Hutchinson University Library, London. P.109. 9. Kelso M. M. (1962): Scope, content and orientation of rural land economics research today, land economics Research (Edts, Akermanetal), from foundation resource for future. INC. P. 20. 10. Mandal R. B. (1990): ‗Land utilization: Theory and Practice‘ Concept publication Company, A/15-16, commercial Block, Mohan garden New Delhi. P-1-5 11. Monkhouse F. J. A. (1970): ‗Dictionary of Geography‘, Edward Arnold, Bristal. P.205. 12. Nanavati M.B. and Anjaria J.J. (1951): ‗The Indian Rural Problem,‘Vora and Co. Bombay 1951. 13. Nanavati R. B. (1957): Readings‘ in land utilization, the Indian Society of Agricultural Economics, Bombay, p-2. 14. Patel Ganesh (2014): "Dynamics of land Use, Land Cover Change Pattern in M.P. State of India: A case Study of Betul Plateau", Satpnda Research Journal, Vol. I, issue II, P. 1. 15. Sharma P. R. (1978): Spatial characteristics of land use and its efficiency: An Evaluation – A case study of Chhattisgarh region, National Geographer, vol. XIII, No. 1 P. 81. 16. Shinde S. D. (1974): ‗An Agriculture Geography of Konkan‘, unpublished Thesis Ph.D. thesis submitted to Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Pp. 88-89. 17. Shinde S.D., Jadhav M. G., More S. K. and Pawar C. T. (1987): Landuse Pattern and landuse capability, studies in South Maharashtra‘s Western Ghats project report sponsored by dept. of Environmental and wildlife, Gove. Of India, New Delhi, p. 1. 18. Singh Jasbir (1975): ‗An Agricultural Atlas of India – A Geographical Analyses, Vishal Publication, Kurukshetra, India.p.139. 19. Singh R. P. (1992): Land use and agricultural planning, new dimensions in Agricultural Geography Vol. 4, p. 162. 20. Stamp L. D. (1952): ‗Land of Tomorrow‘, the under development world, pp.189-192. 21. Stamp L. D. (1967): Applied Geography, Penguin Books, and Suffolk. Pp. 105, 107-1 22. Socio- Economic review of Ratnagiri district 1981 and 2011.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

The Impact of Modern Agriculture on Public Health in Belgaum District:

Shri. B. N. Yaligar, Asst. ProfessorOrganic of FarmingGeog., KLE ASociety‘s, Solution G. H. College Haveri (KK) Prof. D. A. Kolhapure, Asso. Professor of Geog., KLE Society‘s, G. H. College Haveri (KK) Dr. S. I. Biradar, Research Guide & Prof., P. G. Dept. of Studies and research in Geography, Karnatak University, Dharwad Research Paper Accepted on 22-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Introduction : A number of terms are used for organic agriculture. Some of these are: bio-dynamic agriculture, biological agriculture, organic-biological agriculture, ecological agriculture and natural agriculture. All these imply growing of agricultural and horticultural crops without the use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. Now, organic farming is receiving considerable attention globally. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements define organic farming as "a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved...‖ According to M.S.Swaminathan, ―the greening of agriculture requires the greening of both technology and public policy producing more food and agricultural commodities from less land, water and energy is a task that will call for the integration of the best in modern technology with the ecological strength of traditional farming practices‖ Thus, organic farming is the process of producing food naturally. This method avoids the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and genetically modified organisms to influence the growth of crops. The motto of the organic farmer is to protect the earth‘s resources and produce safe, healthy food. Organic Farming in India and Karnataka : Organic farming has received considerable attention in India and the GoI constituted a Task Force on Organic Farming. The committees emphasized on the need for consolidating information on the organic farming and its benefits. GoI has suggested taking up organic farming as a challenging task and as a thrust area of the Xth Plan. The steering committee advocated to give boost to organic farming in the rain-fed areas and in the north-eastern states, where there is already limited use of fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals. The needs emphasis, since the country‘s food-grain requirement by 2020 is estimated to be about 300 million tones as against the current production of a little over 200 million tones. Organic farming is practiced in all the 175 Talukas of Karnataka State. The organic farming was started in the state as early as 1960. The state government has come up with an organic farming policy backed by various departments. Organic Farming in Belgaum District: In the year 2002, a registered – group of 128 organic farmers in the name of Organic Food Club was formed in Yamkanmardi, which is 35 km from Belgaum city. These 128 farmers were from , Hukkeri and Belgaum Talukas covering 175 hectares as certified area. The organic farmers registered themselves through the trusts by name Savayava Krishi Parivaras. At present organic farming has certified area of 1000 acres in Belgaum District. Organic farming is popular in all 10 Talukas.

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Objectives of the Study: The study has the following objectives: 1. To know the extent of the degradation of the land resources in the District. 2. To understand the extent of deterioration of the food quality 3. To know the health problems faced by people in the District. 4. To suggest the policy measures to solve the health and environmental problems in the District. Area of Study: Belgaum District is selected as the area of study. is the largest of the four divisions of the state and includes the Districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, , Gadag, Haveri, Dharwad and Uttar . Its headquarter is at Belgaum. Belgaum district is surrounded by Maharashtra state in the North and West. Bagalkot and Gadag districts in the west and Dharwad, Karwar district south. The district has 35 hoblis, 1255 villages, 485 Gram Panchayats, 18 town municipalities. The geographical location of Belgaum district is 15‘ -23 to 16‘-58 and east longitudes 74‘-05 to 75‘-28 latitudes. The most important rivers in the district viz; Krishna, Malaprabha and Ghataprabha are the main source of water for agricultural, Industrial, Irrigation and Drinking purposes. And other rivers viz; Markhanday, Hiranyakeshi, Mahadai, Vedaganga and Dudganga are sub rivers which flow in the district. Many streams and tributaries help the irrigation facility which is available in the district by means of canals, wells and bore wells. The Agriculture is the main occupation of people in the district.The productivity of crops like sugarcane, paddy, and maize has increased over the years. The horticulture products of the districts are mango, banana, papaya, sapota (Chikkoo) & grapes etc. Varieties of vegetables are grown in the district. I. D. Methodology: Of the total 10 Talukas in the District I have been selected the Talukas of Belgaum, Khanapur, Hukkeri, Bailhongal and Athani. The purpose of selecting these Talukas is to examine the effect of geographical environment on the health situation in the district. The diverse geographical environment which includes the geological structure, soil, drainage system, climate; weather and vegetation affects the health situation in the District. After reviewing the existing literature on the subject, secondary data is used to understand and analyse the effect of geographical environment on health problems of people in the District. The primary data is collected by conducting the survey. Physiographic condition in the study area: Geographers are very particular about physiography, because of its influence on agricultural activities. The physiography includes occupation, soil, geological structure, drainage system, climate, temperature, rainfall, irrigation and vegetation. The main occupation in the district is agriculture. The altitude of the Belgaum district varies between 450 and 900 Mts. above the sea level. The district divided into three major physiographic divisions, considering the relief features and the weather phenomena viz. Malnad, Semi-malnad and Maidan regions. The western part of the district is a high land and the eastern part slopes gently towards the east and forms a larger plain area. These are called the Malnad and the Maidan respectively. There is Semi-Malnad in between these two major divisions. Environmental Causes Leading to Health Problems in the District: The following flow chart describes the way in which the insecticides enter into the human body and into birds and animals which eat plants. [Chaney R.L., 1989; Dhaliwal.G.S. and Singh B., 1993; Singh G.B.,1993] Access of Insecticides Entry into Human Body: Insecticide enters into the human body in direct and indirect ways as explained by the following flow chart :

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Access of Insecticides Entry into Human Body

Direct Entry Indirect Entry

Through Direct Contact Spraying Over Plant

1) To swallow Falling of insecticides over land & plants 2) Smelling 3) Touching 4) By use itself Absorption by plants Infection of birds and animals by eating of plants: The use of insecticide causes infection in birds and animals which eat the plants over which the insecticides are sprayed. The animal products like meat, milk, eggs and plant products used by human beings such as vegetables, oil, pulses, food grains, and flowers enter into the human body whenever they are consumed. Infection of birds and animals by eating of plants

Meat Milk Eggs Vegetables Oil (fat) Pulses Wheat & Grains Fruits & Flowers

Human Body General Health Problems in Belgaum District : The degradation of the land resources and the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides has caused health problems in the district in the form of different diseases mainly Asthama and Allergy. In the recent years the district has also witnessed the immergence of Chickengunya. Land Utilization : The following table shows change in the land utilization in the district from 1960 to 2010 and most importantly explained the degradation of the land resources. Land Utilization 1960-2010 (in hects.) Name of Geography Forest Barren Taluka Area 1960 2010 % Change 1960 2010 % Change Athani 199513 610 581 -4.75 3975 4364 8.91 Bailhongal 112233 7890 7913 0.29 3994 4121 3.08 Belgaum 103721 23000 22643 -1.55 2423 2668 9.18 Chikkodi 126949 500 547 9.40 5100 6529 21.89 Gokak 154308 22285 22410 0.56 6243 6931 9.93 Hukkeri 99140 13600 13987 2.85 2514 2736 8.11 Khanapur 172956 94309 91315 -3.17 2345 2606 10.02 Raibag 95874 2530 2647 4.62 5114 5641 9.34 Ramdurg 121542 15081 15347 1.76 5989 6187 3.20 Saundatti 158146 13432 13496 0.48 2465 2559 3.67 Total 1344382 193237 190886 -1.22 40162 44342 9.43 Average -0.12 0.94 Source: Belgaum District at a Glance 1960 and 2010.

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Environmental Impact of Modern Agriculture: Last few decades in the world have witnessed considerable increase in crop production due to agricultural innovations. Green revolution helped to the reach self-sufficiency in food production. However excessive use of all the agriculture innovations like irrigational facilities, chemical fertilizers, insecticides etc, have cast an adverse impact over the environment. Some such environment problems and their causes are shown in the following table. Environmental Problems and their Causes S.No. Problem Cause 1. Increase in acidity or alkalinity of soil Excessive use of Chemical fertilizers Loss of friendly beneficial micro- Excessive use insecticides. 2. organ sons in the soil. 3. Increase in soil erosion. Over – filling of land. Water logging. Excessive Irrigation because of 4. acidity or alkalinity of soil 5. Loss in fertility. Because of water pollution. 6. Loss of aquatic animals Due to insecticides. Loss of birds and animals poisoning Due to insecticides and fungicides. 7. of air, water and soil. Source : JDA The use of NPK in Belgaum District : In 2001, in all the Talukas of the Districts the total NPK use was 131964 metric tons (mt) it increased to 141251.92 Mt. by 2005 and further increase to 941911.39 mt in the year 2010. The use of NPK in the District has increased more than 7 times during the period 2001 and 2010. The consumption of NPK in Belgaum and Khanapur talukas has increased absolutely from 23910 m. tons in 2001 to 75188.11 m. tons in 2010; and 3903 m. tons in 2001 to 46072.3 m. tons in 2010 respectively. Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers in Belgaum District (in metric tons) 2001, 05 and 10

Source : JDA

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Pesticide Consumption in Belgaum District: The total consumption of pesticides in the district has increased nearly by 8 times and the bulk of it is used to produce vegetables which are directly consumed by the human beings. The following table shows the increase in the consumption of pesticides in the district. Pesticide Consumption in Belgaum District Sl. No. Year Consumption („000 kg) 1 1980 5000 2 1990 14000 3 2000 34500 4 2010 38000 Source : JDA The dust of pesticides is cause of allergic respiratory disorders like asthama coetaneous allergy has been known to occur due to contact of pesticide contaminated food items . Effect of pesticides and fertilizers on Health in Belgaum District Sl. Popullation Health Problem (2009-10) Taluka No. (2001) Asthama Allergy Total 1 Athani 461862 NA NA NA 6835 342 7177 Bailhongal 356286 2 (1.91) (0.09) (2.01) 120000 18000 138000 Belgaum 815581 3 (14.71) (2.20) (16.92) 4 Chikkodi 567601 NA NA NA 5000 5000 Gokak 526092 NA 5 (0.95) (0.95) 6 Hukkeri 357193 NA NA NA 24300 2430 26730 Khanapur 243185 7 (9.99) (0.99) (10.99) 8 Raibag 347600 NA NA NA 9 Ramdurg 227412 NA NA NA 10 Saundatti 311693 NA NA NA Source : Census 2001, DHO The above table shows that in Belgaum and Khanapur talukas the highest percentage of the population is suffering from Asthama and Allergy. As much as 14.71% of the population is suffering from Asthama in Belgaum Taluka and in Khanapur taluka. It is nearly 10% of the total population in the year 2009-10. In the same year, the percentage of population suffering from allergy disorders in Belgaum taluka was 2.20 and 0.99 in Khanpaur taluka. Compared to other talukas this is significant. In Belgaum taluka the total per cent of population suffering from Ashtama and Allergy was 16.92 where as in Khanapur taluka it was 10.99%. The other health problems caused by the use of pesticides like BHC and DDT are dieldringammaisomer in liver and lung, chronic disorder of liver and neuropathic disorder like increased irritation and loss of memory. Cancer in liver and lung, most of organochlorin pesticides like dieldringammaisomer of BHC DDT. The pesticides cause hypatotoxicity. The pesticide residues in food harm liver tissue as they are metabolized here. There are instances of chronic liver disorders leading to cirrhosis. Certain pesticides are not so dangerous but their metabolites cause severe damage to hepatic parenchyma. Pesticides also cause Neuropathy diseases. Most of the organophosphates, organochlorines carbamates may cause neutrotozic effects in man and animals including increased irritation and loss of memory. The health problems peculiar to the district are Chickengunya in Khanapur Taluka, Astama 10% of the people in Khanapur and Belgaum Taluka, Joint Pains 5% of the peoples all 10 Talukas and 23.5% of the district peoples are suffering from Acidity problem. 43 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

Conlusion : The only alternative to these problems is the spreading of the organic farming. The organic farming is yet in the infant stage in the district. The organic farming needs to be popularized by the government among the farming community. The following suggestions can be made to popularize the organic farming: the ill effects of degradation of land and other natural resources are to be highlighted in the school texts. There is also need for research in organic farming leading to reduced cost of production and increased farm productivity. The state has to support the organic farmers by way of providing financial, storage, transport and marketing facilities to the organic farmers. As a step towards this direction the government may become the consumer of organic products by statute. Bibliography: 1. Bhardwaj K.K and Gaur, AC: Recycling of Organic Wastes, I Car, New Delhi, 1985 pp.104. 2. Bijay Singh and Sekhon G.S.: Impact of Fertilizer Use on Environmental Pollution in Punjab, 1977 p.7.11 3. Chaney R.L.: Toxic Element Accumulation in Soils and Crops; Protecting Soil Fertility and Agricultural Food Chains, 1989 p.140-158 4. Canway G.R.: Agroecosystem Analysis for Research and Development, 1986 p.15-18. 5. D.K. Bembi and V. Beri: Management for Sustained Productivity, Department of Soils, PAU Ludhiana PP 227-243. 6. Kalra R.L.: Monitoring the Pesticides Residues in the Indian Environment, Vishvas Publishers, Bombay, 1981 pp. 251-285. 7. Koppen‘s and Thornthwaite‘s: Climatology, S. Chand Publications, New Delhi 8. Ladha J.K.: Nitrogen Fixation by Leguminous Green Manure in Rice Farming IARI, 1988 pp165. 9. NPC (National Productivity Council): All India Report on Improvement of Agricultural Residues and Agro-Industrial by Products Utilization, New Delhi, 1987. 10. Tilak KVBR: Science Report, 1987 3.17-19 11. WHO : Health Guidelines for the USC of Waste Water in Agriculture and Agriculture Technical Report No. 778, Wito Geneva, 1989 74p.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

LITERACY – A QUALITATIVE ASPECT OF HUMAN RESOURCE-A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY IN THE DISTRICT OF PURULIA

Mr. Bhakta Ranjan Mahato, Dr. Bhupal Kumar Mahto Research Scholar, H.O.D., Dept. of Geography

University Department of Geography Marwari College, Ranchi University, Ranchi Ranchi University, Ranchi Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : Human resources are the most precious of all resources. Human resource plays a vital role in the development of a region. Any kind of development plans and policies are related to the components parts of Human Resource. There are two aspects of human resources qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative dimension include Education and Health are the two major component of human resource development. Literacy is considered as a fairly reliable index of socio-cultural and economic development. Among the many variables, education and literacy act as the greatest tool in human resource development. The Purulia district has been selected as study area which is located between 22o 42‘35‖ to 23o 42‘00‖ north latitude and 85o 49‘22‘‘ to 86o 54‘37‖ east longitude. It extends over an area of about 6259 square kilometer and total population is 2930115 of which male and female population are 1496996 and 1433119 respectively. It is bounded on the north, west and south by the state of Jharkhand; the eastern side is covered by the districts of Bankura and Midnapur of West Bengal state. There are 20 C.D. block in this district. According to census of 2011, the literacy rate of this district is 64.48%, the male and female literacy is 77.86% and 50.52% respectively. The literacy of Purulia district is characterized with sharp differences between the literacy rate of male and female; of rural and urban areas; and of various population sub-groups. The trends in literacy are considered as an index of the pace at which the socio-economic transformation of a society is taking place. It is an important variable affecting demographic behaviour concerning marriage, fertility, mortality, migration, as well as participation in the labour force. So the major objectives of the present study to analyze the factors which determine the literacy rate and spatial temporal variation of literacy rate in Purulia district. The study is mainly based on secondary sources. Key Words : Literacy, Human resource, Male Female Difference. Introduction : It is remarked that "Literacy skills are fundamental to informed decision making, Personal, empowerment active and passive participation in local and global social community" (Stromquist, 2005, P.12). It contributes to better health, higher productivity, greater income, human freedom, capability and esteemed living, increase participation in community life. According Indian Census definition 'Literacy' means a person who can read and write a simple message in any language with understanding is considered literate'(Census of India 2011). It is one of the sensitive indicators of progress of any society. Human Resource Development is the process of increasing knowledge, the skill and the capabilities of all the people in a society. Among the many variables, education and literacy act as the greatest tool in human resource development. Study area : The Purulia district has been selected as study area which is located between 22 42‘35‖ to23 42‘00‖ north latitude and 85 49‘22‘‘ to 86 54‘37‖ east longitude. It extends over an area of about 6259 square kilometer. According to 2011 census, total population of the district is 2930115 45 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

of which male and female population are 1496996 and 1433119 respectively. It is bounded on the north, west and south by the state of Jharkhand; the eastern side is covered by the districts of Bankura and Midnapur of West Bengal state. Its physiographic location is also distinguished as an area of transition between the young alluvial plains of west Bengal and ancient plateau of Chotonagpur. There are 20 C.D. block in this district and most of the blocks come under backward class. As per census 2011, 87.25 % population residing in rural areas and almost 60 % of the population are engaged in Agriculture either as cultivator or agricultural labourer. According to census of 2011, the literacy rate of this district is 64.48%, the male and female literacy is 77.86% and 50.52% respectively.

