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The Urban Environment Cm 7009 ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION The Urban Environment Cover images Far left image of Brindleyplace, Birmingham reproduced by kind permission of David Borgan. © Crown copyright 2007 The text in this document (excluding the Royal Arms and departmental logos) may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium providing that is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material must be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the document specified. Any enquiries relating to the copyright in this document should be addressed to the Licensing Division, HMSO, St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ. Fax 01603 723000 or email licensing@cabinet-office.x.gsi.gov.uk ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CHAIRMAN: SIR JOHN LAWTON CBE, FRS Twenty-sixth Report The Urban Environment Presented to Parliament by Command of Her Majesty March 2007 Cm 7009 £32.50 PREVIOUS REPORTS BY THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Special report Crop Spraying and the Health of Residents and Bystanders ...................September 2005 25th report Turning the Tide – Addressing the Impact of Fisheries on the Marine Environment ........................................... Cm 6392, December 2004 Special report Biomass as a Renewable Energy Source ........................................ April 2004 24th report Chemicals in Products – Safeguarding the Environment and Human Health ..................................................... Cm 5827, June 2003 Special report The Environmental Effects of Civil Aircraft in Flight ....................... September 2002 23rd report Environmental Planning ........................................... Cm 5459, March 2002 22nd report Energy – the Changing Climate ....................................... Cm 4749, June 2000 21st report Setting Environmental Standards .................................. Cm 4053, October 1998 20th report Transport and the Environment – Developments since 1994 ......... Cm 3752, September 1997 19th report Sustainable Use of Soil ........................................... Cm 3165, February 1996 18th report Transport and the Environment ....................................Cm 2674, October 1994 17th report Incineration of Waste ................................................ Cm 2181, May 1993 16th report Freshwater Quality .................................................. Cm 1966, June 1992 15th report Emissions from Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicles ....................... Cm 1631, September 1991 14th report GENHAZ – A system for the critical appraisal of proposals to release genetically modified organisms into the environment ..................... Cm 1557, June 1991 13th report The Release of Genetically Engineered Organisms to the Environment .......Cm 720, July 1989 12th report Best Practicable Environmental Option ............................. Cm 310, February 1988 11th report Managing Waste: The Duty of Care .............................Cmnd 9675, December 1985 10th report Tackling Pollution – Experience and Prospects .................... Cmnd 9149, February 1984 9th report Lead in the Environment ......................................... Cmnd 8852, April 1983 8th report Oil Pollution of the Sea ........................................ Cmnd 8358, October 1981 7th report Agriculture and Pollution .................................... Cmnd 7644, September 1979 6th report Nuclear Power and the Environment ...........................Cmnd 6618, September 1976 5th report Air Pollution Control: An Integrated Approach .................... Cmnd 6371, January 1976 4th report Pollution Control: Progress and Problems .......................Cmnd 5780, December 1974 3rd report Pollution in Some British Estuaries and Coastal Waters ........... Cmnd 5054, September 1972 2nd report Three Issues in Industrial Pollution ................................Cmnd 4894, March 1972 First Report .................................................. Cmnd 4585, February 1971 ii ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Twenty-sixth Report To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty MAY IT PLEASE YOUR MAJESTY We, the undersigned Commissioners, having been appointed ‘to advise on matters, both national and international, concerning the pollution of the environment; on the adequacy of research in this field; and the future possibilities of danger to the environment’; And to enquire into any such matters referred to us by one of Your Majesty’s Secretaries of State or by one of Your Majesty’s Ministers, or any other such matters on which we ourselves shall deem it expedient to advise: HUMBLY SUBMIT TO YOUR MAJESTY THE FOLLOWING REPORT. iii “… vital cities are not helpless to combat even the most difficult of problems. They are not passive victims of chains of circumstances, any more than they are the malignant opposite of nature.” “But look what we have built … low-income projects that become worse centers of delinquency, vandalism and general social hopelessness than the slums they were supposed to replace … Cultural centers that are unable to support a good bookstore. Civic centers that are avoided by everyone but bums … Promenades that go from no place to nowhere and have no promenaders. Expressways that eviscerate great cities. This is not the rebuilding of cities. This is the sacking of cities.” Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 1961 More information about the current work of the Royal Commission can be obtained from its website at http://www.rcep.org.uk or from the Secretariat at Third Floor, 5-8 The Sanctuary, Westminster, London SW1P 3JS. iv Contents Paragraph Page Chapter 1 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Introduction 1.1 1 Two kinds of urban environmental issues 1.8 2 The urban environment is a complex system 1.12 4 A new governance framework 1.23 8 Structure of the report 1.33 11 Chapter 2 CURRENT CONTEXT Introduction 2.1 12 Current governance and policies 2.9 14 Urban expansion and regeneration 2.14 15 Environmental opportunities and problems in urban areas 2.18 16 Current state of the UK’s urban environment 2.20 16 Climate change 2.20 16 Tackling carbon dioxide emissions from urban areas 2.20 16 The climate of urban areas will change 2.24 18 Road traffic 2.27 18 Air pollution 2.30 19 Traffic 2.33 20 Local environmental quality 2.35 21 Waste 2.38 21 Water 2.42 22 Water quality 2.42 22 Water resources 2.45 22 Flood risk 2.49 24 The natural environment 2.52 24 Brownfield land 2.55 25 The built environment 2.58 26 Environmental impact of new and expanding urban areas 2.62 27 Environmental implications of urban expansion 2.65 27 Conclusions 2.67 28 v Contents Chapter 3 HEALTH AND WELLBEING Introduction 3.1 31 Health and wellbeing 3.6 32 The role of the environment in health and wellbeing 3.8 32 Unravelling the environmental factors shaping health and wellbeing 3.12 35 Air quality 3.13 35 Climate 3.31 41 Urban buildings 3.38 42 Water and flooding 3.42 43 Noise 3.43 43 Infectious diseases 3.44 43 Urbanisation as mental health risk factor 3.45 44 Green spaces 3.53 46 Improving urban health and wellbeing 3.61 48 Healthy Cities movement 3.64 50 Planning healthy urban environments 3.67 52 Conclusions 3.73 53 Chapter 4 THE NATURAL URBAN ENVIRONMENT Introduction 4.1 55 Improving existing features of the natural urban environment 4.9 56 Rivers and wetlands 4.9 56 Flooding 4.17 59 Soils 4.27 63 Brownfield land 4.28 63 Urban green spaces 4.34 64 Green belt 4.38 65 Private gardens 4.42 66 Allotments 4.51 68 Trees and woodland 4.53 68 Urban climate and air quality 4.58 70 Biodiversity 4.61 71 Maximising community benefits of the natural environment 4.66 72 Creating green infrastructure 4.76 74 Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) 4.76 74 Green roofs 4.87 77 vi Contents An integrated approach to the urban natural environment is needed 4.90 79 Improving the natural environment in urban areas 4.95 82 Conclusions 4.99 83 Chapter 5 THE BUILT URBAN ENVIRONMENT Introduction 5.1 85 Improving existing features of the built urban environment 5.8 87 Transport 5.8 87 Energy supply 5.22 91 Water infrastructure 5.31 94 Pressures on water supply 5.31 94 Sewerage systems 5.35 95 Long-term planning 5.40 96 Water leakage 5.41 96 Energy use in buildings 5.44 97 Information provision 5.48 98 Building Standards 5.49 99 Refurbishment and improvement 5.57 101 Building on recent achievements 5.74 106 Water and waste in buildings 5.78 107 Improving the built environment through urban design policy 5.86 110 Planning 5.89 110 Design tools 5.94 111 Conclusions 5.97 112 Chapter 6 GETTING THE FRAMEWORK RIGHT Introduction 6.1 113 A web of constraints 6.5 114 Institutions 6.9 117 An urgent need for a policy on the urban environment 6.10 118 A stronger role for regional and local government 6.18 119 An environmental contract between central and local government 6.26 121 Delivering the environmental contract 6.35 123 Public partnerships with other sectors 6.41 126 Private sector involvement 6.46 127 Voluntary and community groups 6.49 128 Infrastructure 6.51 128 vii Contents Instruments and incentives 6.57 130 Incentives 6.57 130 Planning and environmental controls 6.66 132 The planning system 6.66 132 Environmental assessment 6.71 133 Compliance and enforcement of regulations 6.75 134 Inclinations and information 6.81 135 Conclusions 6.90 137 Chapter 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 139 Public policy to promote the environmental component of sustainable development 7.10 141 Incentives and information to raise environmental standards over time 7.18 142 New infrastructure should contribute to environmental
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