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The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States

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The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States STATUSSTATUS OFOF THETHE CORALCORAL REEFSREEFS ININ AMERICANAMERICAN SAMOASAMOA PeterPeter CraigCraig Introduction have narrow reef flats (50-500 m); depths of 1000 m are reached within 2-8 km from shore. The Territory of American Samoa is a group of five volcanic islands and two atolls in the central South CoralCoralCoral – The coral reefs are currently recovering Pacific Ocean. These islands are small, ranging in from a series of natural disturbances over the past size from the populated high island of Tutuila (142 two decades: a crown-of-thorns starfish invasion km2) to the uninhabited and remote Rose Atoll (4 (1979), three hurricanes (1986, 1990, 1991), and a km2). The total area of coral reefs (to 100 m) in the period of warm water temperatures that caused 2 AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA territory is 296 km (Table 33). mass coral bleaching (1994) (Fig. 261). Addition­ AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA ally, there are chronic human-induced impacts in areas like Pago Pago Harbor (Craig et al. 2000a). By 1995, the corals were beginning to recover, as evidenced by an abundance of coral recruits (Mundy 1996, Birkeland et al. 1997). Coral growth has continued through 2000, but a full recovery will take time. There have also been improvements to reefs in Pago Pago Harbor by the removal of 9 shipwrecks; and another shipwreck was removed at Rose Atoll (Green et al. 1998). Additionally, the export of ‘live rock’ from coral reefs was banned in June 2000. Table 33. American Samoan island’s and their coral reef area (Source: Hunter 1995). AlgaeAlgaeAlgae – Information is limited, but with a few exceptions, the algae found around the islands The Samoan reefs support a diverse assemblage of indicate a low-nutrient environment and/or heavy 890 fishes, 200+ corals, and 80 algal species. grazing by herbivores. Encrusting coralline algae These reefs provide an important source of food for cover (Porolithon) is high (40-50%). These algae villagers through daily subsistence use and sales at help cement and stabilize the loose surface below local stores. They also provide invaluable infra­ (Birkeland et al. 1997). structure and shoreline protection from storm wave action. Other potential uses of the reefs are low at Fish and Harvested Invertebrates – Despite present (e.g., tourism, or the extraction of reef the on-going recovery of corals on local reefs, products for aquariums). many fish and invertebrates are not recovering as quickly. Harvested species such as giant clams and Condition of Coral Figure 261. After being impacted by hurricanes (A), a crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak, ReefsReefsReefs and coral bleaching, reefs in American Samoa are now recovering (B). (Photos: National Park of American Samoa and Kip Evans, Fagatele Bay NMS). Due to the steepness of AA BB the main islands, shallow AAA BBB water habitats around the islands are limited and consist primarily of fringing coral reefs (85%) with a few offshore banks (12%), and two atolls (3%). The fringing reefs 183183183183183183 parrotfish are overfished (Fig. 262), and there is improper land use heavy fishing pressure on surgeonfish (Craig et al. practices that pours 1997, Page 1998, Green and Craig 1999). Fewer into coastal waters and/or smaller groupers, snappers, and jacks are after heavy rains, 2) seen. Most village fishermen and elders believe nutrient enrichment that numbers of fish and shellfish have also de­ from human and clined (Tuilagi and Green 1995). Also, in some animal wastes in areas, fish are now toxic with heavy metals, partic­ populated areas, and 3) ularly those from Pago Pago Harbor (AECOS 1991). contamination in Pago Pago Harbor. Since 1995, the nighttime artisanal spear fishermen began using SCUBA gear, greatly increasing their Pago Pago Harbor Figure 262. Today, giant clams are rare in populated catches. This led to a territorial ban on SCUBA- suffers from two kinds areas of American Samoa assisted fishing in April 2001. of pollution. First, fish (Photo: Nancy Daschbach). and substrates in the Sea Turtles – Often overlooked as a part of the AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA harbor are contaminated with heavy metals and coral reef ecosystem, Hawksbill sea turtles feed on other pollutants (AECOS 1991). Second, nutrient reef sponges and other organisms. hawksbill loading from cannery wastes in the inner harbor populations are in serious decline for two major formerly caused perpetual algal blooms and reasons: 1) illegal harvest and 2) loss of nesting occasional fish kills due to oxygen depletion. In the habitat (Tuato’o et al. 1993). The hawksbill is early 1990s, the canneries were required to dispose listed as endangered and is rapidly approaching of their wastes beyond the inner harbor (Fig. 262), extinction in the Pacific (Eckert et al. 1995). greatly reducing nutrient levels. 