Objectives: The major objectives of the present study are - 1. To study the spatial and temporal pattern of literacy rate in study area. 2. To analyze the factors which determine the different literacy rate at block level and how it is related with economic activities. 3. To examine the changing pattern of male and female literacy rate. 4. To study the causes in identifying the blocks suffering from backwardness. Methodology: The research work is mainly based on secondary sources such as Census Hand Book, Research Paper, District Statistical Hand Book to analyse the disparity. The male female differential index has been calculated by the formula used by Krishan & Shyam (1978) MFDI= Female literacy rate %, Total literacy rate % Growth of literacy :

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Literacy of the area is an increasing trend of total literacy rate as well as literacy for both male and female. In spite of that literacy in Purulia (64.48%) is lower than the state level (76.26%) and national level (74.08) as per census 2011. State and national male literacy rate as per census 2011 are 82.67% and 82.1% respectively. While it is 77.86% in Purulia District. Female literacy rate in the district standing at 50.52% as per census 2011 is strikingly low as compared to state (71.16%) and national (65.5%) female literacy rate. Comparative decadal literacy rate (%) Years India West Bengal Purulia 1961 28.30 34.50 20.50 1971 34.50 38.90 25.10 1981 43.60 48.70 33.70 1991 52.20 57.70 43.30 2001 64.80 68.60 55.60 2011 74.08 76.26 64.48 Source : Census of India Series Since long time (1961-2011) the literacy rate of study area is low in comparative to West Bengal and India. This aspect of the district calls for serious attention because no society could achieve sustainable growth without literacy and education. However various central and state govt. programme have been launched all over the India but still the District displaying low literacy. The statistics on literacy rates of rural and urban population for 1991 was 40.30% and 70.60% respectively. In 2001 the literacy in rural areas was 53.20 % and the literacy rates in urban areas was 75.40% while it is 62.73% in rural areas and 76.18% in urban areas in 2011. Thus, the latest inter censual period of 2001-2011 has narrowed this gap. The rural urban literacy difference among females was wider than among males. In 2011 the urban areas 84.63% males against 67.15% females were recorded as literate. In 2011 the literacy rate of female of urban areas 84.63% males against 67.15% females are recorded as literate. In 2001 the literacy rate of female of urban areas were just half of female literacy of rural areas. Block wise distribution of total literacy : The block showing literacy above 70% have been put in the category of comparatively high literacy. Only C .D. Block three Municipality are in this category. These Municipality are M, (76.78%) Purulia M (82.09%), Raghunathpur M (77.07%), and one C.D.Block Kashipur (71.06%). In general, the high literacy of this municipal area is greatly influenced by urban function. Though the rate of urbanization is very poor in this district. But the urban influence has resulted in a relatively high degree of social and economic condition. Also urbanization has raised the social status of women explains the higher literacy rate. The facilities to get educated are concentrate more in urban part. The C.D. Block showing literacy 50 to 60% in 2001 were Barabazar, Joypur, Jhalda I, Hura, Manbazar, Puncha, Purulia, Neturia, Para, Raghunathpur, Santuri. Most of the blocks of the district come moderate category showing literacy rate 60 to 70% in 2011. While relatively low literacy is found in the block of Arsha, Baghmundi, Jhalda II, and Balarampur, and Bandowan. These were five blocks below 50% literacy rate in 2001. But these block has crossed the critical limit for literacy in 2011. Most of the people of Purulia District are engaged in Primary activities for which their living standard is very low. The economy of the study area is agro based and agricultural economies do not have any specific demand of education. So the people of this district keep adopting traditional method of agriculture. There is another reason for low literacy of those areas is unemployment. It becomes difficult for the families living below poverty line to invest money for their children‘s education. It is also important that the paents of the rural belts are not aware benefits of education for their children. Under such circumstances, children are treated as potential wage earners rather than pupils.

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Block wise literacy rate of Purulia District (2001-2011) : Following table shows the block wise literacy rate of Purulia District 2001-2011 C.D. 2001 2011 Block/Municipality Total Male Female Total Male Female Arsha 46.00 67.40 23.60 54.78 70.36 38.75 Baghmundi 46.90 67.60 25.10 57.17 72.14 41.42 Balarampur 49.80 68.30 30.20 60.40 74.18 45.82 Barabazar 52.60 72.70 32.00 63.27 77.84 48.37 Joypur 50.10 71.30 26.90 57.94 72.06 42.80 Jhalda I 53.80 73.70 33.20 66.18 80.15 51.61 Jhalda II 43.80 68.00 18.40 54.76 72.53 36.29 Jhhalda (M) 73.70 84.60 61.80 76.78 85.49 67.50 Bandowan 47.70 66.50 28.50 61.38 74.61 48.03 Hura 59.00 76.40 41.20 68.79 81.95 55.27 Manbazar I 55.10 74.00 35.90 63.78 77.88 49.38 Manabazar II 53.50 73.00 33.40 60.27 74.64 45.76 Puncha 57.30 75.30 39.10 68.14 81.16 54.82 Purulia I 54.40 73.80 33.50 64.77 78.37 50.37 Purulia II 56.20 75.50 35.70 63.39 76.72 49.51 Purulia (M) 77.10 85.60 67.80 82.09 88.40 75.39 Kashipur 64.20 79.80 47.90 71.06 82.83 58.91 Neturia 57.70 73.00 41.30 65.14 77.38 52.06 Para 58.10 76.40 38.50 65.62 79.61 50.73 Raghunathpur I 58.90 73.60 43.30 67.36 78.73 55.14 Raghunathpur II 54.80 72.20 36.50 67.29 80.95 52.79 Raghunathpur (M) 69.00 80.40 58.70 77.07 84.96 68.67 Santuri 56.50 72.00 40.00 64.15 76.32 51.45 Block wise distribution of male literacy : The male literacy in Purulia district was 45.41% in 1981, which increased to 62.20% in 1991, 73.70% in 2001. As per census, 2011, 77.86 % of the District‘s total male population could read and write. Low male literacy rate (Below 55%) was found in the block of Bandwan, Arsha, Manbazar I, & II, Jhalda II, in 1991.The main cause of low literacy is poverty and their consciousness towards literacy and education has been found to be very low. But in the decade 2001 -2011 no block is found in this level. Due to educational facilities male literacy went up tremendously. In 2011, these blocks showed male literacy Arsha (70.36), Bandwan (74.61), Manbazar I (77.88),Manbazar II (74.64), Jhalda II (72.53%).While very high literacy rate found in municipalities areas, Raghunathpur II, Kashipur, and Puncha block of the district in 2011.The male literacy rate of all blocks of the study area have crossed 70% during 2001-2011. The change of this literacy indicates the social attitude of the people towards the importance of education. Block wise distribution of female literacy : The condition of female literacy in Purulia District is very worse. In India females are considered as housewives. There is no opportunity for them to participate in the economical struggle. In addition to this the factors are general poverty, practice of early marriage and prejudices against their mobility and girl children are put to domestic work are the main factors for low literacy in the district. Female literacy rate is not uniform in rural and urban areas of the study area. Average literacy of the district is 50.52 percent only. Women are lying far behind than man. Very low literacy rate of female was found in a Jhalda II, Arsha, Baghmundi, Balarampur, Bandwan, Barabazar, Manbazar in 2001. Fortunately, Purulia recorded a quantum jump in its literacy during 2001-2011 in case of females. The situation of

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female literacy is improving with govt. efforts. The change of female literacy during 2001-2011 is impressive. It is great pleasure that the various scheme of state and central govt. promote the female education. In the study area the female literacy was 23.20% in 1991, 36.50 in 2001. In 2001, low female literacy in the block of Arsha, Jhalda II, Baghmundi, Joypur, Bandwan, showed below 30% female literacy rate. In 2011 the average female literacy of the district rises up to 50.52 %. While in 2011 these blocks recorded female literacy rate such as Arsha(38.75), Jhalda II(36.09), Baghmundi(41.42), Joypur (42.80), Bandwan (48.03),. While very high female literacy observed in town area, Kashipur(58.91), Puncha(54.82), Manbazar I(49.38), and Raghunathpur I(55.14), Hura (55.27), Neturia (52.06). It is fact that without progress of female literacy, the total literacy could not be reached up to the mark. A literate mother is more serious about the education needed by her child. She is more sincere about enrolling her children in the education system. Block wise distribution of male female differential literacy : The male female differential index has been calculated by the formula used by Krishna & Shyam (1978). With the help of the methodology the block wise distribution of male and female literacy is calculated as follows Male female differential in literacy, 2001, 2011 Block / Municipality 2001 2011 Arsha 0.95 0.57 Baghmundi 0.91 0.54 Balarampur 0.77 0.47 Barabazar 0.77 0.47 Joypur 0.89 0.51 Jhalda I 0.75 0.43 Jhalda II 1.13 0.66 Jhalda M 0.31 0.23 Bandwan 0.80 0.43 Hura 0.60 0.39 Manbazar I 0.69 0.45 Manbazar II 0.74 0.48 Puncha 0.63 0.39 Purulia I 0.74 0.43 Purulia II 0.71 0.43 Purulia M 0.23 0.16 Kashipur 0.50 0.34 Neturia 0.55 0.39 Para 0.65 0.44 Raghunathpur I 0.51 0.35 Raghunathpur II 0.65 0.42 Raghunathpur M 0.31 0.21 Santuri 0.57 0.39 (M = Municipality) Discussion & Findings : Male female differential index is associated with the gap between male and female literacy rates. Most of the blocks of the district have large illiterate female population. In Purulia District this gap was very broad in the past and present. There is an astonishing gender gap in literacy, while 77.86 % males are literate and for females the figure is only 50.52%, gender gap being 27.34. The percentage of male –female literacy gap 39 in 1991, 37.2in 2001 which moved up to 27.34 in 2011. It is clear that the gap between male and female literacy is very broad due to rapidly growth of the male literacy only in the study area. However, the gap between male and female literacy decreased from 1991.The index value of literacy differential between male and female varies broadly in different parts of the district. It ranges from 0.23 in Purulia M to 1.13 in Jhalda II in 2001 and it is 49 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

0.16 to 0.66 in 2011. This index value was high Arsha, Baghmundi, Balarampur, Joypur, Manbazar II, in 2001. From the above table, it is clear that male female difference index of the study area has narrowed between two decades. After going through the detail availability literacy variables and data of Purulia district and its comprehensive study some important and key features has been found which are discussed below As various programme has been launched by state and central govt., some changes been observed which can be seen in terms of its decadal growth rate of literacy. If one goes through and block level literacy discussion, it can be observed that the female literacy is consistently low and slow in compare to male counterpart in the district. Another very important feature of Purulia district is of large rural population which has created tremendous obstruction towards achieving higher literacy both male and female component of the district. Though the district has shown some improvement in terms of health and education over last decade, Purulia has poor status and position in the whole of state. As such the district has a long way to go to achieve 100% female literacy that can be possible when other sphere of social and economic sector of the district will progress. Conclusion : According to UNESCO ―Literacy is a human right, a tool of personal empowerment and a means for social and human development. Education opportunities depend on literacy. It is at the heart of the basic education for all, and essential for eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring sustainable development peace and democracy‖. (UNESCO 2010). Education is the most powerful tool for change the position in society. It leads to formation of human capital and is an important investment for the development process. The study area shows increasing trend in literacy. Municipalities‘ areas are characterized by high level of literacy. The literacy picture of Purulia district is not satisfactory especially for female literacy till now. To reduce the gap between male and female literacy, female literacy should be improved in rural areas. Though the district is lag far behind than other district of west Bengal, significant change of literacy is observed due to various effort of govt. of west Bengal. ‗Kannyashree‘ project is highly successful to reduce drop out of females from schools in the district. REFERENCES :  Bhende, Asha A. & Kantikar, Tara (2011) Priciples of Population Studies, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai  Chamling, Meelan (2013) Literacy overview: A Case Study of Purulia District West Bengal, The Journal of Social Science Today, Volume-I No III.  Chandna, R.C. (2010) Geography of Population: Concept, Determinants and Pattern, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.  Chattorak, Dr Kuntal Kanti and Chand Susanta, Literacy Trend of West Bengal and Its Differentials: A District Level Analysis. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSRJHSS, VOLUNIE 20, Issue 9 Ver. III (Sep 2015).  District Statistical Handbook, Purulia (2017-18) combined, Bureau of Applied Economics Department of statistics, Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal  Saha, Sanchita & Debnath, Gopal Chandra: Status of literacy in West Bengal: A Geographical appraisal, International Journal of Applied Research, 2016:2(8) 657-664.  Sinha, Braj Raj Kumar (2012) Dimensions and Human Resource Development: concepts and Approaches, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of IASI, VOL. LVIII, s II-c, Geography series.  West Bengal Human Development Report (2004): Development and Planning Department, govt. of West Bengal.  Yadav, H. L (2010) Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika, The Association of North Indian Geographer, Gorakhkhur (U.P), volume 40, No. 1

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

FLOODS IN KERALA AND ITS INMPACT ON HUMAN LIFE

Dr. Achole P. B. Head of Dept., Azad College Ausa, Dist Latur. Research Paper Accepted on 27-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Introduction : Kerala State has an average annual precipitation of about 3000 mm. The rainfall in the State is controlled by the South-west and North-east monsoons. About 90% of the rainfall occurs during six monsoon months. The high intensity storms prevailing during the monsoon months result in heavy discharges in all the rivers. The continuous and heavy precipitation that occurs in the steep and undulating terrain finds its way into the main rivers through innumerable streams and water courses. Kerala experienced an abnormally high rainfall from 1 June 2018 to 19 August 2018. This resulted in severe flooding in 13 out of 14 districts in the State. As per IMD data, Kerala received 2346.6 mm of rainfall from 1 June 2018 to 19 August 2018 in contrast to an expected 1649.5 mm of rainfall. This rainfall was about 42% above the normal. Further, the rainfall over Kerala during June, July and 1st to 19th of August was 15%, 18% and 164% respectively, above normal. Month-wise rainfall for the period, as reported by IMD, Table 1 : Month wise actual rainfall, normal rainfall and percentage departure from normal

Normal Rainfall Actual Rainfall Departure from normal Period (mm) (mm) (%) June, 2018 649.8 749.6 15 July, 2018 726.1 857.4 18 1-19, August, 2018 287.6 758.6 164 Total 1649.5 2346.6 42 Due to heavy rainfall, the first onset of flooding occurred towards the end of July. A severe spell of rainfall was experienced at several places on the 8th and 9th of August 2018. The 1- day rainfall of 398 mm, 305 mm, 255 mm, 254 mm, 211 mm and 214 mm were recorded at Nilambur in Malappuram district, Mananthavadi in Wayanad district, Peermade, Munnar KSEB and Myladumparain in Idukki district and Pallakad in Pallakad district respectively on 9 August 2018. This led to further flooding at several places in Mananthavadi and Vythiri in Wayanad district during 8-10, August 2018. Water was released from several dams due to heavy rainfall in their catchments. The water levels in several reservoirs were almost near their Full Reservoir Level (FRL) due to continuous rainfall from 1st of June. Another severe spell of rainfall started from the 14th of August and continued till the 19th of August, resulting in disastrous flooding in 13 out of 14 districts. The water level records at CWC G&D sites for some of the rivers in Kerala are given at Annex-I. As per the rainfall records of IMD, it has been found that the rainfall depths recorded during the 15-17, August 2018 were comparable to the severe storm that occurred in the year 1924. District wise rainfall realised during 1 June 2018 to 22 August 2018 : District wise rainfall realised in Kerala as per IMD records is presented in Table-3, where it can be seen that the rainfall departure in Idukki is the highest viz. 92%.

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Table 3 : District wise rainfall realised during 1 June 2018 to 22 August 2018 Normal Actual Departure from Normal Districts Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm) (%) Kerala State 1701.4 2394.1 41 Excess Alappuzha 1380.6 1784 29 Excess Kannur 2333.2 2573.3 10 Normal Ernakulam 1680.4 2477.8 47 Excess Large Idukki 1851.7 3555.5 92 Excess Kasaragode 2609.8 2287.1 -12 Normal Kollam 1038.9 1579.3 52 Excess Kottayam 1531.1 2307 51 Excess Kozhikode 2250.4 2898 29 Excess Malappuram 1761.9 2637.2 50 Excess Large Palakkad 1321.7 2285.6 73 Excess Pathanamthitta 1357.5 1968 45 Excess Thiruvananthapuram 672.1 966.7 44 Excess Thrissur 1824.2 2077.6 14 Normal Wayanad 2281.3 2884.5 26 Excess Analysis of rainfall data : To analyse the August 2018 flooding phenomenon of Kerala, daily rainfall data from 1 June 2018 to 20 August 2018 has been obtained from IMD. The data consist of rainfall records of 67 rain gauge stations spread across the entire State covering both plain and hilly regions. At some of the stations, rainfall records were missing for a particular date and the same have been completed using the rainfall records of nearby stations. On scrutiny of data it has been found that cumulative rainfall realised during 15-17, August 2018 was quite significant, with more than 800 mm rainfall at Peermade rain gauge station followed by more than 700 mm at Idukki. The rain gauge stations used for the present study are shown in Fig.1. Earlier floods in Kerala : The 1924 witnessed unprecedented and very heavy floods in almost all rivers of Kerala. Heavy losses to life, property and crops etc. had been reported. The rainstorm of 16-18, July 1924 was caused by the South-west monsoon that extended to the south of peninsula on 15th July and caused rainfall in Malabar. Under its influence, heavy rainfall occurred in almost entire Kerala. The area under the storm recorded 1-day maximum rainfall on 17th of July, 2- day maximum rainfall for 16-17, July 1924 and 3-day maximum rainfall for 16-18, July 1924. The centre of the 1-day and 2- day rainstorm was located at Devikulam in Kerala which recorded 484 mm and 751 mm of rainfall respectively. The centre of 3-day rainstorm was located at Munnar in Kerala which recorded a rainfall of 897 mm in 3 days. The fury of 1924 flood levels in most of the rivers was still fresh in the memory of people of Kerala, the year 1961 also witnessed heavy floods and rise in the water levels of reservoirs. Usually in the State, heavy precipitation is concentrated over a period of 7 to 10 days during the monsoon when the rivers rise above their established banks and inundate the low lying areas. But in 1961, floods were unusually heavy not only in duration, but also in the intensity of precipitation. During the year 1961, the monsoon started getting violent towards the last week of June and in the early days of August, the precipitation was concentrated on most parts of the southern region of Kerala. By the first week of July, the intensity gradually spread over the other parts of the State and the entire State was reeling under severe flood by the second week of July. The worst affected area was Periyar sub-basin and it also impacted other sub-basins. Many of the important infrastructures like highways etc were submerged. After a brief interval, by the middle of July, the monsoon became

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more violent, affecting the northern parts of the State. The average rainfall was 56% above normal. The maximum daily intensities recorded at four districts in 1961 are given in Table 4 : Recorded 1-day rainfall in different districts of Kerala in 1961 Sl. No. District Rainfall (mm) 1 Calicut 234 2 Trivandrum 136 3 Cochin 189 4 Palakkad 109 The damage caused by the floods had been severe and varied. It is understood that 115 people lost their lives due to floods and landslides. Over 50,000 houses were completely and partly damaged and about 1,15,000 acres of paddy were seriously affected Impacts on the Kerala region : The impacts due to floods are given below - 1. Around 373 people lost their lives in last 15 days until 22 August, 2018. 2. Numbers of livestock animals such as cattle‘s, buffalos, goats, pigs, and poultry are dead. 3. Loss of Infrastructure, properties, houses, agricultural crop, fish farm pond and Industrial area. 4. Mixing of polluted water in the ground water and other natural water body which is not useful for household and drinking purpose. 5. Suspended all the Internationals, domestic flights until August 26, 2018. 6. Public transport such as buses, trains, taxi, Kochi metro and other heavy load vehicle truck also found difficult reach their station. 7. Schools, colleges and universities, governments and private offices were also closed till the further orders. 8. The floods of Kerala disrupt the breeding ground of the many fishes. 9. A rapid assessment by the Central Institute of Fisheries.Technology (CIFT) in the wake of the devastating floods that ravaged Kerala this monsoon has pegged the loss in the livelihood of fishermen involved in inland fishing at Rs 93.72 crores. Losses incurred due to damage to craftand gear in inland and marine capture fisheries have been [5] estimated at Rs 10.96 crores 10. Effect on the nationals as well as state economic and financial assessment. 11. Hundreds of villages, roads, uprooted many plants side by area were damaged. Suggestion : i. It is essential to review the rule curves of all the reservoirs in Kerala. The rule curves need to be formulated for both conservation as well operations during the flood, particularly for the reservoirs having the live storage capacity of more than 200 MCM in order to create some dynamic flood cushion for moderating the floods of lower return periods particularly in the early period of monsoon ii. For efficient discharge of flood runoff from Vembanad lake, the approach channels to Thottappally spillway and the passage of the Thaneermukkom barrage should be widened taking into consideration the lake hydrology, ecology, saline water intrusion, etc based on scientific and engineering inputs. iii. In basins like Periyar, Pamba and Achenkovil basins, Kerala should explore the possibilities of creating suitable storage reservoirs, wherever feasible, for flood moderation and other multipurpose uses. iv. The Poringalkuthu dam should be inspected by DSRP panel and design flood, spillway capacity of Poringalkuthu dam must be reviewed. References : 1) Government of India - STUDY REPORT KERALA FLOODS OF AUGUST 2018 2) Baynes, Chris. "Worst floods in nearly a century kill 44 in India's Kerala state amid torrential monsoon rains". The Independent news. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india- worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala- kochi-a8493011.html (15 August 2018)

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL REGIONS OF THE BAGHMUNDI-AJODHYA UPLAND OF THE PURULIA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL

DR. ARIJIT KUMAR GHOSH Ranchi, Jharkhand

Research Paper Accepted on 29-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : Region is a unit of space which is homogeneous in respect of some particular set of associated conditions.A geomorphological region is a part of the earth‘s surface with recognizable geomorphological qualities which distinguished it from neighbouring regions. The whole landscape of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland of the Purulia district of West Bengal state of India is moulded by endogenetic and exogenetic processes and has been divided into geomorphological units having common genesis and morphometric attributes for the optimum exploitation of individual units. The geomorphological divisions of the study region have been done here on the basis of geomorphological history, lithological variations, climatic differences, location and altitude of the area. The entire region has been divided into four macro regions and fifteen meso regions. The description of all the geomorphic regions has been done with the help of morphometric parameters of the area. also. Keywords : homogeneous, geomorphology, landscape, morphometric, lithological, macro, meso, Introduction : A geomorphological region is a part of the earth‘s surface with recognizable geomorphological qualities this distinguished it from neighbouring regions. Every landform type has its distinctive evolution and characteristics forms. Among them genetic and process-response forms are the most important criteria for distinguishing different types of landforms in a region. Unlike Dury and Strahler who appreciated mathematical characteristics, Barbara Zakrzewska helds that ― descriptive ( preferably quantitative) landform analysis as an objective statement of facts should be the first step in any type of landform study, especially in geography where the facts of the earth‘s surface are always in focus‖(Zakrzewska , 1967, P.21). The description of the morpho-units of the study area is based on the qualitative and quantitative approaches both and the morpho-units have been demarcated on the basis of the bondages of genesis and similar morphometric characteristics. There is lack in geological and topographical homogeneity in the study region. the peneplain regions of the north-west, riverain plains of the west and south-west, the hilly tract of the south - east and the dissected highlands of the north-east stand as four morpho-units of the first orderv(Fig.7.1). They have been subjected to further sub-division into second order units as micro- morphogenetic regions. ―Micro region, regardless of its size, creates an environment to register man‘s activities within the limits of its geo-economic resources‖ (Singh,1985,P.238). Objectives : The main objectives of the study are as follows:  To divide Baghmundi-Ajodhya Upland , West Bengal into geomorphic regions on the basis of geomorphic genesis and characteristics.  To evaluate the socio-economic potential of each regions and make an effort for betterment.  To make a detailed quantitative analysis of the various geomorphic regions. Empirical Testing Of Hypothesis : The following hypotheses are suggested to be examined and tested empirically in the field.

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 Every landform type has its distinctive evolution. The different types of structures may give rise to different types of landforms but the exogenetic processes acting upon them play a pivotal role. Thus the genetic and process –response forms are the most important for the morphological regionalization of Baghmundi-Ajodhya Upland.  Locational and distributional importance of the various physical basis including the tendency of soil erosion and run-off act as a determiner of the agricultural land use of the study area. Study Area : The Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland is located in the western part of the Purulia District in West Bengal. The latitudinal extension of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland stretches from 23º04‘40‘‘N to 23º24‘25‘‘N and the longitudinal extension stretches from 85º49‘25‘‘E to 86º15‘25‘‘E (Fig. 0.1). Its total area is about 2295 Km². However, the study area is a relatively small tract of the eastern side of the Subarnarekha river basin. The Jhalda C.D. Block lies to its north-west, in the north-east direction is the Arsa C. D. Block and in the south-east is the Balamampur C. D. Block. The Baghmundi C.D. Block. The Baghmundi C. D. Block is located mainly in the central portion and is very close to Ajodhya upland. The area comprises parts of six quarter inch sheets --- 73 I/3, 73 I/4, 73 E/15, 73 E/16, 73I/7 and 73I/8. (Scale: 1inch = 1 mile. or 2cms = 1 km), Survey of India, Government of India). The 280 metres contour line helps to demarcate the study area. Methodology : There is no question that geomorphology is a science of fundamental importance. But more emphasis has been made on the process alone and the short-term response of landforms to processes. However, the change in methodology also endangered a change in the scale of phenomena studied. Small scale features and short-acting processes proved to be the most amenable to the new methodology. There are two main approaches for dividing a region – ‗landscape‘ method and ‗parametric‘ method (Davidson, 1980, pp.44-51). The landscape method describes a land unit as an area or a group of areas throughout which a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation can be recognized. The parametric method, on the other hand is defined as the classification and the sub-divisions of land on the basis of selected attribute values. The landscape approach is claimed to be closed to reality while the latter claims for its objectivity. The author has accepted both parametric and landscape methods for the classification of morphological regions. The parametric investigations of widely selected variable parameters have helped a lot in regionalization, no doubt; but on the basis of the author‘s intensive field study and her access to as well as interpretation of the concerned imageries, the author could correct and modify the regional boundaries to have more perfect morphological units of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland. Numerous components are employed for delimiting morphological regions; e.g. geology, lithology, surface elevation slope, drainage, soil, natural vegetation, etc But all these parameters and their respective categories do not play equal role in delimiting homogeneous morphological units. The geomorphological divisions of the study region have been done here on the basis of geomorphological history, lithological variations, climatic differences, location and altitude of the area. The entire region has been divided into four macro regions and fifteen meso regions. The description of all the geomorphic regions have been done with the help of morphometric parameters of the area (Fig. 7-I) also.

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The Table. No. 1 registers the areas with different categories of morphometric parameter. TABLE No.1 Area under different categories of morphometric attributes. Absolute Relief % of the total Relative Relief % of the total (Metres) area (Metres) area Above-600 3.93 Below 100(RL) 48.41 500-600 17.47 100-200(RM) 17.57 400-500 15.86 200-300(RMH) 25.30 300-400 8.55 Above -300(RH) 08.72 200-300 6.74 Below 200 47.45 Total 100.00 100.00

Dissection Index % of the Total Slope in % of the total Groups in Metres Area degree area Below 0.25DL 54.24 Below 2 64.85 0.25-0.50DM 16.42 2-4 16.92 0.50-0.75DMH 13.86 4-6 9.04 Above – 0.75DH 15.48 6-8 4.99 8-10 1.89 10-12 1.26 12-14 0.52 Above -14 0.53 Total 100.00 100.00 The divisions have been described as under : (1) The Peneplain Regions of The North-West - The North-western part of the study region is a peneplain area. It covers an area of about 507 square Kilometres representing about 22.09% of the total area of the study region. The northern and western boundaries of this region are formed by the Sapahi Nala and Subarnarekha Nadi respectively. The Riverain plains of the west and south lie to its south and dissected highland of the study region lies to its east. This peneplain region is drained by only two rivers, namely, the Salda and the Rupai along with their numerous tributary streams. The northern narrow and elongated part of this region is separated by a waterparting line running between Salda and Sapahi drainage basins. The entire part of this peneplain region slopes towards west but only the northern part slopes towards north direction. This region is composed of intrusive granites, calc and crystalline limestone, mica schist, and hornblende schist have yielded so much so the processes of denudation that this whole-unit area has been reduced to the level of an undulating plain, drained by Salda and Rupai and their tributaries. The streams of this region are not perennial. The south-eastern part of this unit is a deforested part where streams show intense gullying. The absolute relief varies from 200 metres to 500 metres and the average relief varies from 250 metres to 450 metres. 7.40% and 4.24% areas come under RL and RM categories respectively. The rest 88.36% belongs to moderately low categories. 17.80% and 0.17% areas have moderate to high dissection indexes respectively. More than 82% area has low dissection index. 78% area of the unit has gentle slope of 2° to 4° followed successively by moderate and moderately steep slopes (18.26% and 3.1% areas respectively). The drainage frequency is below 7/ Km2. The drainage density is low to medium. Second Order Morpho-Units - (1a) The Tulin-Dumardih Plain The Tulin-Dumardih plain is one of the major secondary units of the north-western pene plain region of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland part of the Purulia district. This is an elongated and 56 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

narrow morpho-unit sprawling along the north-western precint of the study region. It is due to the softness of the rocks such as mica-schist, amphibolite and hornblende schist found in this region, the Sapahi Nadi has been able to carve out a plain escorted by the right bank plain of Sapahi in the north, the Jhalda-Ichag plain in the south (1b), the Shaharjore-Goura valley in the east (4a), and Bansaruli-Bisariya plain in the west. It has an extent of 97 Km2 (19.13%) of its parent unit. The average elevation ranges from 220 m to 300 m. This plain region is drained by the Sapahi Nadi which originates from Jabarban peak on the Ghoramara Pahar. It flows southward for a long distance from the place of origin and near Mirdih village the direction of its flow becomes westward. 51.93%, 20.76% and 2.49% areas come under moderate and moderately steep slope categories respectively. The drainage frequency (below 7/Km2) and drainage density (below 2 Kms / Km2) are low to medium. (1b.) The Jhalda-Ichag Plain Escorted on the west by the Panch Pargana Plain of Ranchi district, on the north by the Tulin-Dumardih Plain (1a), on the south by the Illu-Jargo Plain (1c) and on the east by the Shaharjore and Goura valley (4a), this sub-unit covers 220Km2 or 43.39% area of its first order unit. It is drained by the Salda river and Rupai river along with their numerous affluents. All the rivers show signs of intense gullying. The projections of calc-granulites, calc schist, crystalline limestone and granite have been erased resulting in the formation of this flat and undulating plain. There are some residual hills (monadknocks),e,g, Bansa Pahar (429m), Gonja Pahar (620m), Jhalda hills (473 and 497 metres) and broken low ridges between the Salda and Rupai rivers. The slope is from east to west. The absolute height varies from 200 to 500 metres and the average relief from 200 to 400 metres. The areas with low, moderate and high dissection indices account for 57.67 (58.50 Km2), 38.29 (38.84 Km2) and 4.12 (4.10 Km2) percent areas respectively. 54.61% area has 2 moderately low relative relief. RL, RM and RMH categories account for 31.74 (32.2 Km ), 10.94 (11.10 Km2) and 2.70 (2.74 Km2) percent areas respectively. (1c) The Illu-Jargo Plain This is an intermontane plain area of the first order unit which is spread over 37.48% (190 Km2) area of the study region. It is flanked by the Kalimati plain and the Kuchi plain (2a and 2b) in the south, by the Jhalda – Ichag Plain in the north in the north (1b), by the Panch Pargana plain in west and by the upper valley region of the Karru Nadi and the Shaharjore – Goura Valley region in the east (2c and 4a). Its western limit is the boundary of the study region itself. This region is composed of mica- schist, amphibolite and horn blende schist which have yielded so much to the processes of denudation of that this whole unit area has been reduced to the level of an undulating plain drained by the Khelarimoria Nala and its tributaries. The upper part of the Rupai Nadi also comes within this unit. Almost all the streams of the forested zones of this belt show intense gullying. The absolute relief varies from 200 to 500 metres, and the average relief varies from 200 to 400 metres. 7.40% and 4.24% areas come under RL and RM categories respectively. 82.03% area has low dissected index. (2) The Riverain Plains Of The West And The South-West This unit with an area of 605 Km2 (26.36%) of the study region extends from the south- western limit of the riverain plains in one hand to western boundary of the south-eastern hilly tract (3) and dissected highlands of the east and north-east (4) on the other (Fig.7.1) of the study region. It includes the Kalimati plain, Kuchi plain, lower and upper valley regions of the Karru Nadi. All these plains have been made by the rivers flowing over this region descending from the central part of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland and this is why this part of the study region has been named as riverain plain. This part also possesses several hills such as Ghosra Pahar (471m), Dumra Pahar (437m), Chamtu-Tanto Pahar (699m), Kurupahari (612m), Gundlilawa Pahar (480m), etc. Manbhum granites, and hornblende-schist, Mica-schist and shale are the main rocks. The eastern part of this region is highly dissected due to less resistant shale and other soft rocks. The resistant granites of the area stand as hills and hillocks. This unit is drained mainly by the Ghosra, Kuchi and Karru and their tributary streams.

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The absolute relief fluctuates from 200m to 600m and the and the average relief from 200 to 500 metres. Moderately low to high relative relief, low to high dissection indices (1% to 54%), gentle to steep slope, moderate to very high drainage frequency and density are the morphometric properties. Second Order Units - (2a.) The Kalimati Plain This small riverain plain extends from the Subarnarekha river in the west to the Ghosra Pahar in the east. It is wider in the west than the east (2a) and is drained by the Ghosra Nala which originates from the Ghosra Pahar (471m). This plain spreads over 21.49% (130 Km2) area of its parent unit. The drainage density (2 to 4 Kms/ Km2) area and frequency (3 to 6 and above / Km2) are medium to fine. The absolute relief varies from 200 to 400 m and the average relief from 200 m to 350 m. The areas with moderately low, low moderate and moderately high relative relief stake their claims 11.53, 73.12, 12.60 and 2.7 percent respectively. A major part near about 33.68 Km2 or 25.90% has moderate dissection index index against only 74.10% under high dissection index. The relative relief and dissection indices increase towards the Dumra and Gosra range of the Kalimati reserved forested areas and the eastern hilly region of this unit upsetting the homogeneity of this monotonous plain. (2b.) The Kuchi Plain This vast monotonous flat to gently undulating plain covers an area of 160 Km2 (26.45%). It extends from the western boundary line of the study region to Champtu Pahar of open mixed jungle of the central plateau region of the study area. The general slope is towards west. The surface run- off is collected by the Kuchi and its tributaries. The entire part of the Kuchi plain from east to west is dominated by the Manbhum granites. Amphibolite, hornblende – schist and mica-schist cover considerable areas in the east and north-east. The western and south-western parts are dominated by alluvium. Scattered patches of calc-granulite, calc-schist crystalline limestone, etc. are also found. The shade and the mica schist generally produce undulating plains. The granites are associated with flat plains. The western half tract of this unit is covered with thin mantle of recent alluvium having some rocky exposures. As in the characteristic of the plain land, the absolute relief is generally low varying from 200 to 350 m. The average relief fluctuates from 180 to 300 m. The relative relief from below 180 m to 240 m shows that the unit comprises RML, RL, RM, and RMH categories which have their respective shares of 94.58% (160 Km2), 3.70%, 1.60% and 0.13% areas in this unit. The relative relief increases towards the northern highland, eastern hilly tracts and southern upland. The low dissection index, surpassing all others in areal span, coincides with the level plain. Moderate and high dissection index categories are the characteristics of the hilly tracts. (2c.) The Upper Valley Region Of The Karru This geomorphological unit is a hilly tract region and is escorted on the west by the Kuchi plain (2b) and on the south by the lower valley region of the Karru (2d) and Turga Basin (3d) and on the north by the Illu-Jargo Plain (1c), the Shaharjore-Goura valley (4a) and the Chunmatia river basin (4b). This sub-unit covers 20.66% (125 Km2) area of its present unit. Relatively soft horn- blende-schist and mica-schist are usually associated with the upper valley of the Karru river basin. Actually this sub-unit is almost situated at the middle part of the study area. The south-western part has the lowest elevation. The highest elevation is observed to the north-east of Gundlilawa Pahar. The western part is drained by the tributaries of the Karru. The main tributary is the Kulbera which shows severe gullying. The eastern part is drained by the tributaries of the Turga and Kadrugarha rivers. The absolute relief varies from 250 to 500 metres and the average relief from 250 to 400 metres. This valley region is dotted with some residual hills like the Kurupahari and others. The elevation is 250 m near the conflux of the Kulbera Nala and the Kadrugarha Nadi. Intense gullying is exhibited all along the river course. These two are the main tributaries of the Karru Nadi at its upper course. The river has smooth gradient from east to west. (2d.) The Lower Valley Region of The Karru This unit lies between the Kuchi plain (2b) in the north-west and the Turga plain in the east (3a). The East Singhbhum district lies to its south and south-west. It has 31.40 % (190 Km2) area of 58 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

its master unit. Hornblende-schist, mica-schist and amphibolite are usually associated with this undulating valley area. The region is drained by the tributaries of the Karru. Some of the tributaries show here intense gullying. The absolute and average relief vary from 200 metres to 300 metres and 200 metres to 250 metres respectively. The peneplained surface is dotted with some relict hills and hillocks. The valley has an elevation of 300 metres to the north and north-east and 190 metres to the south. The elevation of the land near the complux point of the Karru Nadi and Sindri river is about 200 metres above m.s.l. Intense gullying is observed all along the Sindri river courses which is one of the major tributaries of the Karru. The Karru river valley has smooth gradient from north to south. (3) The South-Eastern Hilly Tract : The south-eastern hilly tract of the study region has occupied 565 Km2 or 24.62% of the total area. This tract is escorted by the riverain plains of the study region (2) in the west and by the dissected highlands of the region in the north and the boundaries of the study region delimit it in the south and east. This unit encompasses the hills and ranges, intervening plains and the upper Kistobazar valley and Sanka valley in the north. The Gorgaburu (677m), Kurupahari (612 m), Baghmundi hill (582m), Dulgubera hill (609m) Matha hill (648m), Matkandih hill (610m), Karma hill (663m), Ajodhya Pahar (622m) and Kanadungri (453m) are the main hills and ranges. Epidorite, mica-schist, phyllite, shale, talc-schist, amphibolite, hornblende–schist are the main rocks found in this region. The height diminishes towards south, a fast well ascertained by the flow of the Kistobazar and Sanka in that direction. This densely forested unit is partly in accessible. The surface is deeply dissected. The absolute height varies from 450 to 677 m and the average relief varies from 350 m to 580 m. Relative relief shoots from 30 to above 240m. Surface with moderately low and low relative relief have limited extent over only 0.08% and 9.68% respectively. The Kistobazar valley is primarily characterized by these categories. The plain surface is escorted by Matkandih hill and Matha hill. Moderate relative relief, covering 45.65% area coincides with the Matkandih hill, Karma hill, and the foothills. The Kuru pahari, Baghmundi hill, Dulgubera hill, Gorgaburu and the zone between the foothills and the crests of the Karma, Ajodhya and Kanadungri, etc. have moderately high relative relief covering 36.72 % area of the unit. The highest crests of the Kurupahari, Gorgaburu, Matkandih, Karma, Dulgubera have high relative relief accounting for 1.39% area of the unit . The surface with level (Below 2°), gentle (2°-4°), moderate (6° to 10°), moderately steep (10°-14°) and steep (above 14°) slopes claim 1.42%, 27.31%, 55.36% and 15.91% areas respectively. Moderately steep slope dominates the crest zones of the hills are characterized by steep slopes. Second Order Units - (3a.) The Turga Plain The Turga plain is an intermontane plain, and is spread over 14.16% or 80 Km2 area of its parent unit. It is escorted by the Karru Valley in the west, by the Kulbera valley in the north, by the Matha hill region in the east and the boundary of the study region delimits in the south (Fig.7.1). This intermontane plain is drained by the Turga river descending from the Baghmundi hills and flows towards south along with its many tributary streams. The absolute relief varies from a little below 250 to 550m and the intensity of relief from 200 to 400 m in this plain tract. The major part of this unit is shared by RL (40%) and RM (51.52%) categories. The share of RMH is only 4.48% in this unit. 48% area has low dissection index while the rest suffers from moderate dissection. 62.52% of its area has moderate dissection index. 62.52% of its area has moderate slope while only 37.48% has moderately steep slope. The drainage frequency is medium to very high and the drainage density is medium to fine. (3b.) The Narrow And Elongated Valley of The Kistobazar Nala This unit lies between the Turga plain (3a) in the west and the Daurigarha valley region in the east (3c). To its north-east there lies a morpho-unit named Bandhu river basin. This unit is a very narrow and elongated valley of the study region. It has an areal extent of 10.97% or 62Km2 in its first order unit. Its gently undulating surface configuration owes much to the predominance of less resistant shale and hornblende schist. The altitude varies from 230 metres 600 m and the