1.4 0.1 Coastal Populations and Reef Chorophyll a (x 1.2 15) Total Phosphorous (mg/l) EconomicsEconomicsEconomics 0.08 Total nitrogen 1 Total American Samo’s population was 57,300 in 2000. 0.06 0.8 phosphorous During the past 10 years, the population increased 0.6 0.04 by 10,500 people, an increase of 22%. The popula­ 0.4 tion is increasing at a yearly rate of 2.1%, adding Total Nitrogen (mg/l) & chlorophyll a x 15 (ug/l) 0.02 about 1,200 people each year (Fig. 264). It is 0.2 expected to continue, given the high birth rate (4.0 0 0 1983 1988 1993 1998 children per female), the fact that 50% of the Figure 263. Improvements in water quality in inner Pago Pago population is younger than age 20, and the high Harbor after canneries were reqired to dispose of wastes immigration rate. Adverse human-related impacts beyond the innner harbor in 1991. Actual values of chloro­ phyll a are 15 times greater than values shown graphically. will likely increase with rapid population growth. (Source: ASEPA 2000). Figure 264. Population growth in American Samoa. Green sea turtle populations in the South Pacific have declined as well and should probably be classified as endangered (Eckert et al. 1995). 60,000 Conservation efforts are complicated by the turtles’ complex migration patterns. Some migrate from American Samoa to both Fiji and French 40,000 Poly-nesia. Conserving ‘shared’ turtle populations People will require international cooperation. 20,000 Water Quality – Due to the steepness of the islands and their limited development of shallow water habitats, the continual flushing by ocean 0 currents provide generally good water quality. 1900 1950 2000 There are three exceptions: 1) sedimentation from Year 184184184184184184 A recent Governor’s Task Force on Population High Growth report called for a population ceiling of Overfishing of reef resources 115,000. This ceiling is calculated on resources Coastal development and habitat destruction Oil and hazardous waste spills in Pago Pago Harbor (particularly drinking water) and the diminishing Medium quality of life. An action plan for the Territory Sedimentation identifies specific steps to reduce birth and immi­ Dumping/improper waste disposal gration rates (Craig et al. 2000b). Nutrient loading/eutrophication in Pago Pago Harbor Low More than 18,000 tourists (calculated in 1995) visit Nutrient loading/eutrophication elsewhere the islands annually and expend over $10 million Oil and hazardous waste spills elsewhere (calculated on tourist receipts from 1990, United Ship groundings Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia Anchor damage and the Pacific 2002). Destructive fishing habits Marine debris from marine sources In 2001, ex-vessel landings from small boats in the Alien species (e.g., from ballast water) domestic commercial fisheries generated $2 mil­ Crown-of-thorns starfish predation AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA lion (NMFS 2001). However, the actual economic Coral diseases AMERICAN SAMOA AMERICAN SAMOA Collections for the aquarium market impact of commercial fisheries in American Samoa Bio-prospecting/natural products is far greater when distant-water tuna harvests are included. These fish are processed in two local Natural Stresses – American Samoa lies close to canneries in Pago Pago Harbor. Their ex-vessel a warmer than usual mass of seawater that tends to value from both foreign and domestic vessels was form south of the territory during La Niña years. approximately $232 million (Western Pacific Nearby Fiji and Western Samoa have been hit hard Fishery Management Council 1999). American by mass coral bleaching in recent years, so it Samoans still rely on local coral reefs for food, and would seem probable the reefs of American Samoa it is estimated that the reefs provide an economic may be similarly impacted. base of $1 million per year (Fig. 265). Current Conservation Management Environmental Pressures on Coral Reefs MappingMappingMapping – American Samoa needs coral reef Human Stresses – At a recent workshop on coral habitat mapping. NOAA habitat mapping activities reefs in American Samoa (Craig et al. 1999), the are planned to begin in 2002. Fagatele Bay Na­ following list of human-related threats was tional Marine Sanctuary supported a multibeam identified and ranked. mapping effort in 2001 that resulted in maps for the sanctuary and Pago Pago Harbor, with partial coverage elsewhere (D. Wright pers. comm.). This information is available on their web site (Oregon Figure 265. Both commercial and subsistence fisheries play State University 2002). an important role in American Samoa (Photo: National Park of American Samoa). Monitoring and assessment of coral reefs has been conducted in one of three ways to date: one-time surveys, long-term monitoring, and fisheries monitoring. One-time surveys of corals and fishes have been conducted over the years using various methods/sites/depths on all seven islands in the territory (e.g., Hunter et al.
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