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absolute relief varies from 300 to 600 metres. The average relief ranges from 300 to 500 metres. 89.08% of the unit area has moderately low relative relief. The rest 9.10 and 1.82 percent areas are under RL and RM categories respectively. Low dissection index dominates by claiming its influence of 87.36% of the unit area. Low dissection index dominates by claiming its influence of 87.36% of the unit area. The western and eastern fringes about 12.64% area have moderate dissection index vary from low to high. (3c.) The Daurigarha Valley Region Escorted on the west by the narrow and elongated Kistobazar Nala valley (3b) and on the east by the Matha forested region and lower Sanka basin (3d & 3e), this sub-unit covers 13.81% or 78 Km2 area of its parent unit. The rocks like phyllite, mica-schist, amphibolites and hornblende- schist, etc. constitute the lithology of the region. They have been exposed on then river beds. The absolute relief varies from 300 to 600 metres. The valley of Daurigarha has very smooth gradient from north-east to south-west. Low dissection index level and gentle slope, moderately low relative relief, coarse drainage texture and low drainage frequency are the other morphometric attributes and characteristics of this unit. (3d.) The Matha Forested Tract The Matha forested tract is one of the very significant geomorphological unit of the study region which is spread over the upper courses of the Sanka and Kumari rivers covering an area of about 182 Km2 (32.21%) of its parent unit. The Gorgaburu (677m) is the main hill of this thickly forested unit. Shale and phyllite are the main rocks. The absolute relief varies from 300 metres to 677 metres and intensity of relief from 300 metres to 610 metres. The surfaces with RL, RM and RMH categories account for 16.68%, 73.46% and 9.86% areas respectively. A major part (81.50%) has moderate dissection index. Moderate and high dissection indices have their respective shares of 10.51% and 7.96%. Only 21.08% of its area has gentle slope against 78.92% under moderate slope. relief, moderate slope and moderate to high relative relief, moderate slope and moderate to high dissection indices. The drainage density (2 to above 4 Kms / Km2) and frequency (3 to above 9/Km2) and are moderate to very high. (3e.) The Lower Sanka Basin This unit lies between Daurigarha valley (3e) and the Matha hilly tract (3d) in the north and the boundary of the study region is in the south. This unit has 28.85% (163 Km2) area of its parent unit. This unit occupies almost the entire portion of the lower basin area of the Sanka river which is a flat plain. Hornblende, mica-schist and phyllite, etc. constitute the lithology of this region. The region is drained by the Sanka river itself along with their affluents. The absolute and average relief vary from 230 m to 400 metre and 230 m 350 m respectively. The undulating surface is dotted with very few relict hills like the Matha hill and others. About 89.20% area has moderately low relatively relief whereas 8.64 and 2.16% areas come under RL and RM categories respectively. The areas with low, moderate and high dissection indices account for 88.77%, 7.49% and 3.74% areas by turn. 58.71% of this unit has gentle slope and the remaining 41.29% has level slope. The drainage texture and frequency are usually low. It is thickly populated and intensely cultivated region. (4) The Dissected Highlands Of The East And North-East : This geomorphological unit occupies 618 Km2 or 26.93 % of the total area of the study region. It is escorted by the north-western peneplain region (1) and the riverain plains of the west and south-west (2) in the west and by the south-eastern hilly tract (3) in the south. The boundaries of the study region delimit it in the north-east and east This highland area is occupied by the hills, 60 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

ranges and intervening plains and of the rivers descending from the central part of the study region, e.g., Shaharjore, Goura, Chunmatia and Bandu. Actually this macro region falls within the area of Kasai river system. The average elevation of this region is 450 metres above m.s.l. The Gugui hill (579m), Pokhriya hill (618m), Saparambara hill (625m), Matkandih Pahar (610 m), Khargora hill (640m) Mudali Pahar (583m), Gonja Pahar (575m) and Pangada hill (620 m) are the main hills and ranges. Phyllite, mica-schist, shale, talc-schist, hornblende–schist, granite are the main rocks of this region. The height of this unit area diminish towards north-east, a fact well ascertained by the flow of the rivers flowing over this region in that direction. The surface is very much dissected. The absolute height varies from 300 m to 640m and intensity of relief ranges from 200 to 580 m. RML category predominates. RML and RL categories are more or less identical with the south-eastern hilly tract of the study area. RM and RH categories are confined to the upper valley region of the Karru where a number of hills is located. The low dissection index, matchless in areal extent, is associated with the level plains. Moderate and high categories are the characteristics of the hilly tracts of the region. 13.81%, 49.54%, 27.31%, 8.26% and 1.08% areas belong to the categories of level, gentle, moderate, moderately steep and steep slopes respectively. Low to high drainage frequency and coarse to fine drainage texture are other morphometric attributes found in this region. Second Order Units - (4a.) The Shaharjore-Goura Valley This second order unit lies in between Salda –Rupai basin in the west and Chunmatia basin in the east (Fig. 7.1). The north-eastern limit of this unit is formed by the boundary line of the study area. The upper valley region of the Karru (2c) lies to its south. This sub-unit covers 215 Km2 or 34.79% area of its first order unit. It is drained by the Shaharjore and Goura rivers along with their numerous tributaries. The southern parts of this unit are covered by thick forests and the northern portions are comparatively occupied by plain areas. This region is composed of mica- schist, amphibolites and hornblende-schist, and intrusive granite (Kuilapal granite and Manbhum granite and other which have yielded so much to the processes of denudation that this whole unit area except the southern part has been reduced to the level of an undulating plain. Almost all the tributary streams of the Shaharjore and Goura in the forested part show intense gullying. The absolute relief varies from 300 to 600 metres and the average relief from 300 metres to 540 metres. and moderately steep slopes (17.11% and 3.89% areas respectively). The drainage frequency is low and density is low to medium. (4b.) The Chunmatia River Basin This sub-unit part lies between Shaharjore–Goura basin (4a) in the west and the dissected terrain of the Bandhu river basin in the east (4c). The south-western and north-eastern boundaries are escorted by the eastern demarcation line of the Kuchi plain and the north-eastern boundary line of the study region respectively. It has an areal extent of 192Km2 or 31.07% area of its first order unit. Here also, it is the same type of surface configuration as the Shaharjore and Goura river valley region possesses. The south western part of this unit is having dense forest and the surface is very much rugged and dissected. The north-eastern half of the unit is more or less level tract where stream frequency and drainage density both are comparatively very low. The south-western part is having very high density of drainage as well as frequency too. It is generally undulating surface configuration owes much to the predominance of less resistant shale and mica-schist. The hornblende-schist, amphibolite, granite, sandstone, etc. constitute the lithology of the area. The absolute relief varies from 300m to 540m. 85.12% of the unit area has moderately low relative relief. The rest 8.70% and 6.18% areas are under RL and RM categories respectively. Low dissection index dominates by claiming in its influence on 82.36% of the total area. Only the southern and western fringes, 17.63% have moderate dissection index. (4c.) The Dissected Terrain Of The Bandhu River Basin This dissected terrain accounts for 211 Km2 or 34.14% area of parent unit. It is roughly demarcated by the Chunmatia river basin (4b) in the north-west the Matha forested region in the south-east (3d), the narrow and elongated valley of the Kistobazar Nala in the south-west (3b) and the Arsha plain area in the north-east. The Bandhu and its tributaries tread through this sub-unit. 61 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

The average elevation varies from 300 metres to 500 metres and the absolute relief from 300 to 600 m. RML has a dominant areal extent 97.17% followed by RL (2.09%) and RM (0.74%). Low and moderate relative relief categories coincide with the southern foot hill zones. 75% area has gentle slope and the rest 20.00% and 05.00% have moderate and moderately steep slopes respectively under the drainage density and frequency both are low to high here. CONCLUSION : From the above discussion, it may be said that the study area has a diversity of geomorphic conditions evolved from its physical characteristics and different social and economic attributes. The different morphological regions are ultimately useful in planning, evaluation, formulation and implementation of development programs for the improvement in agricultural of the Baghmundi-Ajodhya upland of Purulia district, W.B. REFERENCES : 1. Ahmad, E. (1965) Bihar : A Physical, Economic and Regional Geography, Ranchi University Press, Ranchi. 2. Bloom, L. A. (1998), Geomorphology : A Systematic Analysis Cenozoic Landforms, Pearson Education, Pvt. Ltd., Delhi. 3. Sen, P. K. and Prasad, N (2003), An Introduction to the Geomorphology of India, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 4. Mukhopadhyay, A. (2015), Journal of the Foundation of Practising Geographers). 5. Gopalkrishnan, K. S., et.al. (1997), Geomorphometric Study of the Kodayar River Basin in Western Ghat regions of Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu. National Geographical Journal of India. 6. Strahler, A. N. (1952), Dynamic Basis of Geomorphology Bull, Geol. Soc. Am. 7. Wadia, D. N. (1977) ―Geology of India ―Fourth Edition, Tata Mc Graw-Hill, Publishing Co., New Delhi.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Mrs. Anupama Rajkumar Kamble, Assistant Professor Dept. of Geography, Konkan Gyanpeeth, Uran, College of Com. & Arts, Uran, Raigad Research Paper Accepted on 20-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract - Climate change and variability are concerns of human being as well as Agriculture. Various Climatic Hazards, like droughts and floods threaten seriously the livelihood of billions of people who depend on land for most of their needs. The global economy is adversely being influenced very frequently due to extreme events such as droughts and floods, cold and heat waves, forest fires, landslips etc. The natural calamities like earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions, though not related to weather disasters, may change chemical composition of the atmosphere. It will, in turn, lead to weather related disasters. This paper presents effect of the climate change and its impact on Indian Agriculture. Introduction - There is now clear evidence for an observed increase in global average temperatures and change in rainfall rates during the 20th century (Easterling, 1999; IPCC, 2001; Jung et al., 2002; Balling Jr and Cerveny, 2003; Fauchereau et al., 2003) around the world. The most imminent climatic changes in recent times is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increased levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs). Because of the increasing concentrations of those radiative or greenhouse gases, there is much concern about future changes in our climate and direct or indirect effect on agriculture (Garg et al., 2001; IPCC, 2001; Krupa; 2003; Aggarwal, 2003; Bhatia et al., 2004). Agriculture plays a key role in overall economic and social wellbeing of India. Though the share of agriculture in both Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment has declined over time, the pace of decline in its share in employment has been much slower than that of GDP. The share of agriculture in GDP is declined from 39% in 1983 to 24% in 2000–01 compared with much lower rate of decline in its share in total employment from 63% to 57% during the same period. Declines in the share of agriculture in GDP were not commensurate with the fall in dependency in agriculture. Such trends have resulted in fragmentation and decline in the size of land holdings which leads to agronomic inefficiency, a rise in unemployment, a low volume of marketable surplus. These factors could contribute to increase vulnerability to global environmental change (Aggarwal et al., 2004). In India, average food consumption at present is 550 gm per capita per day whereas the corresponding figures in China and USA are 980 gm and 2850 gm respectively. Weather and climate - Weather is the set of meteorological conditions such as wind, rain, snow, sunshine, temperature, etc. at a particular time and place. By contrast, the term climate describes the overall long-term characteristics of the weather experienced at a place. The ecosystems, agriculture, livelihoods and settlements of a region are very dependent on its climate. The climate, therefore, can be thought of as a long-term summary of weather conditions, taking account of the average conditions as well as the variability of these conditions. The fluctuations that occur from year to year, and the statistics of extreme conditions such as severe storms or unusually hot seasons are part of the climatic variability. The Earth‗s climate has varied considerably in the past, as shown by the geological evidence of ice ages and sea level changes, and by the records of human history over many hundreds of years. The causes of past changes are not always clear but are generally known to be 63 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

related to changes in ocean currents, solar activity, volcanic eruptions and other natural factors. The difference now is that global temperatures have risen unusually rapidly over the last few decades. There is strong evidence of increase in average global air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising of average global sea levels. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report concludes that the global warming is unequivocal. Atmosphere and ocean temperatures are higher than they have been at any other time during at least the past five centuries, and probably for more than a millennium. Scientists have long known that the atmosphere‘s greenhouse gases act as a blanket, which traps incoming solar energy and keeps the Earth‗s surface warmer than it otherwise would be, and that an increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases would lead to additional warming. Climate change and its Impact on Indian Agriculture - Based on some of the past experiences indicated above, impact of climate change on agriculture will be one of the major deciding factors influencing the future food security of mankind on the earth. Agriculture is not only sensitive to climate change but also one of the major drivers for climate change. Understanding the weather changes over a period of time and adjusting the management practices towards achieving better harvest are challenges to the growth of agricultural sector as a whole. The climate sensitivity of agriculture is uncertain, as there is regional variation in rainfall, temperature, crops and cropping systems, soils and management practices.  Huge crop losses were noticed in Maharashtra (India) due to un-seasonal and poor distribution of rainfall during 1997-98. The 1997/1998 El Nino event (The El Nino is nothing but warming of Pacific), the strongest of the last century, affected 110 million people and coasted the global economy nearly US$ 100 billion.  The year 2003 was the year In India Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh are the States that experienced summer heat waves. And also some part of the India experienced severe cold wave from December 2002 to January 2003 like some parts of Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and the North Eastern States experienced unprecedented cold wave.  The crop yield loss varied between 10 and 100% in the case of horticultural crops and seasonal crops. The fruit size and quality were also adversely affected in horticultural crops. However, temperate fruits like apple, perch, plum and cherry gave higher yield due to extreme chilling. The damage was more in low-lying areas where cold air settled and remained for a longer time on the ground.  High temperature in March 2004 adversely affected crops like wheat, apple, mustard, rapeseed, linseed, potato, vegetables, pea and tea across the State of Himachal Pradesh in India.  Untimely rains and hailstorms destroyed wheat crop of 15,000 hectares (Ha.) over UP, Haryana and Punjab in Rabi season 2007 in India.  Heavy rains again in September in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala led to floods and thus the year 2007 was declared as the flood year in India. A huge crop loss was noticed in several states of the Country due to floods in kharif, 2007.  The Indian economy is mostly agrarian based and depends on onset of monsoon and its further behavior. The year 2002 was a classic example to show how Indian food grains‘ production depends on rainfall of July and it was declared as the all-India drought, as the rainfall deficiency was 19% against the long period average of the country and 29% of the area was affected due to drought.  Food production in India is sensitive to climate changes such as variability in monsoon rainfall and temperature changes within a season. Studies by Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and others indicate greater expected loss in the Rabi crop. Every 1°C rise in temperature reduces wheat production by 4-5 Million.  The Range of Temperture between 9% and 25% rise of 2 °C to 3.5 °C. Scientists also estimated that a 2°C rise in mean temperature and a 7% increase in mean precipitation would reduce net revenues by 12.3% for the country as a whole. Agriculture in the coastal regions of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka is found to be the most negatively affected. Small losses are also

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indicated for the major food-grain producing regions of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. On the other hand, West Bengal, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh are predicted to benefit to a small extent from warming.  The maximum and minimum temperature (1960-2003) analysis for northwest region of India showed that the minimum temperature is increasing at annual, kharif and rabi season time scales. The rate of increase of minimum temperature during rabi is much higher than during kharif. The maximum temperature showed increasing trend in annual, kharif and rabi time scales but very sharp rise was observed from the year 2000 onwards.  It was observed from the experiments on impact of high temperature on pollen sterility and germination in rice that maximum temperature above 35°C and minimum temperature 23°C at flowering stage increased the pollen sterility in two normal and three basmati varieties of rice and the effect is more profound in basmati cultivars.  Coconut yields were not affected with the increase of maximum temperature up to 44°C but above that reduced the yield.  Milk production in Holstein Friesian cross breed cows was affected due to rise in maximum and minimum temperatures above 22°C. Decrease of milk production in Murra buffaloes was also observed with increase in temperature above 2°C. The extreme events like heat wave (>4°C) and cold wave (<3°C) reduced the milk yield by 10-30 percent in first lactation and 5-20 percent in second and third lactations in cattle and buffaloes.

Conclusions From the above, it is clear that the occurrence of floods and droughts, heat and cold waves are common across the world due to climate change. Their adverse impact on livelihood of farmers is tremendous. It is more so in India as our economy is more dependent on Agriculture. Interestingly, weather extremes of opposite in nature like cold and heat waves and floods and droughts are noticed within the same year over the same region or in different regions and likely to increase in ensuing decades. The human and crop losses are likely to be heavy. The whole climate change is associated with increasing greenhouse gases and human induced aerosols and the imbalance between them may lead to uncertainty even in year-to-year monsoon behavior over India

Reference - 1. Asian Development Bank, 2009. Addressing Climate Change in the Asia and Pacific Region. 2. Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Security in India Int. Jr. of Agril., Env. And Biotech. Vol. 4, No. 2 : June 2011 : 129-137 3. Shukla, P.R., Sharma, S.K and Ramana, V.P. 2002. Climate Change and India - Issues, Concerns and Opportunities. Tata – McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, 4. Aggarwal, P. K. and Sinha, S. K.: 1993, ‗Effect of probable increase in carbon dioxide and temperatureon productivity of wheat in India. 5. IPCC (1998) Principles governing IPCC work, Approved at the 14th session of the IPCC. 6. 2 Gautam HR, Kumar R (2007) Need for rainwater harvesting in agriculture. J Kurukshetra.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

AGRICULTURE LABOUR IN INDIA : PROBLEMS

Prof. Kamlesh R. Kamble, Asst. Professor & Head, Department of Geography, Br. B. K. College, Vengurla, Dist. Sindhudurg. Research Paper Accepted on 21-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : In India Agricultural Labors faces many problems. Agricultural labours are most neglected class in Indian rural society. In Indian society agricultural workers called by farmers, who works on the land of others on wages. Often, they are not in a position to earn just enough to keep their family with better living and working condition. There is also problem of unemployment and irregular employment. Because of that they have neither private nor social security. Being unorganized they do not have any organization to see better working condition. This research paper includes problems of agricultural labours, Government policy and suggestion for improvement of the agricultural labour conditions. Key words : Agriculture, labours, society, unorganized sector, government measures, minimum wage etc. Introduction : Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. The distinguishing feature of rural economy of India has been the growth of agriculture labour in the crop production. The income level is very low in the workers of this field. Agriculture laboures lack of alternative employment due to lack of education and others training programmes related to agriculture. There is also lack of skill in Indian farmers. The phenomena of underemployment and under-development population are visible amongst agricultural labourers. Agricultural labours can statute the most neglected class in Indian rural sector and are highly unorganized. Objective of The Study : 1) To understand the features of Indian Agriculture labour. 2) To Study the Problems of labour working in the agriculture 3) To Study the economic condition of Agricultural labour 4) To recommended the future plan regarding the Indian agriculture. Methodology : 1) Secondary Data - The method of using secondary data consisting of books, journals, libraries etc. has been used. The relevant material is collected from the secondary sources. Materials and information are collected by legal sources like books on Agriculture. Materials are also collected from print and electronic media. 2) Quantitative methodology - It‘s a rational method, structured and predetermined set of procedures to set aims for validity of findings. For e.g. research topic is ‗Socio-economic condition of Katkari tribal community‘ and main theme is to describe what is prevalent. In this method researcher collect information from less no of peoples. 3) Qualitative methodology - It‘s an open, flexible and unstructured method to enquiry, focusing on description and narration of feelings and experiences rather than actual survey. In this method researcher collect information on multiple issues, but failed to collect actual information.

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Agriculture Labour Concept : 1) Agriculture labour may be defined as labour who works in agriculture or related activities for the whole or part of the year in return for full-time or part time work. The agriculture labourer has no risk in the cultivation, and no right of lease or contract on land but merely works on another person's land for wages. The definition includes workers who are engaged in other agro- based occupation such as dairy farming, horticulture, poultry etc. 2) Agriculture labour work as the household whose main source of income is derived as wages for working on farms of others Classification of Agriculture Labour : Agriculture labourers can be classified into two broad categories - 1. Landless Agricultural Laboures (i) Permanent Labourers (ii) Temporary or Casual Labourers 2. Small farmers (i) Cultivators (ii) Share croppers Problems of Agriculture Labour : 1. Wages and Income - Agricultural wages and family incomes of agricultural workers are very low in India. With the advent of the Green Revolution, money wage rates started increasing. Currently labours are getting around Rs.150 to 200 per day in rural areas. 2. Employment and Working Conditions - For a substantial part of the year, they have to remain unemployed because there is no work on the farms and alternative sources of employment do not exist. 3. Indebtedness - In the absence of banking system in the rural areas and trial process of sanction by the commercial banks, farmers prefers to take loans from un institutional sources like moneylenders, landlords at the very high rate. 4. Low Wages for women in Agricultural Labour - Female agricultural workers are generally forced to work harder and paid less than their male counterparts. 5. High Incidence of Child Labour - Incidence of child labour is high in India and the estimated number varies from 17.5 million to 44 million. It is estimated that one-third of the child workers in Asia are in India. 6. Increasing Agricultural Workers - The Agricultural labourers increased from 28 percent in 1951 to 40 percent in 1991. These facts indicate the fast pace of casualization of workforce in agriculture in India Data Collection : 1. Field visit : Before monsoon and after monsoon period is best for field survey and field visit. 2. Primary data : There has been some primary based input through personal interview with questionnaire. 3. Secondary data : This data is collected from newspaper, website, periodicals, magazines, books etc. Various article published by scholars and government agencies are used to collect information. Suggestions : 1. Barren Land-It has always been the effort of the government that whatever additional land is available, it be distributed among the landless. The government has also made efforts to distribute the barren land after making it usable or fertile to these agricultural labour. 2. Agro-based industries in villages-Village industrialization have been given specific importance during the planning period. The object of this program is to reduce the dependency on agriculture and revive the cottage and small industries in villages. 3. Education-To solve the various problems and difficulties agricultural labour education should be encouraged, so that they can restrict the exploitation of landowner

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4. Labour Co-operative society-To improve the conditions of agricultural labour the expansion of labour cooperative societies is being encouraged, but more development is necessary. 5. Relaxation-The working conditions of agricultural labourer should be improved. They should be provided rests and vacations. 6. Working Hours-Similar, to the industrial labourers, the working hours of agricultural labourers should also be fixed. Additional wage payment system should be there on working for more than the fixed time. 7. Exploitation-The Indian constitution has declared Agricultural slavery as crime, so that agricultural labourers are not exploited. Its strict compliance is necessary. 8. Organizations – In India few organizations fighting for the farmers rights, Like Swabhimani Shetkari Sanghtana, Shetkari Kamgar Paksh. These organizations fighting for the agriculture labours and safeguards their rights. 9. Minimum Wage Act-Every labour has a right to minimum wages for their work. Government also implements the minimum wages act. The Minimum Wage Act of 1984 has also been implemented on agricultural labourers. Conclusion : In order to guarantee sustainable agricultural development in the new millennium, rural workers and their families should have access to adequate working and living conditions, health and welfare. An adequate balance between agricultural growth and the protection of the environment is also crucial for the future of the world's food production and for its sustainability. Occupational health in agriculture must be integrated into a rural development policy with a well- defined strategy. It should place an emphasis on prevention and environmental protection to be consistent with current trends and should be addressed both at national and international levels. References : 1) Sinha, S. K. and Singh, M., 2000, Involvement of farm women in jute production technology. Maharashtra J. Extn. Educ., 19: 318-321 2) Solanki, A.S. and Sharma, P.M., 2001, Impact of economic reforms in rural employment 3) Srivastava, M.K., 1993, Agricultural labour and the law, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi 4) Dr. J.N. Pandey, Constitutional Law of India, Central Law Agency 51th Edition 2014. 5) Dr. S.R. Myneni, Labour Law II‗, Asia Law House 1st Edition 2018. 6) Dr. V. G. Goswami - Labour And Industrial Laws, Central Law Agency 9th Edition 2011. 7) Narendra Kumar - Constitutional Law of India‗, Allahabad Law Agency 9th Edition 2015. 8) S. N. Misra - Labour And Industrial Laws, Central Law Publication 23th Edition 2007.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

Changing Agricultural Landuse Pattern in Raigad District of Mharashtra

Deepak S Narkhede C. K. Thakur A.C.S. College, New Panvel Research Paper Accepted on 24-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Introduction : Agriculturein any region is dominantly controlled by physical and human factors. The physical factors like relief, soil, climate, water supply which sets a broad limit for the agriculture and human factors like economical condition of farmer, demand of crops in the market, prize of crop in market, technological level of farmer, length of occupation etc. affects on agricultural pattern of area. These factors influenced on farmer‘s decision to take the particular crops in the agriculture. In the present paper the temporal variationof Agricultural land use of Raigad district have been discussed. Agricultural land use and mainly the cropping pattern which reflects the development of the region, depend upon natural and human environment. Raigad district is situated in Konkan region of Maharashtra state covering an area of 7148 sq km which is about 2.27 per cent of the total area of the state. It lies between 17o 51‘and 19o 80‘ N. latitude and 72o 51‘ and 73o 40‘ E. longitude with an altitude of 10 to 50 meters above mean sea level (MSL). Raigad district covers 240 km out of 720 km coastal length of Arabian Sea. Raigad district is surrounded by Sahayadri ranges (Western Ghat) in the east and the Arabian Sea on the west and form natural boundaries. It is surrounded by Mumbai Suburban district to the northwest, Thane district to the north, Pune district to the east, Ratnagiri district to the south and Satara district to the south east. Objectives : 1. To study the temporal changes of agricultural land use in study region. 2. To find out the causes of changing agricultural land use in study region. Database and Methodology : This research paper is based on primary and secondary data. The data is collected from Socio-economic and Statistical Abstract of Raigad District, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers welfare, Government of India. Primary data is collected from farmers, Government officials and scholars. The study of temporal variation for the crops in the study area has been computed for thirtyfive years period (1980-81 to 2015-16). Temporal variation is the change in proportion of area under different crops at two different times. The change indicates the temporal variation at two different times. The amount of area involved in change for every areal unit is calculated for individual crop and the crops of leading to increase and decrease are marked and shown by using diagrams. Temporal Variation in Agricultural Land Use (1980-80 to 2015-16) : Rice, Wari, Nachni, Pulses, Spices, Oil Seeds, Fruits and vegetables and Fodder crops are the major eight crops grown in the study area. Kharip season starts in the month of June or July and ends in September. Rice, wari and nachni are the major kharip crops in Raigad district. Rabi season commences from September or October and ends in April month. Pulses, oilseeds, spices, vegetables and fodder crops are grown in rabi season In the overall cropping pattern of the study region, the total gross cropped area had 200222 hectares in 1980-81 which was 27.99 per cent of the total geographical area. It was decreased by 1.09 per cent and reached upto 26.89 per cent and it covers 192385 hectares area in 2015-16.The 69 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

net sown area was 184848 hectares which covers 25.83 per cent area in 1980-81. During 2015-16 decreased by 2.86 per cent and reached up to 22.97 per cent covers 164316 hectares area. Table 1 Raigad District Agricultural Land Use Pattern Year 1980-81 Year 2015-16 Sr. Name of the Change Area in Area Area in Area No. Crop in (%) Hectares in % Hectares in % 1 Rice 142198 71.02 114008 59.26 -11.76 2 Nachni 16321 8.15 9261 4.81 -3.34 3 Wari 7154 3.57 1520 0.79 -2.78 4 Pulses 7221 3.61 15090 7.84 4.23 5 Spices 1073 0.54 334 0.17 -0.37 6 Fruits & Veg. 2923 1.46 20527 10.66 9.62 7 Oilseeds 1805 0.90 495 0.25 -0.66 8 Fodder crops 22818 11.40 10 0.0005 -11.399 Source - Socio-Economic Review and Statistical Abstract of Raigad District from 1981 to 2016 Rice is the major crop in the Raigad district. In general, the area under rice was 142198 hectares in 1980-81 (71.02 per cent) and it decreased by 11.76 per cent during the period of thirty five years. It was recorded 114008 hectares which was 59.26 per cent to the total cropped area in 2015-16. Nachni is the second food grain crop cultivated in the study region grown on slope of hills and Sahayadri mountain ranges. It is grown by the tribal communities mostly on government land. The area under Nachni was 16321 hectares (8.15 per cent) decreased by 3.34 per cent during the study period and reached to 9261 hectares. Wari is a food grain crop grown on the sloppy land of the hilly region by tribal peoples. The area under wari was 7154 hectares (3.57 per cent) in 1980-81 and 0.79 per cent in 2015-16 of the total cropped area. The area under wari had decreased by 2.78 per cent in the study region. Gram, tur, moong, wal, etc are the major pulses well grown in the central and eastern part of the district and near the foot hill of the mountain The district stands first throughout the state in raising wal.The total area under pulses was 7221hectares(3.61 per cent) in 1980-81 and 15090 hectares (7.84 per cent) in 2000-01. It was increased by 4.23 per cent in the study period. The aerial strength of the cultivation of pulses is useful for increasing the fertility of the soil, specifically nitrogen content. Black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, are newly introduced spices crops in the study area. These are mostly the inter crops in the coconut and areca nut orchids. The area under spices in 1980-81 was 0.54 per cent and it was reduced by 0.37 per cent and reached up to 0.17 per cent in 2015-16. Fruits and vegetable cultivation shows considerable increase in productiondue to proximity of Mumbai metropolitan region. High demand of fruits and vegetable caused the farmersfor slow moving towards horticulture.Mango, cashew nut, coconut, chiku, ratamba, water-melons, jack fruits, guavas, betel nut, papaya are the major fruits cultivated in the study region. Ladyfinger, bitter- guard, bottle-guard, sweet guard, cucumber, spinach, chili, white onions are the major vegetables grown in the district. The total area under cultivation has 1.46 per cent in 1980-81. It was increased by 9.62 per cent and reached up to 10.66 per cent in 2015-16.

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Ground nut, sesames and linseeds are grown as oil seeds in some areas of the study region. In 1980 -81 the area under oil seeds is recorded 0 .90 per cent of the cropped area and it occupied 1805 hectares area. In 2015-16, it was decreased by 0.66 per cent and reached up to 495 hectares area. Under fodder crop categorynonfood crops like grass, maize etc. are considered. In 1980.81 areas under fodder crops was 11.40 per cent of the total cropped area of the region. It shows considerable variation in fodder crops and it waslargely decreased by 11.399 per cent and only 10 hectares land was under fodder crops in 2015-16. Conclusion : Raigarh District is an agricultural district of Maharashtra state. Rice, Nachni, wari, pulses, oilseeds, Spices, fruits and vegetables and fodder crops are the major crops grown in the district. Rice is the major food crop grown in the study region. Rice covers more than fifty per cent to the net sown area in the district. It shows declining trend in the study period and with 11.76 per cent. The spatial distribution has also shows the variation in land use. These are coastal and hilly tahsils of the district. Increasing the Kharland is the major cause for declining the area under rice cultivation in coastal region. The summer (Rabbi) cultivation is limited due to poor irrigation facilities. Nachni and wari are the another food crop mostly grown in the slope of hilly area in rainy season cultivated by tribal communities on mostly government land It is declined by 3.34 per cent and 2.78per cent subsequently in the study period. Eastern part of the district covers slope of Sahyadri mountain ranges used for nachni and waricultivation mostly by tribal people. Gram, tur, moong, wal, chawli are the major pulses grown in rabbi season and the area under pulses in increased by 4.23 per cent in study the period. Pulses are grown after rice cultivation with limited irrigation. Spices grown as an inter-crop in coconut area declined by 0.37 per cent in study period. Coastal tahsil shows the increasing trend of spices due to coconut and arecanut. The area under fruits and vegetables show remarkable growth by 7.43 per cent mostly in last decade. Mango, coconut, jackfruits and papaya are the major fruit crops and lady fingers, bitter guard, bottle guard, cucumber, spinach and chili are the major vegetables grown in the district shows 9.62 per cent growth in fruits and vegetables. Area under Oil seed sows minor decrease by 0.66 percent in study period. The considerable decrease in fodder crop cultivation is observed in study period by 11.399 per cent is a result of land acquired by CIDCO for urbanization. References : 1. District Census Handbook, Raigarh 1981and 2011 2. District Socio-economic Review and Statistical Abstract, Raigarh District, 1980 -2009 3. Government of Maharashtra, (1980-81 to 2000-01): ―Season and CropReport‖, Maharashtra State (Annual), pp. 27, 42. 4. Government of Maharashtra, (2002-03): ―District wise General and Statistical Information of Agriculture Department‖, Part II, Epitome of Agriculture in Maharashtra, pp. 34, 85, 64 5. Handbook of Agriculture (1990): Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Pp. 20, 168-170, 203, 6. http://www.indiastat.com 7. http/www.mah.nic.in 8. http://maharashtraonline.in/Profile/Districts/Raigad.asp 9. http//www.raigad.nic.in

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

A Study Role of Micro Level Planning for Rural Development

Mr. Suryakant Prabhakar Mane. Assistant Professor Department of Economics Gogate Jogalekar , College, Ratnagiri Research Paper Accepted on 28 -12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract : This research paper analyzes concept of micro level planning as well as role of micro level planning in rural development. The term micro level planning refers to the decentralisation of economy. The institution of district planning committee as envisaged in the 73rd Constitution Amendment Act is the realisation of consistent and conscious effort towards decentralised planning since the process of planned development began in the country. The desire for micro level planning was first expressed way back in the first five year plan, when it was suggested to break the planning process into national, state, district and local community levels. Key Words : Micro Level Planning, Rural Development, Introduction Micro level planning is a kind of percolation of planning activities. It is process from the centre to the sub-state levels, i.e. district, sub-division, block and village level. Since the inception of First Plan, the importance of decentralized planning was emphasized in order to achieve active people‘s participation in the planning process. The Government appointed the Balwant Raj Mehta team in 1957. It recommended constitution of elected statutory local bodies with its required resources, power and authority along with a decentralized administrative system operating under its control. Accordingly, the Panchayati Raj System was introduced in the country. Since then the process of decentralization in the planning and developmental activities was continued in 1969, the Planning Commission issued some guidelines on the introduction of district planning. Again in 1977 M.L. Dantwala working group recommended specific guidelines for the introduction of block-level planning. After that Ashok Mehta Committee has also submitted its report on Panchayati Raj in 1978. Moreover, the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister finally presented its report on Decentralization of Development Planning and its implementation in the states in 1983. Finally, in 1984, the Group on District Planning submitted its report and this was considered as the basis of proposals on decentralized planning or planning at micro level under the Seventh Plan. Accordingly, the Planning Commission of India introduced the decentralization planning in adopted the system of centralized planning with little variation. But with the passage of time there has been radical departure in the planning process in India from a centralized to a decentralized one where the decision making in the planning process has been reversed from the top to bottom type to a system of bottom-to-top type. Thus the micro level planning is a kind of planning at the grass-root level or planning from below. Planning process in a country is having various tiers, viz., centre, state district, sub-division, block and village. Under this type of planning, emphasis has been given on the introduction of district planning, sub-divisional planning and block-level planning so that this type of planning may work at village level. In India, Governmental activities are being performed right from the central to states and then to local, i.e. to the districts level (Zilla Parishads) taluka level (Panchayat Samities) and also to the village level. (GramPanchayats). But it was felt in the mean while that this type of centralized planning process is not at all conductive to optimum utilization of plan resources. 72 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

Thus in order to get a better response, the Planning Commission of India introduced the decentralized planning since the Seventh Plan. Although in most of the states of India, the decentralized planning was extended to district level but in some small states like Assam, West Bengal etc. the same plan was decentralized up to sub-division level. Accordingly, in order to conduct the planning activities at the sub-divisional level, the sub-division Planning and Development Council was formed at a every sub-division in some of the states with the public representative from the different levels. This council is preparing various developmental plans for agriculture, irrigation, elementary education, road building, social afforestation fishery, industrialization, and community development etc. of different sub-division of various states. This council is entrusted to submit the required estimates of developmental works of different departments and then prepare and implement sub-divisional plan as per the approved outlay. Decentralized planning or micro level planning is very much important in India, where majority of population live in rural areas. This type of planning raises the involvement of the people in implementing the plan. Besides, decentralized planning is being prepared keeping in view local problems and on the basis of local resources potential. Thus under the present economic scenario, the decentralized planning is considered as the core strategy in respect of planning for economic development. Objectives :  To study the concept of micro level Planning.  To study relationship between micro level Planning and rural development.  To explain the role and problems of rural development through micro level Planning.  To suggest appropriate measure for rural development through micro level Planning. Hypothesis :  The micro level planning plays an important role in rural development. Methodology:- This study has been done through desk research. Researcher is mainly focus on secondary data. This research covered both national and international publications, Books, Journals, Government reports, Economic Survey, Reports of government of India, ministry of Rural Development, original articles, review and case study reports with significant implication of other publications related to research available on the websites of international and national institutes have also been reviewed. It helps to present the research paper ―A Study role of District Planning in Rural Development.‖ Result & Discussion : Micro Level Planning and Rural Development : The Rural development is directly related to agriculture, Industry, trade, road, education, commerce, co-operation and water. The micro level planning as well as District planning provided fund for such type of component in rural area as well as district level so rural development and district planning both are interrelated. The district planning provided large amount funds for agriculture, industry trade, road education and commerce and cooperation that time increase development of economy rural. When the increasing agriculture, Industry, trade, road, education, commerce, co-operation and water that time got rural development. District Planning provided to fund for component of rural development that wise district planning and rural development are interrelated to each other accordingly. Role of Micro Level Planning in Rural Development : Micro Level Planning is can play important role in rural development. District wise action of district planning is important in rural development as well as in rural areas. 1. In district level various agricultural activities are implemented from district planning. Because of rural area approximately 68 percent population depend upon agriculture. So District planning as well as Micro Level Planning can play important role in rural development.

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2. A district planning to prepare micro and macro level plan with the assistance of tehasil for rural development like agriculture, industry, commerce, cooperation, road etc. 3. An Implementation of the micro-plan for construction, solid and liquid waste management, Operation & Maintenance of School & Anganwadi toilets, Mini water supply Scheme and use of Finance Commission grant on sanitation activities as per direction of Government. 4. The Participation in water supply, sanitation and health programmes at district level that wise rural development fulfillment in rural areas. 5. The micro level planning can play vital role for Co-ordination among grass root level partners that wise its helps to rural development. 6. Preparation of district level inventory of various schemes with help of District plans for rural development. Ex. rop watika, bandhara etc. Hypothesis is accepted as the micro level planning plays an important role in rural development in study. Problems of Rural Development:- India is rural based country around 60-65 % of rural population lives in primitive conditions in rural area. There are many problems in the rural development. 1. Water is a critical input for human consumption as well as for crop production but grossly neglected by the community of water management and that cause rural development are not fulfillment properly. 2. In many cases, instruments of rural development are not properly selected, and their levels are not consistent with the objectives they seek to achieve. The results in the wastage of valuable public resources, and unnecessary delays in achieving the objectives.. 3. The financial, manpower and managerial resources devoted to the implementation of rural development programmes are utterly inadequate. 4. There is no electricity supply in many villages so decline rural development in India as rural area. 5. In rural area peoples using primitive methods of cooking, living and farming and they have trust on these methods so rural area not develops rapidly. 6. India is second large population country in world. In which population below 25 years most of them live in rural areas with very little employment opportunities. 7. Illiteracy is the major problem in rural development programme. An approximately 30 percent population are illiterate so there are difficult to develop rural area. 8. The Education is keys of development but in rural area lack of education facility that wise less rural development rural area. 9. Now Everyone want to go to the cities, so that rural people‘s remains as ignores part by the policy makers also so its adverse impact on rural development. 10. Privatization concept is useful for rural development but, government not paying much attention to this aspect. 11. Policy maker prepared policies, programmes for betterment of rural people but, if these programmes are not implemented very well then have no used. 12. The political parties have a vital role to play in rural development but unfortunately this role has been effectively realized by any democratic political party so far the political parties today are guided more by party interests rather than by national interests. Measures : 1. The national schemes proper used for rural development through micro level planning. 2. The Conservation of natural resources through micro level planning 3. To help of private sector for increasing sustainable development. 4. A Structural change in micro level planning for rural development. 5. Research should be done in this sector because research is important factor any kind of development. 6. To actively participation of rural peoples in rural development then many work has easy to rural development.

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Following measures are important for rural development though district planning in India. Conclusion : Micro level Planning has many dynamic aspects all related to the increased rural development. It is can play most important role in rural development. Agriculture, industry, commerce, cooperation, Fishery etc. are component of rural development and district planning provide funds for that development in district level that wise district planning and rural development interrelated. Hence A study role of micro level planning in rural development is important for rural live hood. Reference : 1. Ahmad, YJ.-Administration of Integrated Rural Development. Note on Methodology, in: International Labour Review, 1975. 2. Sharma, Ravindra Prasad, Satyanaryan, Research Methodology in Social Sciences, Sterling Publishers, 1984. 3. Bharat Mishra, ―District Planning‖, in: Devendra Thakur and Singh, Shivesh Nandan (Eds.), District Planning and Panchayati Raj, 1991, p. 188. 4. N.G Hegde, Challenges of Rural Development and Opportunities for providing Sustainable Livelihood: BAIF‘s Approach International Forum on Frontier Technology for the 21st Century and Potential Collaboration with Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. May 30-31, 2002. 5. Kumar Ranjit, Research Methodology Ed.2, Pearson Education, 2006. 6. Datt Gaurav & Mahajan Ashwani (2012): Indian Economy, S.chand Publication, New Delhi, ISBN 81-219-0298-3 7. S.Mahahendra Dev., (2012) Policies for Raising Agricultural Growth and Productivity in India, IGIDR Proceedings. 8. Desale Kiran & Desale Gita (2015): Economics, Dipsthamb Publication, and Jalgaon.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

r%naaigarI ijalhatIla dLNavaLNaatIla maulaBaUt sauivaQaaMcaa AaiNa saaQanaaMcaa ivakasa • ijal(avar Jaalaolaa pirNaama : ek icaik%sak AByaasa

Da^. Aar. baI. paTIla ³BaUgaaola ivaBaaga p`mauKÊ AaT-sa\ A^ND ka^masa- ka^laoja faoMDaGaaTÊ ija.isaMQauduga-´

P`aa. Aar. DI. kaMbaLo ³vaIr vaajaokr e. esa. saI. ka^laoja fMuDoÊ ]rNaÊ ija. rayagaD´

Research Paper Accepted on 18-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 saaraMSa : p`stut SaaoQainabaMQaat r%naaigarI ijalhatIla dLNavaLNaacaa AByaasa krNyaat Aalaa Aaho. r%naaigarI ijalhat dLNavaLNaacaI ivaivaQa saaQanao AahotÊ %yaacao saM#yaa AaiNa p`karÊ vahaNaacyaa fo¹yaaÊ saava-jainak vaahtUk AaiNa vayai@tk vaahtUkaÊ paosT AaiNa durQvanaI saovaa saaQanaacaa p`stUt SaaoQa inabaMQaamaQyao AByaasa kolaa Aaho. ik vaD- : saava-jainak dLNavaLNa saaQanao AaiNa ivakasa yaacaa AByaasa,. AByaasaxao~ : maharaYT/ rajyaacyaa piScama iknaa¹yaavarIla kaoMkaNa ivaBaagaatIla ek ijalha Aaho. r%naaigarI ijalha ha 16.300 to 18.040 ]%tr AxaaMSa AaiNa 73.020 to 73.520 puva- roKaMSa yaa Baaogaaoilak p+at yaotao. ha ijalhalaa samaud` iknaara laaBalaolaa AasalyaamauLo idvasaa va ra~Icyaa tapmaanaat badla Jaalaolaa idsaUna yaotao. yaa ijal(acao Baaogaaoilak xao~fL 8208 caaO.ik.maI. Aaho.puvao-laa sa)ad`I pava-t EaoNaI laaBalaolaI Aaho.%yaa plaIkDo saaMgalaIÊ saataraÊ kaolhapurÊ dixaNaolaaÊ isaMQadugaÊ ]%trolaa rayagaD AaiNa piScamaolaa ArbaI samaud` laaBalaolaa Aaho. yaa ijal)at 9 talaU@yaacaa saamaavaoSa haotao. BaUpRYT rcanaa : ijal)atIla jamaIna jaaMByaa KDkapasaUna tyaar JaalaI Aaho. samaud`iknaa¹yaalagat sapaT p`doSaat tIna to caar fuTapya- Mt Kaola maRda Aaho. kaMhI izkaNaI ]qaL maRda AaZLto tr kaMhI izkaNaI maRda idsaUna yaot naahI.KDkaL Baaga idsatao. yaa ]gaaD BaagaamauLo paNaI BaUBaagaat iTkUna raht naahI. sapaT p`doSa kmaI AaiNa ]McasaKla p`doSa AiQak p`maaNaat Aaho. AiQak vaogaanao vaahNaa¹yaa naVa.naVacaI pa~ Kaola kmaI laaMbaIcyaa AsalyaamauLo nadItUna vaahtuk haot naahI. AByaasa pQdtI : p`stut SaaoQainabaMQaat r%naaigarI ijal(atIla dLNavaLnaacaI maaihtI imaLvaNyaasaazI p`aqaimak AaiNa duyyaama s~aotacaa ]pyaaoga kolaolaa Aaho. r%naaigarI ijalha ga^JaoTÊ r%naaigarI ijalha saamaaijak va Aaiqa-k samaalaaocana [%yaadI yaaMcyaakDo AsalaolaI AakDovaarI jamaa krNyaat AalaI Aaho. tsaoca ivaivaQa pustkoÊ maaisakoÊ dOinakacaahI AaQaar GaoNyaat Aalaolaa Aaho. ]i_YTo : 1. ijalhatIla vaahtuk saaMQanaacaa AByaasa krNao 2. ijalhatIla paosTacao ivatrNaacaa AByaasa krNao. 3. ijalhatIla durQvanaI saovaacaa AByaasa krNao. dLNavaLNa : r%naaigarI ijalha ha kaoMkNa ivaBaagaat yaotao. r%naaigarI ijalha dLNavaLNaacaI saaQanao Anaok Aahot.r%naaigarI r%naaigarI ijalhamaQyao daona AaOVaoigak ivakasa mahamaMDL Aahot. r%naaigarI ijal(acyaa izkaNaI ek AaiNa laaoTo. yaa daona

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izkaNaI dLNavaLna AiQak p`maaNaat Aaho. talau@yaacyaa izkaNaI dLNavaLNa saaQanaacao p`maaNa dusa¹yaa ËmaaMkavar yaotao. r%naaigarI ijal(maQyao dLNavaLNacaI puZIla saaQanaacaa saamaavaoSa haotao. rsto vaahtUk¸ rolvaovaahtuk¸ jalavaahtuk¸ Tpalasaovaa¸ durQvanaI [%yaadI. vaahtuk : sana 2013 AKor ijal)atIla rs%yaaMcaI laaMbaI ³na. p. h_ItIla´ 7590 ik.maI. haotI. %yaapOkI 6159 ik.maI. DaMbarIÊ 1190 ik.maI. AaiNa KaDIcaa 233 ik.maI. iknaara laaBalaolaa Aaho. ijal)atUna ek raYT/Iya mahamaaga- jaatao. kaMokNa rolvaocaa ba`a^Dgaoja rolvao maaga-hI gaolaolaa Aaho. saagar iknaara laaBalaolaa AasalyaamauLo saagarI vaahtUkhI kolaI jaato. r%naaigarIÊ naaTÊo gauhagar [%yaadI izkaNaI baMdro Aahot. rs%yaava$na vaahtUk saaQanaacaa AaZavaa GaoNyaat Aalaa Aaho. r%naaigarI ijalhatIla maaoTar vaahnaaMcaIÀprvaanaaQaarkaMcaI saM#yaa : A´ p`vaasaI vaahtUk saovaa ¹ A.k`. vaahnaacaa p`kar 2006¹07 2008¹09 2009¹10 2010¹11 2011¹12 2012¹13 1 basaosa 818 902 934 359 405 453 2 maaoTarI jaIp 4177 4715 5126 5723 6168 6573 3 T^@saIsa 372 553 585 591 644 671 tIna caakI irxaa 4 14552 14636 14999 15055 15839 16502 ³3 isaTr´ tIna caakI irxaa 5 216 219 238 220 220 220 ³6 isaTr´ 6 ducaakI vaahNao 88672 105346 117197 127750 142602 158487 7 SaaLocyaa basaosa 46 49 49 61 69 94 8 $gNavaaihka 158 178 195 200 219 244 ³saMdBa- : ijalha saamaaijak va Aaiqa-k samaalaaocana 2013 ¹ ]pp`adoiSak pirvahna AiQakarIÊ r%naaigarI´ dLNavaLNa saaQanaamaQyao vaahtUk saaQanaaMcaI maagaIla saha vaYaa-pasaUna AakDovaarI varIla saarNaIt idsato. saavajanaIk vaahtuikmaQyao basasaovaa yaa saovaamaQyao maaozo badla Jaalaolao idsauna yaotat. sana. 2007¹08 to 2009¹10 basaosacaI saM#yaa vaaZt jaato. prMtu 2010¹11 maQyao savaa-t kmaI basaosa idsaUna yaoto. puZIla daona vaYaa-maQyao vaaZt gaolaIlaI Aaho. yaa saarNaIt jaIp yaa saaQanaa vaahtukIsaazI ]pyaaoga krNyaat Aalaa Aaho. 2007¹08 to 2012¹13 yaa vaYaamaQyao maaoTar ijapcaI saM#yaa vaYaa-nauvaYaa- vaaZt gaolaolaI Aaho. 2007¹08 4177 hotI tr tI 2012¹13 maQyao 6573 JaalaI maNajao vaaZ JaalaI Aaho. T^@saI vaahtuk : T^@saI hI vaahtukI maQyaohI vaaZ haot gaolaI. 2007¹08 to 2012¹13 yaa paca vaaYaa- 372 hotI AaiNa 671 vaaZ JaalaI. vahtuk saaQanao vaaZt gaolaolaI Aaho. javaL javaL 3000 vaahtuk saaQanaamaQyao vaaZ haot gaolaI Aaho. tIna caakI irxaa : tIna caakI ³irxaa 3 isaTr´ irxaaMcaI saM#yaa ijal(at maaoz\yaa p`maaNaat Aaho.2007¹08 maQyao yaacao p`maaNa 14552 haoto. to p`maaNa 2008¹09 maQyao 84 irxaacao p`maaNa vaaZlaolao Aaho.2009¹10 maQyao 14999 JaalaI yaa vaYaa- t 363 nao vaaZ JaalaI Aaho.irxaacao p`maa 2012¹13 maQyao yaacaI p`maaNa 16502 vaaZt gaolaI Aaho.tsaoca saha isaTr

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irxaa cao p`maaNa maa~ 2007¹08 to 2009¹10 vaYaa-vaaZt vaaZt gaolaI AaiNa 2009¹10 to 2011¹13 yaa tIna irxaacao p`maaNa isqar Aaho. ducakI vaahnao : [tr vaahnaacyaa p`maaNaapoxaa ducaakIcao p`maaNa AiQak Aaho.sava-saamanya janata hI ducaakIcaa maaoz\yaa vaapr Aaho. gaaDIcaI kmaI ikMmat AaiNa maayalaoja jaast Asalyaanao sava-ca stratIla vaapr AiQak,. 2007¹08 ducaakIcao p`maaNa 88672 Aaho tr 2008¹09 ekuNa ducaakI saM#yaa hI 105346 haotI,. eka vaYaa-t badla vaaZta idsaUna yaotao.2009¹10 maQyao vaaprNaa¹yaacao p`maaNa AiQak Aaho to vaaZlaolaI saM#yaa 11851 vaaZ JaalaI haotI.2010¹11 maQyao vaaprNaa¹yaacao p`maaNa AiQak Aaho to vaaZlaolaI saM#yaa 10553 vaaZ JaalaI haotI. AsaIca vaaZ puZIla daona vaYaa-t ducaakIcao p`maaNa vaaZtca Aaho. 2012¹13 maQyao 158487 maagaIla paca vaYaa-t vaaZta AalaoKa idsaUna yaotao. SaaLocaI basasaovaa : SaaLocyaa basaosa yaacao p`maaNahI maagaIla saha vaYaa-pasauNa vaaZt AsataNaa idasto. SaaLotIla basaosa caI saM#yaa vaaZt Aaho. dr vaYaI pihlyaa vaYa- 9 basaosa vaaZ ¸ dusa¹yaa vaYaa-t vaaZ JaalaI naahI. itsa¹yaa vaYaa-t 12 basaocaI Bar tr caaOqyaa vaYaa-t 8 basaosa vaaZlaI SaovaTcyaa vaYaI 25 basaosa caI Bar PaDlaolaI idsato yaacaaca Aqa- Asaa kI basaosacyaa saM#yaot vaaZtca gaolaI Aaho. $gNavaaihka : yaacaohI ija(at AakDa vaaZtca Aaho. sana 2007 to 2013 AKor yaaMcaI saM#yaa vaaZt Aaho. 158 AsalaolaI saM#yaa 244 var saha vaYaa-t paocalaolaI haotI. vaahtUk sauivaQaa vaYaa-maQyao vaahnaacaI AakDovaarI paihlyaanaMtr Asao idsato kIÊ ducaakIKrodI krNyaacao p`maaNa savaa-iQak Aaho. ducaakI 88672 naaoMdNaI Jaalyaacao Aaho. karNa savaa-naa prvaDnaaro ho p`maaNa Aaho. pa]la vaaTova$na hI ho vaahana jaato CaoT\yaa kMuTUbaacaI kar mhNaUna yaa vahNaakDo paihlao jaato. ijal(at dusa¹yaa k`maaMkacao tIna caakI irxaa 3isaTr Aaho. tIna caakI irxaa 3isaTrcao p`maaNa 14552 Aahoo. %yaa KalaaoKala jaIp caa naMbar laagato %yaacao 4177Aaho. tInacaakI 6 p`vaasaI vaahtUikcao p`maaNa Aaho.basaosa 818 Aahot. $gNavaaihka yaaMcao p`maaNa 158 Aaho. savaa-t kamaI vahanaaMcao p`maaNa SaaLocyaa basaosa yaacao Aaho. r%naaigarI ijalha ha kaoMkNa ivaBaagaat yaotao. kaoMkNaatIla dLNavaLNa maharaYT/acyaa [tr ivaBaagaacyaa maanaanao farca kmaI AaZLto.dLNavaLna kmaI AsaNyaacao Anaok karNao phavayaasa imaLtat. p`akRitk pirisqatI ha Baaga sa)yaad`Icyaa pva-traMgaa yaa ijal(atUna gaolaolyaa AsalyaamauLo vaahtUiksa ADqaLa inamaa-na haotao.]da. kSaoDI GaaT ha r%naaigarI ijal(atIla savaa-t kzINa GaaT Aaho. jaast Baaga DaogaraL AasalyaamauLo rsto tyaar krNyaasaazI AaDcaNaIlaa taoMD Vavao laagato. laaoksaM#yaacao p`maaNa kmaI Aaho. yaa ijal(atUna sqalaaMtracao p`maaNa AiQak p`maaNaat GaDUna yaotoÊ ijal(amaQao ]Vaoga QaMVacao p`maana kmaI AsalyaamauLo laaok kamaasaazI mauMba[-laa jaatat. paDaÊvastIÊgaava dur AsalyaamauLo rsto krNao p`akRitk ADqaLyaamauLo AvaGaD jaato.kaMhI paDa ikMvaa vastI var gaaDI jaavaU Sakt naahI.AaSaa izkaNaI lahana vaahNaacaa ]pyaaoga krNyaat Aalaa Aaho.%yaamauLo maaozyaap`maaNaat lahana mhaNajao ³daona AaiNa itna caakI´ vaahNaacao vaaprNaa¹yaacao p`maaNa AiQak Aaho.lahana vahNaacaI ikMmat kmaI AsalyaamauLo sava-saamanyaa laaoko to Gaotat . ba´ maala vaahtUk saovaa : A. AakDovaarI vaahna p`kar k`. 2007¹08 2008¹09 2009¹10 2010¹11 2011¹12 2012¹13 1. tIna caakI 3324 3946 4204 4414 4654 4917 2. caar caakI 4743 4849 5330 12334 13532 8152

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3. T^/@Tsa- 485 499 519 559 583 607 4. jaD vaahnao 531 556 561 668 676 7526 5. [tr 243 360 564 1154 1221 1289 ³saMdBa- : ]p p`adoiSak pirvahna AiQakarIÊ r%naaigarI´ jasao p`vaasaI vaahtUkImaQyao vaahtukIcaa AalaoK vaaZta haota. tsaaca maalavaahtukIcaa AalaoK vaaZt AsataNaa idsatao. karNa maalavaahtukI saazI kaMhI zravaIk vaahtukIcaa AByaasa krNyaat Aalaa Aaho. yaamaQyao itna caakI¸ caar caakI vaahNao¸ T^/@Tsa-¸ jaaoD vaahnao AaiNa [tr saaQanaacaa maala vaahtukIsaazI ]pyaaoga kolaa jaatao. yaa vaahutUkImauLo vyaapar¸ ]VaogaMQado yaalaa lagaNaara kccaa maalacaI Aayaat inayaa-t tsaoca p@yaamaalaacaI inayaa-t krNyaasaazI vaahtuikcaa ]pyaaoga kolaa jaatao. %yaamauLo dLNavaLNaat vaahtuiklaa AnyanyasaaQaarNa mah%va Aaho.varIla t@%yaatIla vaahanaacyaa saaQanaacyaa maaf-t dLNavaLaNa caalato. tIna caakI vahanao : yaa vaahanaanao SaotItIla AaMbaacyao fLo AalyaanaMtr maala vaahtUiksaazI tInacaakI irxaacaa vaapr krNyaat yaotao. tsaoca CaoT\yaa dukanaatIla maala vaahtUk¸ CaoTo vyaaparI ikMvaa kmaI maala Asalaolyaa izkaNaI yaa tInacaakI vaahanaacaa ]pyaaoga haotao.BaajaIpalaa¸ AaMbyaacyaa poT\yaa [%yaadI vaahtuiksaazI ]pyaaoga haotao. yaa vaahtUk saaQanaacaI saM#yaa hI dr vaYaa-maQyao vaogavaogaLI Aaho sana 2007¹08 maQyao 3324 haotI.2008¹00 maQyao 3946JaalaI ¸ mhaNajao 622 nao yaamaQyao vaaZ JaalaI. 2009¹10 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 4204 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 259 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI. 2010¹11 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 4414 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 210 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI.2011¹12 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 4654 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 240 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI.2012¹13 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 4414 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 263 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI. saana 2007¹08 maQyaoca savaa-iQak vaahNao itnacaakIcaI saM#yaa vaaZlaI haotI. caar caakI vaahNao : SaotItIla Baatacyaa gaaoNyaa¸ AaMbaacyaa poT\yaa vaahtUk ¸ maaoza maala AaNaNyaasaazI caarcaakI vahanaacaa vaapr haotao. tsaoca dOinak poprcaI vaahtUk r%naaigarI ijal(acyaa izkaNaava$na talaU@yacyaa izkaNaapya-Mt paohcaNyaasaazI caarcaakI vahanaacaa vaapr krNyaat yaotao. yaa vaahtUk saaQanaacaI saM#yaa hI dr vaYaa-maQyao vaogavaogaLI Aaho sana 2007¹08 maQyao 4743 haotI.2008¹09 maQyao 4849JaalaI ¸ mhaNajao 106 nao yaamaQyao vaaZ JaalaI. 2009¹10 maQyao caarcaakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 5330 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 481 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI. 2010¹11 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 12334 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 7004 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI. 2011¹12 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 13532 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 1198 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI.2012¹13 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 8152 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 5380 vaahnaacaI saM#yaa kmaI JaalaI. sana 2010¹11 AaiNa 2011¹12 maQyaoca savaa- iQak vaahNao itnacaakIcaI saM#yaa vaaZlaI haotI. maQyaoca savaa-t k,maI vaahNao caarcaakIcaI saM#yaa sana 2012¹13 kmaI JaalaI haotI. T^/@Tsa- : SaotItIla kamao krNao va kaMhI p`maaNaat vaahtUiksaazI yaa vahanaacaa ]pyaaoga haotao.AaMbyaacyaa baagaot Kt AaNanao AvajaD vaahtuiksaazI T^/@Tsa-caa ]pyaaoga kolaa jaatao. AaMbyaacao klama laagavaDIcyaa sau$vaatIsa laagavaD krNyaasaazI yaa vaahnaacaa ]pyaaoga haotao. yaa vaahtUk saaQanaacaI saM#yaa hI dr vaYaa-maQyao vaogavaogaLI Aaho sana 2007¹08 maQyao 485 haotI.2008¹09 maQyao 499 JaalaI. mhNajao 14 nao yaamaQyao vaaZ JaalaI. 2009¹10 maQyao caar caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 519

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haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 20 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI. 2010¹11 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 559 haotI. maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 30 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI. 2011¹12 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 583 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 24 vaahnaacaI Bar pDlaI.2012¹13 maQyao tIna caakI vahanaacaI saM#yaa hI 607 haotI.maagaIla eka vaYaa-t 24 vaahnaacaI saM#yaa vaaZlaI haotI. sana 2010¹11 AaiNa 2011¹12 maQyaoca savaa-iQak vaahNao itnacaakIcaI saM#yaa vaaZlaI haotI. maQyaoca savaa-t k,maI vaahNao caarcaakIcaI saM#yaa sana 2008¹09 kmaI JaalaI haotI. [tr vaahNao : SaotItotIla saPaTIkrNa,¸ ]VaogaQaMVatIla kcaa maala AaNanao AaiNa p@ka maala inayaa-t krNyaasaazI maaoz\p`maaNaavar [rt saaQanaacaI garja Baasato. Baatacyaa gaaoNyaa¸ AaMbaacyaa poT\yaa vaahtUk¸ maaoza maala AaNaNyaasaazI caarcaakI vahanaacaa vaapr haotao. tsaoca dOinak poprcaI vaahtUk r%naaigarI ijal(acyaa izkaNaava$na talaU@yacyaa izkaNaapya-Mt paohcaNyaasaazI caarcaakI vahanaacaa vaapr krNyaat yaotao. r%naaigarI ijal)atIla paosT saovaa AaiNa durQvanaI saovaa talaUka maMDNagaD dapaolaI KoD icapLUna gauhagar r%naaigarI saMgamaoSvar laaMjaa rajaapUr paosTaMcaI saM#yaa 28 62 88 96 56 87 96 61 89 p~ poT\yaacaI saM#yaa 139 258 258 294 136 371 260 182 330 ³saMdBa- : Dak AiQaxak r%naaigarI ivaBaaga ¹ saamaaijak Aaiqa-k savao-xaNa 2013´ r%naaigarI ijal)atIla durQvanaI saovaa : A. vaOyai@tk dUrQvanaI saM#yaa saava-jainak dUrQvanaI talaUka k`. ga`amaINa durQvanaI naagarI durQvanaI esa.TI. DI laaokla 1. maMDNagaD 1812 10 62 2. dapaolaI 3047 1866 135 332 3. KoD 2651 1920 74 245 4. icapLUna 4112 6595 152 495 5. gauhagar 2489 366 49 243 6. r%naaigarI 6331 9361 470 1522 7. saMgamaoSvar 4884 47 314 8. laaMjaa 605 707 22 52 9. rajaapUr 2423 900 23 13 ³saMdBa- : Dak AiQaxak r%naaigarI ivaBaaga ¹ saamaaijak Aaiqa-k savao-xaNa 2013´ r%naaigarI ijalhyaamaQyao dLNavaLNaamaQyao durQvanaI saovaa na] talau@yaamaQao kaya-rt Aaho. durQvanaI saovaa r%naaigarI ijal)amaQaIla r%naaigarI talau@yaat yaacaa savaa-iQak p`maanaat vaaprlaI jaato.ga`amaIna Baagaapoxaa SahrI BaagaamaQyao yaacao p`maaNa AiQak Aaho. laaMjaa talaU@yaat durQvanaI vaaprNaa¹yaacao p`maaNa farca kmaI Aaho. esa.TI.DI vaaprNyaacao p`maaNa r%naaigarI maQyao savaa-iQak Aaho. savaa-t kmaI p`maaNa maMDNagaD talaU@yaacaa laagatao. dusara k`maaMk laaMjaa talaU@yaacaalaagatao. esa.TI.DI. vaaprNaa¹yaacao p`maaNa tIsara k`maaMk rajaapUr talau@yaacaa laagatao,. inaYkYa- : r%naaigarI ijal(at dLNavaLanaacao jaaLo psarlao Aaho. vaahtuk maagaa-t p`vaasaI vaahtuk AaiNa maalavaahtuikcaa AByaasa krNyaat Aalaolaa Aaho. p`avaasaI vaahtuiksaazI CaoT\yaa vaahnaacaa vaapr AiQak p`maaNaat haotao.maala vaahtuikmaQyao caarcaakI vaahnaacaa vaapr AiQak p`maaNaat AaiNa maaoz\yaa vahnaacaa vaapr kmaI p`maaNaat haot Aaho. ga`amaIna

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BaagaapasaUna SahrI Baagaanaa dLNavaLnaacyaa saaQanaanao jaaoDlaolao Aaho. dLNavaLNa kaMhI maaoja@yaa saovaocaa AByaasa krNyaat Aalaolaa Aaho. dLNavaLNaacaI saaQanao paosT saovaa talau@yaanausaar itcao ivatrNa Aaho. durQvanaI saovaa r%naaigarI ijal(amaQyao AiQak p`maaNaat Aaho. tr savaa-t kmaI maMDnagaD yaa talau@yaat sauivaQaa AasalaolaI idsato. dLNavaLNaacyaa saMsaaQanaamaQyao vaaZ haot Aaho. yaa sauivaQaamauLo ga`amaINa Baagaat AaiNa SahrI Baagaacaa ivakasa haoNyaasa maaoza hatBaar laagat Aaho. saMdBa-ga`Mqa : 1. BaUgaaolaacaI maulat%vao ¹ p`a. e. baI. savadIÊ p`a. pI.esa. kaoLokr 2. Baartacaa BaUgaaola ¹ jayakumaar magar 3. maanavaI BaUgaaola ¹ p`a. iSaMdo esa. baI. 4. Baartacaa BaUgaaola ¹ Da^.saI. TI. pvaar 5. Baartacaa BaUgaaola ¹ Da^. P`akaSa saavaMt 6. Baartacaa Aaiqa-k BaUgaaola ¹ Da^. SaIvarama zakUrÊ Da^. rajaarama paTIla 7. maanavaI BaUgaaola ¹ Da^. iva{la Gaarpuro 8. ijalha saamaaijak va Aaiqa-k samaalaaocana 2011 9. ijalha saamaaijak va Aaiqa-k samaalaaocana 2012 10. ijalha saamaaijak va Aaiqa-k samaalaaocana 2013 11. dOinak vat-maana p~o 12. www.mahades.maharashtra.gov.in

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858 piScama GaaTatIla mahajaOvaivaivaQata AaiNa jaOva¹ivaQatocaa ¹hasa : Baaogaaoilak AByaasa

p`a. Da^. Aar. baI. paTIla ³BaUgaaola ivaBaaga p`mauKÊ AaT-sa\ A^ND ka^masa- ka^laoja faoMDaGaaTÊ ija.isaMQauduga-´

P`aa. DI. e. koMgaar ³vaIr vaajaokr e. esa. saI. ka^laoja fMuDoÊ ]rNaÊ ija. rayagaD´ P`aa. Aar. DI. kaMbaLo ³vaIr vaajaokr e. esa. saI. ka^laoja fMuDoÊ ]rNaÊ ija. rayagaD´

Research Paper Accepted on 21-12-2019, Edited on 05-01-2020 saaraMSa : maanavaalaa jagaNyaasaazI AaiNa puZIla kalaKMDat jaIvanamaana iTkvaUna zovaNyaasaazI pyaa-varNa AaiNa pRqvaIvairla sajaIvaaMsaazI jaOva¹ivaivaQatocaI garja Aaho. p`stut SaaoQainabaMQaat piScama GaaTatIla mahajaOva¹ivaivaQatocaa AByaasa krNyaat Aalaa Aaho.yaa SaaoQainabaMQaat maaMDNyaat Aalaa Aaho.sajaIvaaMcaI saM#yaaÊ ivaivaQa vanasptIÊ p`aNyaaMcyaa jaatIÊ ipko [%yaaidcaa AByaasa krNyaat Aalaa Aaho. tsaoca jaOvaivaQata kmaI haoNyaacaI ]paya yaaojanaa saaMgaNyaat AalaI Aaho. daona Sabd : piScama GaaTtIla jaOva¹ ivaivaQata p`aNaIÊ vanaspt AaiNa saMvaQa-na. p`stavanaa : jagaamaQyao 12 doSaat jaOva ¹ivaivaQata AaZLto. yaa doSaanaa mahajaOva¹ivaivaQatocao doSa Asao mhNatat. yaa doSaat Baartacaa samaavaoSa Aaho. jaOva¹ivaivaQatocyaa baabatIt Baartacaa jagaat saatvaa k`maaMk laagatao. BaartamaQyao maha jaOva¹ivaivaQatocao caar p`mauK ivaBaaga Aahot. ivaBaaga pihlaa : [Saanya Baartacaa Baaga haoya. yaa Baagaat A$NaacalaÊiSai@kma AaiNa naagaala^MD yaa Baagaacaa samaavaoSa haotao. ivaBaaga dusara : sqaanaavar piScamaGaaT yaotoÊ ivaBaaga tIsara : sqaanaavar puva- ihmaalayaIna p`doSa %yaat jammau kSmaIrÊ ]%traMcala AiNa ihmaacala pdoSa yaaMcaa samaavaoSa haotao.ivaBaaga caar : sqanaavar BaartIya baoTaMcaa samaavaoSa haotao. AMdmaana ¹inakaobaar baoTsamauh Aahot. yaatIla piScama Gaaga yaacao ek mah

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AxavaR%tIya sqaana 80 19I 8II]%tr AxaaMSa to 210 16I24]%tr AxavaR%%aanausaar Aaho. roKavaR%tIya sqaana 720 56I24IIpUva- to 78019I 40IIpUva- gaaolaaQaa-t Aaho. xao~fL 160Ê000 caaO.ik.maI. Aaho. ekUNa laaMbaI 1600 ik.maI.$MdI kmaIt kmaI 40 ik.maI. to jaastIt jaast 210 ik.maI.Aaho.]McaI 1200 maITr ³3900 fuT´ jaMgalaacao xao~ 160Ê000 vaga- ik.maI. Aaho. sarkarNao 13 raYT/Iya ]d\yaanao GaaoiYat kolao Aaho.jagaatIla mahajaOva¹ivaivaQatomaQyao piScama GaaTalaa mah%vapUNa- Asao sqaana Aaho.piScama GaaT ha puZIla rajyaacaa samaavaoSa haotao. gaujaratÊ maharaYT/Ê gaaovaaÊ knaa-TkÊ korL AaiNa taimaLnaaDU jyaacaa Baaga yaa piScama GaaTat sahBaagaI haotao. sana 2012 maQyao yaunaoskaonao piScama GaaT xao~alaa 39 ivaSva Qaraovar sqaL GaaoiYat kolao Aaho. saMSaaoQanaacao ]ddoSa : 1. piScama GaaTatIla p`akRitk rcanaocaa AByaasa krNao. 2. piScama GaaTatIla sajaIvaaMcaa AByaasa krNao. 3. piScama GaaTatIla jaOva¹ivaivaQatocyaa ¹hasaacaI karNao AByaasa krNao. piScama GaaTatIla p`aNyaaMcyaa jaatI : P`aaNyaacyaa jaatI P`aaNaI pxaI ]Bayacar sarIppRYT baoDUk saM#yaa 139 508 179 187 80 piScama GaaT ha Anaok ivaivaQatonao naTlaolaa Aaho.p`akRitkÊ saaQanasaMp%tIÊ vanasptIÊ p`aNaI [%yaadI p`karcaI ivaivaQata Aaho. varIla ivaivaQatopOkI piScama GaaTat kmaIt kmaI 84 ]Bayacar p`jaatI Aahot. 508 pxyaaMcyaa jaatI Aahot.139 sastna p`aNaI Aahot. ]Bayacar p`aNyaacaI saM#yaa 179 Aaho. sarIppRYT p`NyaacaI saM#yaa 187 Aaho.yaacao p`maaNa 17 T@ko yaoto. AaiNa 80 p`karcao baoDkacyaa jaatI phavayaasa imaLatat. yaaMcao p`maaNa 7 T@ko Aaho. piScama GaaT ha ivaivaQa ASaa p`aNyaanaI naTlaolaa idsaUna yaotao. tsaoca 1600 fulaaMcyaa p`jaatI phavayaasa imaLtat. jao ivaSvaat kuzohI phavayaasa imaLt naahIt. sarkarnao saMrixat kolaolao xao~ piScama GaaTat Aahot. %yaamaQyao 2 jaOvasaMrixat AaiNa 13 raiYT/ya ]Vana Aahot. sana 2012 maQyao yaunaoskaonao piScama GaaT xao~alaa 39 ivaSva Qaraovar sqaL GaaoiYat kolao Aaho. jagaatIla duima-L p`aNaI : piScama GaaT hI jagaatIla savaa-t jaast jaOvaivaivaQata AsaNaa¹yaa Aaz jaagaMapOkI ek Aaho. piScama GaaTavar sarIsaRpaMcyaa 187 jaatI Aahot. %yaatlyaa inamyaa f@t [qaoca saapDtat. baoDkacyaa 100 jaatI Aahot.%yaatIla 80 piScama GaaTat Aahot. dovagaaMDuLo naavaacao baoDkacao hatpaya nasalaolao Baa[-baMd Aahot. %yaaMcyaa 22 jaatIMpOkI 20 [qaoca Aahot. maatIt pu$na basaNaayaa baaMDa sap-kulaatIla sava-cyaa sava- 45jaatI f@t sahyaad`I va EaIlaMkavaasaI Aahot. AaiNa %yaatlyaa 34 sahyaad`It saapDtat.Aavaa-icanaaMpOkI sapuYp vanasptI sahyaad`Icyaa varcyaa 4000 jaaitMpOkI 1400 saa)yaad`Ipur%yaa saIimat Aahot. %yaaMcyaathI torDyaacyaa 86 pOkI 76 jaatI pUNa-t: sahyaad`Itca Aahot. [qao 5000 poxaa AiQak fulaJaaDo 139p`aNyaaMcyaa jaatI 508pxyaaMcyaa jaatI va 179 ]Bayacar p`aNyaaMcyaa jaatI AaZLtat. Baaogaaoilak rcanaa : piScaama GaaTacyaa raMgaa d#Knacyaa pzzaravarIla AMtga-t GaDamaaoDIMmauLo inamaa-na JaalaolaI kDa Aaho. Saumaaro 15 kaoTI vaYaa-pUvaI- gaaoMDvanaacyaa KMDamauLo inamaa-na JaalaolaI AsaavaI Asao maanalao jaato. piScaama GaaTacaI piScamoakDIla baajaU 100 maI. ]McaIcaa kDa AsaavaI. gaaoMDvaanaa KMDacyaa tukD\yaapasaUna vaogaLI JaalaolaI BaartIya ]pKMDacaI jaimana yauroiSayana KaMDalaa jaavaUna imaLalaI AaiNa itqao jvaalaamauKIcaa ]d`ok Jaalaa AaiNa yaa ]d`okatUna d#Knacao pzar inamaa-na Jaalao. baosaalT KDka ha sa(ad`It DaoMgar raMgaot jaast saapDtao.

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piScama GaaTatIla p`mauK pva-traMgaa : caMd`daoNa Pava-t AnamauDI maasapuLImala ]TI kaDO@yaanaL caomba``iSaKrma maLLyyaaigarI kudo`mauKma AgastigarI igarIpva-t rajya korL korL taimaLnaaDU korL korL knaa-Tk knaa-Tk knaa-Tk korL maITr 2695 2640 2637 2133 2100 1930 1895 1894 1868

baoLigarI ttIyaa maoDIkorI ihmavad`aopala Pava-t kumaarpva-t kLsaubaa[- ba`hmaigarI taorBaduga- purMdr kuTjaaid` DUnabao+ pDmaaolpva-t pva-t svaaimapva-t rajya knaa-Tk knaa-Tk knaa-Tk maharaYT/ knaa-Tk knaa-Tk knaa-Tk maharaYT/ maharaYT/ knaa-Tk 154 maITr 1800 1748 1712 1646 1608 1450 1405 1387 1343 5 saMdBa- : ivaikpIiDyaa piScama GaaTat varIla sava- pva-t Aahot. yaa pva-tIya Baagaatca jaOvaivaivaQata AaZLto. savaa-t ]Mca Asalaolaa pva-t AnamauDI Aaho. ha korL rajyat yaotao. yaaMcaI ]McaI 2695 maITr Aaho. lahana maaozo ekuNa 19 pva-t yaa GaaTat Aahot. 10 knaa-Tk rajyaatÊ 5 korL rajyaatÊ 3 maharaYT/ rajyaat 1 tamaILnaaDU rajyat Aahot. jagaatIla duima-L vanasptI : piScama GaT ha Baartacyaa ekUNa xao~fLacyaa 5T@ko xao~fL Aaho. yaa p`doSaat vanasptIcaI ivaivaQata AaZLto. ekuNa vanasptIcyaa 15000 jaatI Aahot. %yaatIla 4000 ³27 T@ko´ jaatI piScana GaaTt saapDtat. %yaapOkI saumaaro 1800 jaatI yaa piScama GaaTat saapDtat. jaagatIk vaarsaa : 2006 saalaI Baartanao yaunaoskaokDo piScama GaaTalaa jaagaitk vaarsaa sqaanaaMnaamaQyao saamaaivaYT krNyaasaazI ivanaMtI kolaI Aaho. yaunaaoskaonao piScama GaaTalaa jaOva iva¹ivaQatocaa p`doSa mhnauna maanyata idlaI. naVa : piScama GaaTt javaLpasa 37 T@ko xao~ vanaxao~ Aaho. yaoqaIla sava- pva-traMgaa ]McaInao savaa-t jaast Aaho. %yaamauLo yaoqao p`caMD pa}sa pDtao. dixaNa¹piScama savaa-iQak pavasaacao p`maaNa Aaho. saMpuNa- piScama Bagaat 120 naVa ]gama pavatat. AaiNa dixaNaokDIla paNyaacaI garja puNa- kovaL (a piScama GaaTmauLo haoto. yaa naVavar 2000 poxaa AaiQak izkaNaI QarNao baaQalaolaI Aahot. %yaamauLo dixaNa BaagaatIla paNyaacaI samasyaa kmaI JaalaI Aaho. pya-Tna : piScama GaaTmaQyao pya-TNa vyavasaayaalaa vaaZNyaacaI Anaok saMQyaa ]plabQa Jaalyaa Aaho. knaa-Tk rajyaat jaaoga QabaQaba BaartatIla ekmaova QabaQabaa Aaho. Anaok qaMD hvaocao izkaNao Aahot. laaoNaavalaaÊ KMDalaaÊ mahabaLoSvarÊ gaganabaavaDaÊ ]TI [%yaadI. tsaoca piScamaolaa ArbaI samaud` Aaho. %yaamauLo Aanaok ibacaosa\ inamaa-na Jaalao Aahot. piScama iknaa¹yaavar ifrNyaasaazI jagaatIla laaoksaM#yaa AakiYa-t haoto. ]da. gaNaptIpuLoÊ tarklaI-Ê gaaovaa rajyaatIla maIra maarÊ klaMgaUT tsaoca korL iknaa¹yaalagat kaMhI ibacaosa Aahot. %yaamauLo pya-Tna maaoz\yaa p`maaNaavar AakiYa-t haot Aaho. pya-TNa vyavasaaya vaaZNyaasa vaava Aaho. piScama GaaTatIla ¹hasaacaI karNao : p`akRitk Aavaasa GaraMcaa ¹hasa ³ivanaaSa´

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Anaok p`jaatI naaSa pavat Aahot.maanavaI Anaok iËyaa p`akRitk Aavaasaacyaa ivanaaSaacao karNa banat caalalao Aahot. jaOvaivaivaQata naYT krNaaro Anao GaTk karNaIBaUt Aahot. laaoksaM#yaotIla vaaZ jaMgalaaMcaa hasa vaayaup`dUYaNa jalap`dUYaNa maRdap`dUYaNa jaagaitk tapmaana vaaZ hI sava- karNao jaOvaivaivaQata naYT krNyaasaazI karNaIBaUt Aahot. AitrokI iSakarI : kahI vaoLosa kahI p`jaatI maa$na %yaa ivalauPt Jaalyaa Aahot.sana 1887 maQyao yau.esa.esa.maSaInamaQyao drraoja 50000 pxaI maarlao jaat haoto. Asao paca maihnao caalalyaanaMtr ASaa h%yaakaMDacaI Barpa[- krNyaacaI takd kaoNaacyaathI inamaa-Na JaalaI naahI. ivadoSaI p`jaatIMcao Aagamana : maanavaanao ivadoSaI p`jaatI vaogavaogaL\yaa maagaa-naoBaartat AalaIo. p`jaatImauLo jaOva¹ivaivaQatolaa Qaaoka inamaa-Na Jaalaa Aaho. ivadoSaI p`jaatI baaho$na Aalaolyaa Asatat. kQaI kQaI baaho$na AalaolaI p`jaatIcao sahja samaayaaojana haovaUna jaato. yaa p`jaatI [t@yaa caaMgalyaa p`karo p`janana krt Aahot kI mauL p`jaatIlaa Qaaoka inamaa-Na haotao Aaho. ivadoSaI prjaIvaI iSakarI¸ doSaI iSakarI¸ prjaIvaI pSaupoxaa AiQak AaËmak Asato. %yaamauLo doSaI pSau naamaSaosa haoNyaacyaa maagaa-var Aahot. doSaI pSau pxaIMnaa Qaaoka : doSaI pSaupxaI naamasaoSa haoNyaacyaa maagaa-var Aahot. gaumaavamaQyao maULcyaa AaZLNaayaa jaMgalaI icamaNyaaMcyaa 13 p`jaatI hao%yaa. %yaapOkI 3 Aist%vaat Aahot.palaIMcyaa 12 p`jaatI hao%yaa %yaapOkI 3 Aist%vaat Aahot.kahI saap ivajaocyaa taraMvar jaavaUna Saa^k saik-T haoto va saMpUNa- Baaga AMQaarat jaatao. ASaa Anaok karNaanao ivadoSaI pSaupxaIMcao AaËmaNa haovaUna Qaaoka inamaa-Na Jaalaa Aaho.piScama GaaTatIla doSaI pSaupxaI naamasaoSa haot Aahot. pya-TnaamauLo piScama GaaTacaa ¹hasa : maagaIla kahI vaYaa-MpasaUna pya-TnaamaULo Anaok samasyaa inamaa-Na Jaalyaa Aahot. pya-TkaMcyaa AiQak saM#yaomauLo yaat ivaSaoYa Bar pDlaI Aaho. [kaoTuirJamamauLo pyaa-varNaavar p`Baava pDt Aaho. maULcaa AiQavaasa AsaNaayaa ikTkaMnaa samasyaa inamaa-Na JaalaI Aaho. tsaoca vanyajaIva Aavaasa saMrxaNaamauLo yaalaa takd imaLalaI Aaho. gaOlao pagaaosa baoT¸ kaokahanaI baoT yaacao ek ]dahrNa Aaho. naOsaiga-k saurxaolaa iDvacaNao : ek ivaiSaYT p`jaatI samaRQd jaOvaivaivaQatotIla dusayaa p`jaatIlaa saurxaa doto. ]da.Aa^sT/oilayaatIla eka baoTavar ivaiSaYT p`aNaIjaIvana yaa vanasptI jaIvanaavairla vaastva maQyao ijaivat rahNao kzINa haoto. %saunaamaI AaiNa ]YNaacyaa madtIva$na KUp dUrvar AsalaolaI p`aNaImaa~aM javaL paohaoca kolaI Aaho.jaOvaivaivaQatot A%yaMt GaT JaalaI Aaho. maanavaI jaIvasaMhtIcyaa $paMt $paMtrNa: iva&anaanao isaQd kolao Aaho kI p`jaatIcao Aist%va naahIsao haot caalalao Aaho. yaacao karNa maanava Aaho. yaacyaamaagao Asaa tk- saaMigatlaa jaatao kI maanava Aaplyaa AannaamaQyao Anaok p`aNyaaMcyaa maaMsaacao saovana krtao. baayaaoga^sa jaOvasaMihta maanavaI Annaat pravait-t haot caalalaI Aaho.pRqvaIvairla 40 T@ko poxaa jaast p`aNaImaa~aMSaI saMbaMQaIt Aaho.jasao maanava paLIva p`aNaI AaiNa SaotItIla ipkaSaI saMbaMiQat idsato. vaRxataoD : maaoz\yaa p`maaNaavar piScama GaaTatIla vanasptIcaI taoD k$ laagalao Aahot. jaimanaIvar AakmaNao k$ laagalao Aahot. toqaIla naOsagaI-k saaQanasaMp%tIcaa Aitir@t vaapr saU$ Aaho. 5 T@ko BaUBaagaavar AitkmaNa k$ naka Asao PayaavarNa t& Da^. maaQava gaaDgaIL yaaNaI saaMgaItlao Aaho. maaNavaI ivakasaamauLo piScama GaTalaa Qaaoka : Aaja maaoz\yaa p`maaNaavar piScama GaaTt rsto ivakasaacaI kamao sau$ Aahot. KaNaIcao kama sau$ Aaho. icaroKaNa ³dgaDacaI KaNa´Ê baa^@saa[-D KaNaI [%yaadI.

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kahI izkaNaI jamaIinavarIla vanasptIcao AcCana haTvaUna %yaa izkaNaI navaIna SaotI kolaI jaat Aaho. ]da. r%naaigarI ijal(at AaMbaa laagavaDIsaazI vanasptIcaI naaSa krt Aahot inaYkYa- : piScama GaaT ha ek jagaatIla mahajaOvaivaivaQatocaa p`doSa Aaho. piScama GaaTat ivaivaQa pva-traMgaa Aahot.gaujarat rajyaapasaUna korL rajyaapya-Mt Anaok pva-traMgaa Aahot.p`%yaok pva-traMgaocao vaogaLo vaOiSaYT\ya Aaho. piScama GaaTamaQyao jagaat naBaoTnaa¹yaa Aanaok vanasptI va p`aNaI maa~a yaa izkaNaI AazLUna yaotat. %yaa icarkala iTklyaa paihjaot yaasaazI p`ya%na krNao AavaSyak Aaho. jaOivak saMp%tI japNyaasaazI sqaanaIk kayado kDk kolao paihjao. navaIna ]Vaoga sau$ haoNyaapuvaI-ca %yaa pasauna pyaa-varNaacaI haNaI haoNaar naahI¸ yaacaI kaLjaI GaotlaI gaolaI paihjao.vanasptIcaI taoD qaaMbavalaI naahI tr piScama GaaTatIla pavasaacao p`maaNa kmaI hao[-la AaiNa dixaNaokDIla Asalaolyaa rajyatIla SaotIvar pirNaama haoyaIla. P`aaNaI AaiNa vanasptIcao jyaa jaagaovar Ahot %yaa jaagaovar saMvaQa-na haoNao AavaSyak Aaho. inasaga- pya- Tnaalaa p`ao%saahna idlao gaolao paihjao. Paya-Tnaacyaa izkaNaI maanavainamaI-t p`duYaNaalaa AaLa Gaatlaa paihjao. maanavaalaa ivakasa krNyaasaazI ikMvaa Sahro inamaa-na krNyaasaazI pDIk jamaIinacaa vaapr kravaa. ivakasaacyaa naavaaKalaI jaMgalataoDÊ Kanakama baMQanao AaNaavaIt. saMdBa- : 1. Report of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel –I 2011 2. Environment Problem and solution – Asthana D.K. & Asthana Meera 3. Environment studes : Bharucha Erach University press (India)PVT., Hyderabad 4. Prspective in Environment studies : Kaushik & Kaushik 5. www.mnblueprint.org 6. vaaiYa-k irpaoT- 2018¹19³Baart sarkar pyaa-varNa eMva jalavaayau maM~alaya na[- idllaI´ 7. dOinak puZarI : 26 maaca- 2016 8. knaa-Tk jaMgalaKato³jaMgala saaMiKkI´ ivadagaratIla AavaRtI 9. eiSayaa p^isaifk maa]MT naoTvak- 10. Do@kna horalD caI baatmaI 11. piScama GaaTatIla jaOvaivaivaQata 12. knaa-TkatIla vaNyapNyaacaI saM#yaa

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 24, January 2020 ISSN 2277–4858

शलाभान फदराचा यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर ऩिान्मालय झारेरा ऩरयणाभ DR. Nilam Sawant,

Department of Geography, Navnirman College, Ratnagiri. MS

गोऴलाया

शलाभान फदराभऱु े यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर गेल्हमा १० लऴाात ऩडणाऱ्मा ऩिान्माचा वलतयणाचा अभ्माव प्रस्ततु वंळोधना भध्मे केरा गेरा आशे. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर तारकु ाननशाम गेल्हमा १० लऴाात अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्मचे प्रभाण ककती आशे ल त्मा नवु ाय ऩडरेल्हमा ऩिान्माचे प्रभाण ककती आशे शे अभ्मावनू कोणत्मा लऴी वलाात कभी ऩिान्म आढऱून आरे ल कोणत्मा लऴी वयावयी ऩेषा िास्त ऩिान्म ऩडरे शे अभ्मावरे गेरे आशे. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात शलाभान फदराभऱु े कोणत्मा लऴी वलाात कभी ऩिान्म आढऱून मेते माचा अभ्माव देखीर कयण्मात आरा आशे. प्रस्तालना :- शलाभानातीर फदर शी वभस्मा वध्मा भोठ्मा प्रभाणात िाणलत आशे. मा भध्मे ऩिान्माचे वलतयण

शा अनतळम भशत्लाचा नैवगगाक घटक आशे. ऩिान्माभध्मे काऱानवु ाय आणण स्थानानवु ाय वलवलधता आढऱते. बायतात भौवभी ऩिान्म आढऱते मा ऩिान्माचे वलतयणशी अवभान आढऱून मेते. यत्नागगयी जिल्हशा शा भशायाष्ट्रातीर ऩजचचभ फािूरा अवरेरा जिल्हशा आशे. मा जिल्ह्मात िून ते वप्टᴂफय मा चाय भहशन्मा楍मा कारालधीत ऩिान्म आढऱून मेते. प्रत्मेक प्रदेळारीर ऩिान्मालय त्मा प्रदेळाची वाभाजिक आणण आगथाक जस्थती अलरफं नू अवते. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात शलाभानातीर फदराभऱु े गेल्हमा दशा लऴाात ऩडणाऱ्मा ऩिान्माचा अभ्माव करून ऩिान्मा楍मा वलतयणातीर वलवलधता अभ्मावरेरी आशे. अभ्मावाची गयि :-

यत्नागगयी जिल्हशा शा भशायाष्ट्रातीर िास्त ऩिान्म अवणाया जिल्हशा आशे. ऩयंत ू मा हिकाणी िांभ्मा प्रकायचा खडक भोठ्मा प्रभाणात आढऱून मेत अवल्हमाभऱु े ऩाणी िमभनीत नजियता ते उताया楍मा हदळेने

न饍मा नाल्हमां饍लाये वभद्रु ाकड े लाशून िाते. मा वािी ऩालवा楍मा ऩाण्माचे व्मलस्थाऩन करून बमू भगत ऩातऱीत कळा प्रकाये लाढ शोईर मालय उऩाममोिना वचु वलण.े अभ्मावषेत्राची ओऱख :-

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यत्नागगयी जिल्हशा भशयाष्ट्रा楍मा ऩजचचभ ककनायऩट्टीलय अवनू मा जिल्ह्माचा अषलत्ृ तीम वलस्ताय १६° ३०' उत्तय ते १८° ०४' उत्तय अषलत्ृ त अवाअवनू येखालत्ृ तीम वलस्ताय ७३° ०२' ऩलू ा ते ७३° ५२' ऩलू ा येखालत्ृ त आशे. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्माचे बौगोमरक षेत्रपऱ ८२०८ चौ.कक.भी. आशे. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात एकू ण ९ तारकू े आढऱून मेतात. मा भध्मे भंडणगड, दाऩोरी, खेड, गचऩऱूण, गशु ागय, वंगभेचलय, यत्नागगयी, रांिा आणण यािाऩयू शे तारकू े आशेत. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्माची दक्षषणोत्तय रांफी १८० कक.भी. आशे. ऩलू ा ऩजचचभ रंदी ६४ कक.भी. आशे. यत्नगगयी जिल्ह्माचे वयावयी ताऩभान २३° ते ३०° वᴂ आशे. जिल्ह्मात वलावाधायण

ऩिान्माचे वलतयण अवभान अवनू त्माचे वयावयी प्रभाण ३००० भी.भी. इतके आशे. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात उष्ट्ण दभट शलाभान आढऱून मेते. अभ्माव ऩध्दती ;-

प्रस्ततु वंळोधनावािी दय्ु मभ आणण प्राथमभक स्त्रोतांचा उऩमोग कयण्मात आरा आशे. वलवलध ळावकीम वंकेत स्थऱे आणण कामाारमे मां楍मा द्राये भाहशतीचे वंकरन केरे गेरे आशे. माभध्मे यत्नागगयी जिल्हशा वांजयमकीम कामाारम. यत्नागगयी जिल्हशा आऩत्ती व्मलस्थाऩन कामाारम. यत्नागगयी जिल्हशा शलाभान वलबाग.

ध्मेम ल उधीष्ट््मे :- १) दशा लऴाात (वन २००९ ते २०१८) ऩडणाऱ्मा ऩिान्मा楍मा वलतयणाची वलवलधता अभ्मावणे. २) शलाभान फदराचा ऩरयणाभ वलाात िास्त कोणत्मा लऴी झारा शे अभ्मावणे.

यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर वन २००९ ते २०१८ तारुकाननशाम ऩिान्माची आकडेलाडी :-

यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर वन २००९ ते वन २०१८ मा १० लऴााखा楍मा कारालधीत यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात ऩडरेल्हमा ऩिान्मा楍मा आकडेलायी खारीर कोष्ट्टकात हदरेरी आशे. त्मालरून यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर ९

तारक्ू मा भध्मे अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्माचे प्रभाण तारक्ु मानवु ाय हदरेगेरे आशे. अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्मा楍मा प्रभाणानवु ाय वन २००९ ते वन २०१८ मा दशालाऴाा楍मा काऱात प्रत्मेक तारक्ु मांभध्मे ककती ऩिान्मभान झारे शे दळावलण्मात आरेरे आशे.

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यत्नागगयी जिल्हशमाचे लावऴाक ऩिान्मभान भी.भीटवा भध्मे.

अ. यत्नागगयी अऩेक्षषत लावऴाक २००९ २०१० २०११ २०१२ २०१३ २०१४ २०१५ २०१६ २०१७ २०१८ दशा

क्र. जिल्ह्मातीर ऩिान्मभान लऴाातीर

तारुके (१ िून ते ३० तारुक्म

वप्टे ) प्रभाणे

वयावयी

प्रभाण

१ भंडणगड ३८९६.८ २८८६.९ ३८३९.१ ५००२.०० ४१३३.०० ४४२९.०० २९८७.०० २५२०.०७ ४२७७.०० ३५६६.२० ३५६२.०० ३७२२.०२

२ दाऩोरी ३५८५.८ २६९३.५ ४६७९.९ ४९२९.८० ३६५४.०० ४४६७.२० २९६२.७२ २७७३.१५ ४३५३.३७ ३२०४.५० ३०६०.१४ ३६०७.८२

३ खेड ३५१०.९ ३०२९.० ४१०४.० ४१९१.०० ३४५४.०० ५१३१.३० ३३४२.११ २४२४.५२ ४९०६.२० ३११९.२० ३४२४.८५ ३७१२.६१

४ गशु ागय २५८५.९ २५९६.० ४१२२.० ३८३३.०० २६२२.०० ४४४१.९० २९४५.२० २१६४.२७ ३५९५.२० २५१४.८० २६०७.०० ३१४४.१३

५ गचऩऱूण ३५४७.४ ३४६५.० ४१७८.२ ५०४५.०० ४३९७.०० ४९८२.३२ ३६९४.४० २७६०.५७ ४०१९.१० ४६९९.१० ३१४३.१० ४०३४.३६

६ वंगभेचलय ३५४८.७ ५११६.० ६६९८.० ६९४२.६० ५८७४.०० ४८१७.४७ ३६२७.५४ २१८५.५३ ३९८४.०० ३११२.०० ३५६८.०० ४५९२.५१

७ यत्नागगयी २७५१ ३२११.४ ४०१५.७ ४४७१.००० ३४१७.०० ३२८९.८९ २४४७.२२ २१०८.४० ३८२७.७० २६९४.०० २८४४.१० ३२३२.५४

८ रांिा ३५३८.९ ३४०७.१ ४३०४.० ४५६७.०० ३६५५.०० ३९०९.७४ ३२७२.२४ २५५४.१८ ३९९९.८५ ३३५९.०० ३७५४.२० ३६७८.२२

९ यािाऩयू ३३१२.६ ३२६२.० ४२२९.६ ४५८५.५० ३७३०.०० ३८०६.०० २७००.३८ २०४३.९७ ३६१२.१० ३६४८.९० ४२३५.१२ ३६२५.३०

एकू ण ३०२७८.०० २९६६६.९ ४०१७०.५ ४३५६६.९० ३४९३६.०० ३९२७४.८३ २७९७८.८ २०८३४.६६ ३६५७४.५ २९९१७.७ ३०१९८.५

१ २ ० १

वयावयी ३३६४.२२ ३२७४.१ ४४६३.३ ४८४०.७७ ३८८१.७८ ४३६३.८७ ३१०८.७६ २३१४.९६ ४०६३.८४ ३३२४.१९ ३३५५.३९

(स्त्रोत :- जिल्हशा आऩत्ती व्मलस्थाऩन अगधकायी. जिल्हशागधकायी कामाारम यत्नागगयी.)

यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर १ िून ते ३० वप्टᴂफय मा काऱात प्रत्मेक तारक्ु मात ऩढु ीर प्रभाणे ऩिान्मभान अऩेक्षषत आशे. भंडणगड तारक्ु मात ३८९६.८ भी.भी. एलढे ऩिान्मभान अऩेक्षषत आशे. दाऩोरी तारक्ु मात ३५८५.८ भी.भी एलढे ऩिान्मभान अऩेक्षषत आशे. खेड तारक्ु मात अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्म ३५१०.९ मभ.भी इतके आशे. गशु ागय तारक्ु मात २५८५.९ भी.भी. मेलढी आलचमकता आशे. गचऩऱूण तारक्ु मात ३५४७.४ भी.भी. एलढे ऩिान्म अऩेक्षषत आशे. वंगभेचलय तारक्ु मात ३५४८.७ भी.भी. इतके ऩिान्मभान आलचमक आशे. यत्नागगयी तारक्ु माभध्म े २७५१ भी.भी. ऩिान्माची आलचमता आशे. रांिा तारक्ू मा भध्मे ३५३८.९ भी.भी. ऩिान्म अऩेक्षषत अवनू यािाऩयू तारक्ु मात ३३१२.६ भी.भी. ऩिान्मभान िून ते वप्टᴂफय ऩमंत अऩेक्षषत आशे.

89 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 24

(आरेख क्र. १)

(आरेख क्र. २)

यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर वन २००९ ते २०१८ ऩमंतचे वयावयी ऩिान्मभान

१००००. व ५०००. या ०.

व

२०१२ २०१६ २०१० २०११ २०१३ २०१४ २०१५ २०१७ २०१८ यी भी २००९ ऩ भी लऴा िा न्म

(आरेख क्र. ३)

ननष्ट्कऴा :-

१. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात गेल्हमा १० लऴाात वंगभेचलय तारक्ु मात वलाात िास्त म्शणिे ४५९२.५१ भी.भी. एलढे ऩिान्म आढऱून मेते. २. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात गेल्हमा १० लऴाात वलाात कभी ऩिान्म गशु ागय तारक्ु मात ३१४४.१३ भी.भी. ऩडरेरे आढऱून आरे आशे. ३. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मातीर एकू ण अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्मा楍मा कभी ऩिान्म २०१५ भध्मे आढऱते त्माचे प्रभाण वयावयी २३१४.९६ भी.भी.आशे. ल ते अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्मा楍मा १०४९.२६ भी.भी. घटरेरे आढऱते.

४. यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात २०१४ वारी वध्ु दा अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्माऩेषा कभी आढऱून मेते. त्मा लऴी वयावयी ३१०८.७६ भी,भी. मेलढे ऩिान्म ऩडरे ते अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्मा楍मा २५५.४६ भी.भी. इतके कभी आढऱून मेते.

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५. वन २०१७ ल २०१८ भध्मेशी अऩेक्षषत वयावयी ऩेषा अनक्रु भ े ४०.०३ भी.भी. ल ८.८३ भी.भी. कभी झारेरे आढऱून मेते. ६. वन २०११ वारी यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात वलाागधक म्शणिे ४८४०.७७ भी.भी. मेलढे ऩिान्मभान आढऱते. ते वयावयी ऩेषा १४७६.५५ भी.भी. लाढरेरे आढऱते.

७. वन २००९ भध्मे अऩेक्षषत वयावयी ऩेषा ९०.१२ भी.भी. कभी झारेरे आढऱून मेते. ८. वन २०१०, २०११, २०१२, २०१३ आणण २०१६ मालऴी अऩेक्षषत वयावयी ऩेषा ऩिान्मभानात लाढ झारेरी आढऱते.

९. वन २००९, २०१४, २०१५, २०१७ ल २०१८ मा लऴाात अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्मभाना ऩेषा घट झारेरी आढऱून मेते. अनुभान :- शलाभान फदराभऱु े यत्नागगयी जिल्ह्मात गेल्हमा दशालऴाात अऩेक्षषत वयावयी ऩिान्माऩेषा ०५ लऴ े ऩाऊव कभी ऩडरा आणण ०५ लऴा अऩेक्षषत ऩिान्माऩेषा िास्त ऩडरा. मा भध्मे वलाात िास्त २०११ मा वारी वयावयी ४८४०.७७ भी.भी. ल वलाात कभी २०१५ मा लऴी २३१४.९६ भी.भी. इतका ऩडरा. वंदबाग्रंथ :- १. जिल्हशा आऩत्ती व्मलस्थाऩन, जिल्हशागधकायी कामाारम यत्नागगयी. २. जिल्हशा वाभाजिक आणण आगथाक वभामोिन कामाारम, यत्नागगयी. ३. वेन्वेव ऑप यत्नागगयी २०११. ४. w.w.w.ratnagiri.nic.in. ५. w.w.w.maharain.gov.in. ६. w.w.w.mahadesh.maharashtra.gov.in

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